document resume - eric · principle), inquiry factors or logical steps in inquiry, behavioral...
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ED 037 343
AUTHORTITLEINSTITUTION
SPONS AGENCYPUB DATECONTRACTNOTE
EDRS PRICEDESCRIPTORS
IDENTIFIERS
ABSTRACT
DOCUMENT RESUME
SE 008 003
Bingman, Richard M.; Ed.Inquiry Objectives in the Teaching of Biology.Biological Sciences Curriculum Study, Foulder,Colo.; Mid-Continent Regional Education Lab., Inc.,Kansas City, Mo.Office of Education (DHEW), Washington, D.C.Sep 69OEC-3-7-062876-3076153p.
EDRS Price MF-$0.75 HC-$7.75*Affective Objectives, Behavioral Objectives,*Biology, Cognitive Objectives, *Critical Thinking,*Educational Objectives, *Inquiry Training,Secondary School ScierceBiological Sciences Curriculum Study
Five perspectives are identified for viewinginquiry: "Guiding Principles: (for example the antecedent-consequentprinciple), Inquiry Factors or logical steps in inquiry, BehavioralObjectives, Affective or Attitudinal Qualities, and Inquiry intoinquiry. Many components of these perspectives are enumerated,together with related student behaviors which would exemplify thecomponents. Two examples of class discussion which illustrate inquiryinto inquiry are given and analyzed in terms of strategy. The"interim summaries" of the Invitations to Enquiry from the BSCS"Biology Teachers Handbook" are printed as an appendix, as also isthe paper (Mendel's "Experiments in Plant Hybridization") on whichthe class discussions were based. An extensive annotated bibliographyon behavioral objectives and inquiry teaching in biology is dividedinto five sections: Behavioral Objectives - Some Considerations, TheInquiry Process, Inquiry as a Teaching Strategy, Preparing theTeacher for Inquiry, and Evaluating the Inquiry Process. (EB)
EL
ct,
MID
-CO
NT
INE
NT
RE
GIO
NA
LE
DU
CA
TIO
NA
L LA
BO
RA
TO
RY
O
FEB
"9"
Inqu
iry O
bjec
tives
in th
e
Tea
chin
gof
Bio
logy
UD
EP
AR
TM
EN
T O
F H
EA
LTH
ED
UC
AT
ION
& W
ELF
AR
E
OF
FIC
E O
F E
DU
CA
TIO
N
TH
IS D
OC
I)M
EN
T H
AS
BE
EN
RE
PR
OD
UC
ED
EX
AC
TLY
AS
RE
CE
IVE
D F
RO
M T
HE
PE
RS
ON
'JR
OR
GA
NIZ
AT
ION
OR
IGIN
AT
ING
ITP
OIN
TS
OF
VIE
W O
R O
PIN
ION
S
ST
AT
ED
00
NO
T N
EC
ES
SA
RIL
Y R
EP
RE
SE
NT
OF
FIC
IAL
OffI
CE
OF
ED
UC
AT
ION
PO
SIT
ION
OR
PO
LIC
Y
BIO
LOG
ICA
L S
CIE
NC
ES
CU
RR
ICU
LUM
ST
UD
Y
g 4
4 ' lit
Mh
EL
INQ
UIR
Y O
BJE
CT
IVE
S IN
TH
ET
EA
CH
ING
OF
BIO
LO
GY
Dev
elop
ed J
oint
ly B
y:
Mid
-con
tinen
t Reg
iona
l Edu
catio
nal L
abor
ator
y10
4 E
ast I
ndep
ende
nce
Ave
nue
Kan
sas
City
, Mis
sour
i 641
06
and
Bio
logi
cal S
cien
ces
Cur
ricu
lum
Stu
dyU
nive
rsity
of
Col
orad
oP.
0. B
ox 9
30B
ould
er, C
olor
ado
8030
2
Ric
hard
M. B
iiigm
an, E
dito
r
11
MID
-CO
NT
INE
NT
RE
GIO
NA
LE
DU
CA
TIO
NA
L LA
BO
RA
TO
RY
Pos
ition
Pap
er, V
olum
e 1,
Num
ber
1S
epte
mbe
r 19
69
BIO
LOG
ICA
L S
CIE
NC
ES
CU
RR
ICU
LUM
ST
UD
Y
This document was written to be used by administrators, supervisors,curriculum designers, teacher educators, evaluators and students for a wide
range of activities from revising current instructional objectives to developingevlauation instruments. Although the objectives were developed for use pri-marily at the high school level, they may be useful at the elementary andcollege levels. The document may be used in classroom situations in whichstudents and teachers demonstrate varying degrees of inquiry skill and attitudedevelopment.
Recently the document has served as a basis for a doctoral dissertation(Steiner, 156). The instruments developed in this study are being used toevaluate components of the Developing Inquiry Skills program at the Mid-continent Regional Educational Laboratory.
This document is viewed as a preliminary draft rather than a final state-ment of objectives. Feedback on the use of this document will be helpful. Aquestionnaire has been inserted for your comments and suggestions.
Published by Mid-continent Regional Educational Laboratory, a privatenon-profit corporation supported in part as a regional educational laboratoryby funds from the United States Office of Education, Department ofHealth,Education, and Welfare under contract number OEC-3-7-062876-3076. Theopinions expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect the positionof policy of the Office of Education, and no official endorsement by theOffice of Education should be inferred.
ii
CONTRIBUTING AUTHORS
John R. AndersonMid-continent Regional Educational Laboratory
Richard M. BingmanMid-continent Regional Educational Laboratory
Jacob W. BlankenshipOklahoma State University
Jack L. CarterColorado College
Thomas J. CleaverBiological Sciences Curriculum Study
Willard G. JonesColorado State College
Manert H. KennedyBiological Sciences Curriculum Study
Evelyn KlinckmannSan Francisco College for Women
Paul G. KoutnikMid-continent Regional Educational Laboratory
Addison E. LeeUniversity of Texas at Austin
Jimmy R. StothartNorthwestern State College of Louisiana
iii
AC
KN
OW
LE
DG
EM
EN
TS
The
pio
neer
ing
effo
rts
in 1
967
of W
illar
d Jo
nes,
at M
id-c
ontin
ent
Reg
iona
l Edu
catio
nal L
abor
ator
y, a
nd J
ack
Car
ter,
at B
iolo
gica
lSc
ienc
es C
urri
culu
m S
tudy
, led
to th
is d
ocum
ent.
In a
dditi
onto
the
prin
cipa
l con
trib
utor
s, th
e fo
llow
ing
pers
ons
wer
e ve
ry h
elpf
ulin
rev
iew
ing
the
prel
imin
ary
editi
ons:
Elb
a 0.
Car
rier
, Har
vard
Uni
vers
ityG
eorg
e D
awso
n, F
lori
da S
tate
Uni
vers
ityPa
ul D
eHar
t Hur
d, S
tanf
ord
Uni
vers
ityR
alph
H. O
jem
ann,
Edu
catio
nal R
esea
rch
Cou
ncil
of A
mer
ica
Ingr
ith D
. Ols
en, U
nive
rsity
of
Was
hing
ton
at S
eattl
eG
len
E. P
eter
son,
Bio
logi
cal S
cien
ces
Cur
ricu
lum
Stu
dyJo
seph
J. S
chw
ab, U
nive
rsity
of
Chi
cago
Fran
k X
. Sut
man
, Tem
ple
Uni
vers
itySt
anle
y E
. Will
iam
son,
Ore
gon
Stat
e U
nive
rsity
App
reci
atio
n is
als
o ex
pres
sed
to K
enne
th B
ingm
an a
nd W
illia
m H
umph
ries
, tea
cher
s at S
haw
nee
Mis
sion
Wes
t hig
h sc
hool
, and
to th
eir
stud
ents
who
sup
plie
d th
e te
ache
r-st
uden
t int
erac
tion
mat
eria
l in
Cha
pter
Sev
en.
Spec
ial a
ckno
wle
dgem
ents
are
give
n to
Jos
eph
J. S
chw
ab, t
he B
iolo
gica
l Sci
ence
s C
urri
culu
m S
tudy
, and
the
Har
vard
Uni
vers
ityPr
ess
for
thei
r id
eas
and
mat
eria
ls. (
See
App
endi
ces
A a
nd B
, pp.
85,
107
.)Fi
nally
, cre
dit i
s gi
ven
to V
irgi
nia
Alf
anda
ry a
nd J
erro
ld S
pady
, who
hel
ped
to e
dit t
he f
inal
doc
umen
t, Jo
an B
arte
l and
Chi
quita
Man
ning
, who
pre
pare
d th
e bi
blio
grap
hy, a
nd to
Con
nie
Le
Elg
an, V
irgi
nia
McB
ride
, and
Jea
n Pe
arso
n, w
ho ty
ped
and
orga
nize
d th
em
ater
ial.
FOR
EW
OR
D
Thi
s w
ork
is a
pro
duct
of
a co
oper
ativ
e ef
fort
bet
wee
n th
e B
iolo
gica
l Sci
ence
s C
urri
culu
m S
tudy
and
the
Mid
-con
tinen
t Reg
iona
lE
duca
tiona
l Lab
orat
ory.
Thi
s ef
fort
has
pro
duce
da
cate
gori
zatio
n of
beh
avio
ral o
bjec
tives
, em
phas
izin
g in
quir
ypr
oces
ses
as e
xem
-pl
ifie
d by
con
tent
. It i
san
impo
ssib
le ta
sk to
del
inea
te a
ll th
e be
havi
oral
obj
ectiv
es to
be
deri
ved
from
any
educ
atio
nal p
rogr
am.
How
ever
, thi
s pu
blic
atio
n pr
esen
ts r
epre
sent
ativ
eex
ampl
es o
f be
havi
ors
invo
lvin
g bo
th in
quir
ypr
oces
ses
and
cont
ent i
n bi
olog
ical
scie
nce.
The
y ar
e no
t man
dato
ryou
tcom
es b
ut r
athe
r be
havi
oral
gui
depo
sts
toen
cour
age
furt
her
deve
lopm
ent o
f a
vari
ety
of s
peci
fic
beha
vior
al o
bjec
tives
by
conc
erne
d te
ache
rs. W
hile
the
obje
ctiv
es w
ere
orig
inal
ly d
eriv
ed in
rel
atio
nto
spe
cifi
c m
ater
ials
of
the
Bio
logi
cal S
cien
ces
Cur
ricu
lum
Stu
dy, t
hey
are,
by
thei
r ve
ry n
atur
e, a
pplic
able
to a
ny m
oder
nco
urse
in th
e bi
olog
ical
sci
ence
s. I
nth
at s
ense
they
are
per
vasi
ve o
utco
mes
of
teac
hing
that
com
bine
bot
h co
nten
t and
proc
ess.
Bot
h te
ache
rs a
nd e
duca
tors
of
teac
hers
will
fin
d th
atde
linea
tion
of o
bjec
tives
tend
s to
sha
rpen
teac
hing
goa
lsan
d fo
cus
teac
h-in
g m
etho
dolo
gy. A
sa
grou
p of
exa
mpl
es o
f be
havi
oral
obj
ectiv
es, t
his
publ
icat
ion
prov
ides
entr
y in
to th
e se
lfle
nera
tion
of o
bjec
tives
for
a w
ide
vari
ety
ofpu
rpos
es. T
he o
bjec
tives
in th
is p
ublic
atio
n se
rve
both
as
an in
trod
uctio
n to
con
stru
ctio
n an
d us
e of
obj
ectiv
esan
d as
an
initi
al in
teri
m s
et o
f go
als
for
mod
ern
biol
ogy
teac
hing
.T
he v
alue
of
coop
erat
ive
effo
rts
betw
een
Bio
logi
cal S
cien
ces
Cur
ricu
lum
Stu
dy a
nd M
id-c
ontin
ent R
egio
nal
Edu
catio
nal L
abor
a-to
ry is
, in
our
judg
men
t, es
tabl
ishe
d by
the
deve
lopm
ent o
f th
ispu
blic
atio
n, w
hich
sho
uld
prom
ote
a go
al s
hare
d by
us
all
the
impr
ovem
ent o
f ed
ucat
ion.
Will
iam
V. M
ayer
, Dir
ecto
rB
iolo
gica
l Sci
ence
s C
urri
culu
m S
tudy
Uni
vers
ity o
f C
olor
ado
Rob
ert J
. Sta
lcup
,, D
irec
tor
Mid
-con
tinen
t 1?.
,.gio
nal E
duca
tiona
l Lab
orat
ory
rti W
CO
NT
EN
TS
CH
APT
ER
ON
E. R
AT
ION
AL
E
The
Sub
stan
tive
Kno
wle
dge
of B
iolo
gica
l Sci
ence
1
The
Nat
ure
of I
nqui
ry a
nd it
sR
elat
ion
to th
e O
rgan
izat
ion
and
Use
of
this
Doc
umen
tI
CH
APT
ER
TW
O. G
UID
ING
PRIN
CIP
LE
S O
F IN
QU
IRY
5
Rec
ogni
tion
and
Dif
fere
ntia
tion
5
I.T
he T
axon
omic
Pri
ncip
le5
II.
The
Ant
eced
ent-
Con
sequ
ent P
rinc
iple
6
III.
The
Str
uctu
re-F
unct
ion
Prin
cipl
e6
TV
.T
he R
egul
atio
n an
d H
omeo
stas
isPr
inci
ple
6
V.
The
Sel
f-R
egul
ator
y Sy
stem
Prin
cipl
e7
Skill
s in
Car
ryin
g ou
t Pri
ncip
les
ofIn
quir
y8
I.A
ctiv
ities
Cha
ract
eris
tic o
f th
e T
axon
omic
Mod
e8
The
stu
dent
will
car
ry o
ut a
ctiv
ities
char
acte
rist
ic o
f th
e ta
xono
mic
mod
e8
II.
Act
iviti
es C
hara
cter
istic
of
the
Ant
eced
ent-
Con
sequ
ent M
ode
9
The
stu
dent
will
car
ry o
ut a
ctiv
ities
char
acte
rist
ic o
f th
e an
tece
dent
-con
sequ
ent m
ode
9
III.
Act
iviti
es C
hara
cter
istic
of
the
Stru
ctur
e-Fu
nctio
nM
ode
10
The
stu
dent
will
car
ry o
ut a
ctiv
ities
char
acte
rist
ic o
f th
e st
ruct
ure-
func
tion
mod
e10
IV.
Act
iviti
es C
hara
cter
istic
of
the
Reg
ulat
ion-
Hom
eost
asis
Mod
e11
The
stu
dent
will
rec
ogni
ze a
ctiv
ities
char
acte
rist
ic o
f th
e re
gula
tion-
hom
eost
asis
mod
e11
V.
Act
iviti
es C
hara
cter
istic
of
the
Self
-Reg
ulat
ory
Mod
e12
The
stu
dent
will
rec
ogni
ze a
ctiv
ities
char
acte
rist
ic o
f th
e se
lf-r
egul
ator
y m
ode
12
VI.
A B
iolo
gica
l Pro
blem
Sta
ted
in T
erm
s of
the
Five
Gui
ding
Pri
ncip
les
13
CH
APT
ER
TH
RE
E. M
AJO
R F
AC
TO
RS
IN I
NQ
UIR
YI.
Form
ulat
ing
a Pr
oble
m14
II.
Form
ulat
ing
Hyp
othe
ses
15
III.
Des
igni
ng a
Stu
dy16
IV.
Exe
cutin
g th
e Pl
an o
f In
vest
igat
ion
17
V.
Inte
rpre
ting
the
Dat
a or
Fin
ding
s17
VI.
Synt
hesi
zing
Kno
wle
dge
Gai
ned
from
the
Inve
stig
atio
n18
ix
CH
APT
ER
FO
UR
. TO
WA
RD
S T
HE
USE
OF
BE
HA
VIO
RA
L O
BJE
CT
IVE
S T
OD
ESI
GN
INST
RU
CT
ION
AN
D D
EV
EL
OP
EV
AL
UA
TIO
NIN
STR
UM
EN
TS
20
Add
ition
al S
peci
fici
ty f
or I
nqui
ry F
acto
rs (
Ant
eced
ent-
Con
sequ
ent M
ode)
20
I.Pr
oble
m F
orm
ulat
ion
20
II.
Form
ulat
ing
Hyp
othe
ses
24
III.
Des
igni
ng a
Stu
dy25
IV.
Exe
cutin
g th
e Pl
an o
f In
vest
igat
ion
27
V.
Inte
rpre
ting
the
Dat
a or
Fin
ding
s28
VI.
Synt
hesi
zing
Kno
wle
dge
Gai
ned
from
the
Inve
stig
atio
n29
VII
.D
iffe
rent
iatio
n of
the
Var
ious
Pri
ncip
les
of I
nqui
ry31
Sam
ples
of
Inst
ruct
iona
l Str
ateg
ies
to B
ring
Abo
ut D
esir
ed B
ehav
iors
32
I.Fo
rmul
atin
g a
Prob
lem
32
II.
Form
ulat
ing
Hyp
othe
ses
32
III.
Des
igni
ng a
Stu
dy32
IV.
Exe
cutin
g th
e Pl
an o
f th
e In
vest
igat
ion
32
V.
Inte
rpre
ting
the
Dat
a or
Fin
ding
s33
VI.
Synt
hesi
zing
Kno
wle
dge
Gai
ned
from
the
Inve
stig
atio
n33
VII
.D
iffe
rent
iatin
g th
e V
ario
us P
rinc
iple
sof
Inq
uiry
33
CH
APT
ER
FIV
E. A
FFE
CT
IVE
OR
AT
TIT
UD
INA
L Q
UA
LIT
IES
OF
INQ
UIR
Y B
EH
AV
IOR
S34
I.C
urio
sity
34
II.
Ope
nnes
s34
III.
Rea
lity
Ori
enta
tion
35
IV.
Ris
k-ta
king
35
V.
Obj
ectiv
ity35
VI.
Prec
isio
n36
VII
.C
onfi
denc
e36
VII
I.Pe
rsev
eran
ce36
IX.
Satis
fact
ion
36X
.R
espe
ct f
or T
heor
etic
al S
truc
ture
s36
XI.
Res
pons
ibili
ty37
XII
.C
onse
nsus
and
Col
labo
ratio
n37
CH
APT
ER
SIX
. IN
QU
IRY
IN
TO
IN
QU
IRY
38
I.A
naly
zing
Res
earc
h fo
r its
Bas
ic P
arts
38
II.
Ana
lyzi
ng R
elat
ions
hips
Am
ong
Bas
ic P
arts
III.
Eva
luat
ing
a R
esea
rch
Rep
ort
IV.
Com
pari
ng S
cien
tific
Pap
ers
V.
App
lyin
g Sk
ills
Gai
ned
from
Ana
lyzi
ng S
cien
tific
Pap
ers
to O
ther
Rep
orts
CH
APT
ER
SE
VE
N. C
LA
SSR
OO
M D
ISC
USS
ION
S: I
NQ
UIR
YIN
TO
IN
QU
IRY
Des
crip
tions
of
Cat
egor
ies
Use
d in
the
Ann
otat
ions
of
the
Dis
cuss
ions
I.M
anag
eria
l Que
stio
ns a
nd S
tate
men
ts45
II.
Gui
ding
Que
stio
ns a
nd S
tate
men
ts45
III.
Tas
ks o
f In
quir
y in
to I
nqui
ry46
Exa
mpl
es o
f C
lass
room
Dis
cuss
ion
I.Fi
rst D
iscu
ssio
n of
"E
xper
imen
ts in
Pla
nt H
ybri
disa
tion"
(pp
. 1II
.Se
cond
Dis
cuss
ion
of "
Exp
erim
ents
in P
lant
Hyb
ridi
satio
n" (
pp
39 40 42 43 44 45
APP
EN
DIC
ES A
.In
teri
m S
umm
arie
s of
Inv
itatio
ns to
Enq
uiry
fro
m th
e B
SCS
Bio
logy
Ack
now
ledg
emen
tsT
able
of
Con
tent
s
B.
Cop
y of
"E
xper
imen
ts in
Pla
nt H
ybri
disa
tion"
(pp.
1-13
) by
Gre
gor
Men
del
BIB
LIO
GR
APH
Y
-13)
by
Gre
gor
Men
del
..46
.1-
13)
by G
rego
r M
ende
l61
Tea
cher
s' H
andb
ook
85 85 86 107
115
41*
e
CH
APT
ER
ON
E
RA
TIO
NA
LE
The
Sub
stan
tive
Kno
wle
dge
of B
iolo
gica
l Sci
ence
The
cur
rent
sub
stan
tive
body
of
biol
ogic
al k
now
ledg
e in
clud
es th
ekn
owle
dge
of in
quir
y pr
oces
ses
and
the
find
ings
of
thes
ein
quir
ies.
Whi
le it
is tr
ue th
at th
ey a
rc in
sepa
rabl
e an
d pr
obab
ly a
reeq
ually
impo
rtan
t, fo
r m
any
year
s in
edu
catio
nal p
ract
ice
the
find
ings
of
inqu
iry
(con
tent
) ha
ve b
een
heav
ily e
mph
asiz
ed to
the
excl
usio
n of
inqu
iry
proc
esse
s. R
ecen
tly e
mph
asis
has
bee
n pl
aced
on th
e in
quir
y pr
oces
ses;
how
ever
, man
y bi
olog
y te
ache
rs a
re n
ot f
amili
ar w
ith th
em. F
or th
ese
reas
ons,
itis
app
ropr
iate
thvs
t inq
uiry
proc
esse
s no
w s
houl
d be
giv
en a
gre
atde
al o
f at
tent
ion.
Thi
s at
tent
ion
shou
ld n
ot e
xclu
de o
r fo
resh
adow
the
impo
rtan
ce o
fte
achi
ngth
e fi
ndin
gs o
f sc
ient
ific
inqu
irie
s. A
s a
mat
ter
of f
act,
teac
hing
inqu
iry
proc
esse
sde
man
ds th
e te
achi
ng o
f co
nten
t ins
epar
able
fro
mpr
oces
s.
The
Nat
ure
of I
nqui
ry a
nd it
s R
elat
ion
to th
e O
rgan
izat
ion
and
Use
of th
is D
ocum
ent
Inqu
iry,
as
defi
ned
in th
is d
ocum
ent,
is a
set
of
activ
ities
dir
ecte
d to
war
dsso
lvin
g an
ope
n nu
mbe
r of
rel
ated
pro
blem
s in
whi
ch
the
stud
ent h
as a
s hi
s pr
inci
pal f
ocus
a p
rodu
ctiv
e en
terp
rise
lead
ing
toin
crea
sed
unde
rsta
ndin
g an
d ap
plic
atio
n.
Succ
ess
in a
ny p
artic
ular
inqu
iry
invo
lves
som
e, b
ut p
roba
bly
not a
ll, p
ossi
ble
inqu
iry
beha
vior
s an
d sk
il..
The
re is
no
atte
mpt
in
this
rep
ort t
o pr
escr
ibe
a de
fini
te o
rder
of
inqu
iry
skill
s an
d be
havi
ors
for
any
inqu
iry
activ
ity o
r fo
r an
y tim
e du
ring
a b
iolo
gy c
ours
e.T
he b
iolo
gist
in c
ondu
ctin
g bi
olog
ical
res
earc
h, o
r th
e st
uden
t in
carr
ying
out
inqu
iry
proc
esse
s in
the
clas
sroo
m, m
ay n
ot e
xhib
itbe
havi
ors
in th
e or
der
liste
d. I
t is
also
und
erst
ood
that
at t
he b
egin
ning
of
a co
urse
the
stud
ent w
ill p
osse
ss c
erta
in in
form
atio
n, c
og-
nitiv
e sk
ills,
and
atti
tude
s th
at a
re. n
eces
sary
in in
quir
y ac
tiviti
es. T
hese
will
be a
pplie
d an
d bu
ilt u
pon
thro
ugho
ut th
e in
quir
y ac
tiviti
es.
The
nat
ure
of in
quir
y is
com
plex
; inq
uiry
eng
ages
the
skill
s, in
tere
sts,
and
attit
udes
of
the
pers
on in
an
inte
ract
ion
with
the
sub-
stan
tive
and
cogn
itive
dem
ands
of
a pr
oble
m a
s he
mak
es e
ffor
ts to
ratio
nally
cop
e w
ith it
. Inq
uiry
act
iviti
es m
ay v
ary
in f
orm
and
sequ
ence
fro
m o
ne p
robl
em to
anot
her
and
from
one
per
son
to a
noth
er p
erso
n. S
ucce
ssfu
l inq
uiry
nee
d no
t nec
essa
rily
be te
rmin
ated
with
the
atta
inm
ent o
f a
solu
tion
to a
pro
blem
, nor
is th
e so
lutio
n ne
cess
arily
ess
entia
lfo
r in
quir
y to
be
deem
ed s
ucce
ssfu
l.
It is
dif
ficu
lt to
inte
rpre
t a c
once
pt o
f in
quir
y so
bro
adly
con
ceiv
ed. T
here
fore
,the
Com
mitt
ee id
entif
ied
five
"pe
rspe
ctiv
es"
ofin
quir
y fo
r an
alys
is. E
ach
pers
pect
ive
is th
e re
sult
of e
ffor
ts to
vie
w in
quri
y w
ith a
part
icul
ar e
mph
asis
. The
fiv
e pe
rspe
ctiv
es a
re:
1.G
uidi
ng p
rinc
iple
s. T
hese
rep
rese
nt a
ran
ge o
f po
ints
of
view
or
perc
eptio
ns b
yw
hich
a b
iolo
gist
or
stud
ent m
ight
vie
w a
give
n ph
enom
enon
. As
an e
xam
ple:
A s
cien
tist u
sing
the
ante
cede
nt-c
onse
quen
tpr
inci
ple
wou
ld s
eek
a ca
use
and
an e
ffec
t
to a
n ob
serv
ed p
heno
men
on.
2.In
quir
y fa
ctor
s. T
hese
can
be
cons
ider
ed a
s co
mpo
nent
s re
sulti
ng f
rom
a lo
gica
lan
alys
is o
f in
quir
y as
a p
robl
em-s
olvi
ngac
tivity
. Exa
mpl
es a
re: "
Des
igni
ng a
Stu
dy"
and
"For
mul
atin
g H
ypot
hese
s."
3.B
ehav
iora
l obj
ectiv
es. T
hese
are
spe
cifi
c in
quir
y ob
ject
ives
that
incl
ude
stat
emen
ts o
f be
havi
ors
to b
e de
mon
stra
ted
unde
rsp
ecif
ied
cond
ition
s at
acc
epta
ble
leve
ls o
f cr
iteri
on p
erfo
rman
ce.
4.A
ffec
tive
or a
ttitu
dina
l qua
litie
s. T
hese
arc
expr
essi
ons
of a
ttitu
des
that
arc
infe
rred
fro
m o
bser
vabl
e be
havi
ors
that
per
vade
,ac
com
pany
, and
sha
pe in
quir
y be
havi
ors.
5.In
quir
y in
to in
quir
y. T
his
repr
esen
ts a
cri
tique
of
scie
ntif
ic r
esea
rch
to d
isco
ver
the
vari
ety
of lo
gica
l pat
tern
s an
d to
gai
nin
sigh
t int
o th
e na
ture
of
scie
ntif
ic in
quir
y.
The
rel
atio
n of
thes
e pr
inci
ples
to th
e ov
eral
l nat
ure
of in
quir
y is
sho
wn
in th
e fi
gure
bel
ow:
FIV
E P
ER
SPE
CT
IVE
S FO
R V
IEW
ING
IN
QU
IRY
It is
equ
ally
impo
rtan
t to
see
how
the
pers
pect
ives
fit
into
an
over
all i
nstr
uctio
nal s
yste
m w
ith it
s fo
cus
on th
e st
uden
t. T
he c
om-
pone
nts
of th
is m
odel
and
thei
r in
terr
elat
ions
hips
are
sho
wn
belo
w.
CO
MPO
NE
NT
S O
F IN
QU
IRY
IN
AN
IN
STR
UC
TIO
NA
L.
SYST
EM
Stud
ent
4T
each
ing
Stra
tegi
es
Y
Eva
luat
ion
Beh
avio
ral
Obj
ectiv
esfo
r In
stru
ctio
n
Bio
logi
cal
Inqu
iry
Inte
rdep
ende
nt
Fact
ors
Gui
ding
inPr
inci
ples
Inqu
iry
Beh
avio
rall
Obj
ectiv
es
Inqu
iry
into
Inqu
iry 3
Bio
logi
cal2
Con
tent
-..-
,.....
./.
Aff
ectiv
eQ
ualit
ies
I.B
ehav
iora
l obj
ectiv
es a
re s
how
nas
bot
h pr
ovid
ing
a pe
rspe
ctiv
eon
inqu
iry a
nd a
s a
mea
ns o
ftr
ansl
atin
g an
und
erst
andi
ng o
fin
quiry
into
inst
ruct
iona
l str
ate-
gies
.
Bio
logy
con
tent
is o
f cou
rse
anes
sent
ialpa
rt o
f lite
inst
ruct
iona
lsy
stem
eve
n th
ough
it h
as n
otbe
en e
mph
asiz
ed in
the
chap
ters
to fo
llow
.
The
inte
ract
ing
com
pone
nts
in th
e tw
o fo
rego
ing
figu
res
are,
for
the
mos
t par
t, tr
eate
d in
sep
arat
e, c
hapt
ers
in th
is r
epor
t. T
hegu
idin
g pr
inci
ples
pre
sent
ed in
Cha
pter
Tw
o re
pres
ent t
he f
ive
prin
cipl
es p
rese
ntly
kno
wn
in b
iolo
gica
l inq
uiry
(Sc
hwab
, 137
). E
ach
prin
cipl
e pr
ovid
es a
fra
mew
ork
with
in w
hich
the
scie
ntis
t or
stud
ent f
orm
ulat
es p
robl
ems
and
carr
ies
out s
ix o
ther
inqu
iry
fact
ors
pres
ente
d in
Cha
pter
Thr
ee. I
n C
hapt
er F
our
sam
ple
clas
ses
of b
ehav
iors
fro
m e
ach
of th
e in
quir
y fa
ctor
s an
d gu
idin
g pr
inci
ples
are
pres
ente
d as
they
mig
ht a
ppea
r if
use
d to
pro
vide
the
fram
ewor
k fo
r se
tting
cri
teri
on p
erfo
rman
ces
in p
re-s
ervi
ce a
nd in
-ser
vice
biol
ogy
cour
ses
for
teac
hers
and
thei
r st
uden
ts. F
ollo
win
g th
ese
beha
vior
s ar
c te
achi
ng s
trat
egie
s as
they
mig
ht b
e w
ritte
n to
des
crib
esi
tuat
ions
in w
hich
stu
dent
s m
ight
ach
ieve
a g
iven
cri
teri
on p
erfo
rman
ce. C
hapt
er F
ive
incl
udes
aff
ectiv
e an
d at
titud
inal
qua
liiie
s th
atpe
rvad
e th
e ot
her
inqu
iry
com
pone
nts
pres
ente
d pr
ior
to a
nd f
ollo
win
g th
is c
hapt
er.
In C
hapt
ers
TW
O th
roug
h Fi
ve e
mph
asis
is la
rgel
y pl
aced
on
the
stud
ent's
use
of
the
guid
ing
prin
cipl
es a
nd in
quir
y fa
ctor
s as
he
activ
ely
inve
stig
ates
bio
logi
cal p
robl
ems.
In
Cha
pter
Six
em
phas
is is
pla
ced
on th
e st
uden
t's a
bilit
v to
cri
tique
the
scie
ntif
ic, w
ork
ofot
hers
(sc
ient
ific
pap
ers,
etc
.). E
xam
ples
of
clas
sroo
m d
iscu
ssio
ns w
hich
illu
stra
te s
ome
desi
red
beha
vior
s of
stu
dent
sar
e in
clud
ed in
Cha
pter
Sev
en.
The
text
of
the
docu
men
t is
follo
wed
by
two
appe
ndic
es. A
ppen
dix
A c
onta
ins
repr
oduc
ed te
xtua
l mat
eria
ls r
efer
red
toor
use
din
dev
elop
ing
vari
ous
sect
ions
. App
endi
x B
con
sist
s of
a r
epro
duce
d po
rtio
n of
a s
cien
tific
pap
er u
sed
for
the.
dis
cuss
ions
in C
hapt
erSe
ven. Fi
nally
, the
doc
umen
t inc
lude
s a
bibl
iogr
aphy
of
sour
ces
whi
ch c
an b
e us
ed to
dev
elop
and
eva
luat
e pr
ogra
m; d
esig
ned
to a
ttain
the
obje
ctiv
es.
It is
the
inte
nt o
f th
e C
omm
ittee
that
the
docu
men
t tha
t fol
low
s ai
d th
e re
ader
to v
iew
inqu
iry
from
eac
h pe
rspe
ctiv
e w
ithou
tlo
sing
the
over
all t
otal
ity o
f th
e in
quir
ing
ente
rpri
se.
CH
APT
ER
TW
O
GU
IDIN
G P
RIN
CIP
LE
S O
F IN
QU
IRY
Rec
ogni
tion
and
Dif
fere
ntia
tion
Alth
ough
new
pri
ncip
les
may
em
erge
in th
e fu
ture
, fiv
e pr
inci
ples
of
inqu
iry
have
bee
n id
entif
ied
(Sch
wab
, 137
) re
pres
entin
g a
rang
e of
vie
wpo
ints
fro
m w
hich
a b
iolo
gist
or
stud
ent m
ight
vie
w a
giv
en p
heno
men
on (
see
App
endi
x A
).1
The
stu
dent
sho
uld
be a
ble
to r
ecog
nize
and
dif
fere
ntia
te a
mon
g th
ese
vari
ous
prin
cipl
es th
at g
uide
sci
entif
ic s
tudi
es, i
nclu
ding
his
own.
He
shou
ld b
e ab
le to
dete
rmin
e w
hich
pri
ncip
le is
app
ropr
iate
for
a st
udy.
The
stu
dent
sho
uld
also
be
able
to d
escr
ibe
how
the
stud
y w
ould
dif
fer
if a
'dif
-fe
rent
pri
ncip
le o
f in
quir
y w
ere
used
.
Prin
cipl
es1.
The
taxo
nom
ic p
rinc
iple
. Thi
s pr
inci
ple
is b
ased
onco
llect
ing,
org
aniz
ing,
and
cla
ssif
ying
dat
a to
dev
elop
a ba
sis
for
form
ulat
ing
and
answ
erin
g re
sear
chab
lequ
estio
ns. T
he ty
pica
l mod
e of
inqu
iry
is th
e sc
hem
efo
r cl
assi
fica
tion
impl
icit
in th
e fo
llow
ing
assu
mpt
ions
abou
t the
nat
ure
of b
iolo
gica
l phe
nom
ena:
A.
B.
The
re a
re d
iffe
rent
kin
ds o
f "t
hing
s."
"Thi
ngs"
can
be
diff
eren
tiate
d in
term
s of
ob-
serv
able
cha
ract
eris
tics.
Exa
mpl
es
The
stu
dent
mea
sure
s an
d co
mpa
res
the
leng
th o
f lim
abe
an s
eeds
and
late
r de
velo
psa
prob
lem
reg
ardi
ng th
ele
ngth
of
seco
nd g
ener
atio
n se
ed.
The
stu
dent
, by
colle
ctin
g an
d cl
assi
fyin
g bi
rd c
alls
, fin
dsso
me
that
do
not f
it pa
ttern
s. F
rom
this
dis
crep
ant e
vent
the
stud
ent f
orm
ulat
es a
pro
blem
.
1The
pri
ncip
les
in th
is c
hapt
erar
c ex
empl
ifie
d in
the
Invi
tatio
ns to
Enq
uiry
and
the
Inte
rim
Sum
mar
ies
pres
ente
d in
the
BSC
S B
iolo
gy T
each
ers'
Han
dboo
k,C
hapt
er 4
, as
follo
ws:
Ant
eced
ent-
cons
eque
nt p
rinc
iple
:In
vita
tions
, Gro
up 1
, Num
bers
1-1
6A (
incl
udes
Int
erim
Sum
mar
ies
1 an
d 2)
Invi
tatio
ns, G
roup
II,
Num
bers
17-
25In
vita
tions
, Gro
up I
II, N
umbe
rs 2
6-31
Inte
rim
Sum
mar
y 3
Stru
ctur
e-fu
nctio
n pr
inci
ple:
Invi
tatio
ns, G
roup
IV
, Num
bers
32-
37In
teri
m S
umm
ary
4R
egul
atio
n an
d ho
meo
stas
is p
rinc
iple
:In
vita
tions
, Gro
up V
, Num
bers
38-
44In
teri
m S
umm
ary
5Se
lf-r
egul
ator
y sy
stem
pri
ncip
le:
Inte
rim
Sum
mar
y 5
The
Tax
onom
ic p
rinc
iple
is n
ot e
xplic
itly
exem
plif
ied
in e
ither
the
Invi
tatio
nsor
Int
erim
Sum
mar
ies.
- 5
-
Prin
cipl
es
II.
The
ant
eced
ent-
cons
eque
nt p
rinc
iple
. Thi
s pr
inci
ple
is b
ased
on in
depe
nden
t cha
ins
of c
ause
and
eff
ect r
elat
ions
hips
. The
typi
cal m
ode
of in
quir
y is
the
cont
rolle
d ex
peri
men
t im
plic
itin
the
follo
win
g as
sum
ptio
ns a
bout
the
natu
re o
f bi
olog
ical
phen
omen
a:
A.
The
who
le o
rgan
ism
con
sist
s of
man
y pa
rts.
B.
Eac
h pa
rt o
f an
org
anis
m o
pera
tes
as a
n in
depe
nden
ten
tity.
III.
The
str
uctu
re; f
unct
ion
prin
cipl
e. T
his
prin
cipl
e is
bas
edon
inte
rrel
atio
nshi
ps o
f ca
use
and
effe
ct c
hain
s th
at c
ontr
ibut
e to
the
orga
nism
's h
avin
g a
cert
ain
stab
le c
hara
ctcr
or
natu
re.
(Har
vey'
s st
udy
of b
lood
cir
cula
tion
illus
trat
es th
e m
ode
ofin
quir
y re
late
d to
this
pri
ncip
le.)
A.
The
re a
re in
terr
elat
ions
hips
of
chai
ns o
f ca
uses
and
effe
cts
that
con
trib
ute
to w
hole
ness
.13
.T
he "
who
lene
ss"
of a
n or
gani
sm h
as a
cer
tain
sta
ble
char
acte
r or
nat
ure.
IV.
The
reg
ulat
ion
and
hom
eost
asis
pri
ncip
le. T
his
prin
cipl
e is
base
d on
the
flex
ibili
ty o
f or
gans
to m
aint
ain
an e
quili
briu
mam
ong
chan
ges
of p
arts
(or
gans
, tis
sues
, etc
.) in
res
pons
e to
chan
ges
in e
xter
nal c
ondi
tions
. Dyn
amic
equ
ilibr
ium
is m
ain-
Win
ed b
y st
ruct
ural
and
/or
func
tiona
l cha
nges
in d
egre
e ra
ther
than
kin
d. (
The
ther
mos
tat m
odel
fits
this
gui
ding
pri
ncip
le.)
A.
Org
ans
are
flex
ible
and
can
cha
nge
in r
espo
nse
toex
-te
rnal
cha
nges
.
B.
A d
ynam
ic e
quili
briu
m a
mon
g ch
ange
s of
orga
ns c
an b
em
aint
aine
d.
Exa
mpl
es
In a
ser
ies
of e
xper
imen
ts w
ith p
rope
r co
ntro
ls, t
heth
yroi
d gl
and
is r
emov
ed a
nd th
e fo
llow
ing
char
ac-
teri
stic
s ar
e no
ted:
low
er te
mpe
ratu
re, l
ower
res
pi-
rato
ry r
ate,
pla
cidi
ty, a
nd o
besi
ty. T
he s
tude
ntsh
ould
inte
rpre
t tha
t the
se c
hara
cter
istic
s ar
e du
eto
the
rem
oval
of
the
glan
d.
Gen
e /1
dete
rmin
es ta
llnes
s; g
ene
a de
term
ines
shor
tnes
s. G
arde
n pe
as h
avin
g .1
.1 o
rge
nes
will
be ta
ll, a
s th
ere
is n
o in
tera
ctio
n be
twee
n ge
nean
d ge
ne a
.
The
reg
ulat
ory
proc
ess
is e
ssen
tial t
o lif
e. T
he s
tu-
dent
mig
ht d
eter
min
e th
e ro
le o
f th
e th
yroi
d gl
and.
Blo
od c
ircu
latio
n is
vita
l to
body
act
iviti
es. T
hest
uden
t det
erm
ines
how
the
hear
t and
blo
od v
esse
lsar
e or
gani
zed
to a
ccom
plis
h bo
dy a
ctiv
ities
.
The
sug
ar le
vel i
n bl
ood
rem
ains
in e
quili
briu
mde
spite
the
fact
that
no
suga
rs a
re d
iges
ted.
The
suga
r co
nten
t in
bloo
d re
mai
ns in
equ
ilibr
ium
or
bala
nce
even
whe
n ex
cess
ive
suga
r is
dig
este
d.
The
stu
dent
sho
uld
be a
war
e th
at th
ere
are
seve
ral
conc
entr
atio
ns w
hich
are
rig
ht f
or th
e bo
dy (
de-
pend
ing
on th
e co
nditi
on a
nd a
ctiv
ity o
fm
any
oral
l oth
er c
hem
ical
s, p
hysi
cal f
acto
rs, a
nd s
truc
ture
s).
Prin
cipl
es
C.
A d
ynam
ic e
quili
briu
m a
mon
g ch
ange
s w
ill n
ot r
esul
t in
stru
ctur
al c
hang
es o
r m
ajor
fun
ctio
nal c
hang
es, e
.g.,
atr
ansm
ittin
g m
embr
ane
beco
min
g se
cret
ory.
V.
The
sel
f-re
gula
tory
sys
tem
pri
ncip
le. T
his
prin
cipl
e is
bas
edon
the
flex
ibili
ty o
f th
e or
gani
sm a
s a
who
le, a
s w
ell a
s th
efl
exib
ility
of
the
part
s, to
mai
ntai
n eq
uilib
rium
of
chan
ges
toex
tern
al o
r en
viro
nmen
tal c
hang
es. H
owev
er, t
his
prin
cipl
eem
phas
izes
fun
ctio
nal o
r st
ruct
ural
cha
nges
in k
ind
in th
epa
rts
to m
ake
a ne
w in
tegr
ated
who
le.
A.
The
org
anis
m, a
s w
ell a
s its
par
ts, i
s fl
exib
le a
nd w
illch
ange
in r
espo
nse
to e
xter
nal c
hang
es.
B.
A d
ynam
ic e
quili
briu
m a
mon
g ch
ange
sca
n be
mai
ntai
ned.
C.
A d
ynam
ic e
quili
briu
m a
mon
g ch
ange
sm
ay r
esul
t in
stru
ctur
al c
hang
es o
r m
ajor
fun
ctio
nal c
hang
es.
Exa
mpl
es
Whe
n pa
rt o
f th
e br
ain
is d
estr
oyed
, adj
acen
t par
tsm
ay in
corp
orat
e so
me
or a
ll fu
nctio
ns o
f th
e in
-ca
paci
tate
d pa
rt.
Skill
s in
Car
ryin
g O
ut P
rinc
iple
s of
Inq
uiry
Dep
endi
ng o
n w
hich
of
the
five
pri
ncip
les
of in
quir
y th
e st
uden
t use
s, th
ere
will
be
diff
eren
ces
in c
erta
in b
asic
act
iviti
es n
eces
-sa
ry f
or h
im to
car
ry o
ut th
e in
quir
y. T
hese
act
iviti
es a
re:
(a)
Ask
ing
initi
al q
uest
ions
("W
hat d
o I
wan
t to
find
out
abo
ut th
e su
bjec
t or
phen
omen
a of
inte
rest
?");
(b)
Mak
ing
obse
rvat
ions
("W
hat d
ata
shou
ld I
look
for
to h
elp
answ
er th
at q
uest
ion?
");
(c)
Org
aniz
ing
obse
rvat
ions
("W
hat s
houl
d I
do w
ith th
e da
ta to
get
the
clea
rest
ans
wer
to m
y qu
estio
n?")
.
The
pri
ncip
les
of in
quir
y be
com
e m
odes
of
inqu
iry
whe
n us
ed a
s m
etho
ds in
car
ryin
g ou
t inq
uiry
. It i
s de
sira
ble
that
bio
logy
stud
ents
beg
in to
gai
n so
me
unde
rsta
ndin
g of
thes
e di
ffer
ent m
odes
. The
stu
dent
sho
uld
be a
ble
to s
tate
a b
iolo
gica
l pro
blem
in te
rms
of e
ach
prin
cipl
e of
inqu
iry
and
desc
ribe
the
appr
opri
ate
expe
rim
enta
l des
ign
for
each
mod
e of
inqu
iry.
I.T
he ta
xono
mic
mod
e. T
he s
tude
nt w
ill c
arry
out
act
iviti
es c
hara
cter
istic
of
the
taxo
nom
ic m
ode:
A. H
e w
ill a
sk q
uest
ions
.B
. He
will
mak
e ob
serv
atio
ns n
ec-
essa
ry to
ans
wer
que
stio
ns.
C. H
e w
ill h
andl
e da
ta in
app
ro-
pria
te w
ays.
Exa
mpl
es:
Exa
mpl
es:
Exa
mpl
es:
Wha
t arc
the
sim
ilari
ties
and
diff
eren
ces
amon
g th
e or
gan-
ism
s fo
und
in th
is p
ond
wat
er?
Wha
t are
the
kind
s of
pla
nts
foun
d in
Pra
irie
Sta
te P
ark?
Sec
hair
-lik
e st
ruct
ures
on
the
orga
nism
s fo
und
in th
e po
ndw
ater
.
See
inte
rnal
str
uctu
res
of th
eor
gani
sms.
See
diff
eren
ces
in le
af s
hape
s.
See
diff
eren
ces
in s
truc
ture
of
flow
er p
arts
.
Mak
e co
mpa
riso
ns b
etw
een
oh-
serv
ed c
hara
cter
istic
s.
Gro
up d
ata
acco
rdin
g to
ob-
serv
ed s
imila
ritie
s an
d di
ffer
-en
ces.
Use
exi
stin
g cl
assi
fica
tion
sche
mes
for
org
anis
ms
unde
rst
udy.
8
II.
The
ant
eced
ent-
cons
eque
nt m
ode.
The
stu
dent
will
carr
y ou
t act
iviti
es c
hara
cter
istic
of
the
ante
cede
nt-c
onse
quen
t mod
e:
A. H
e w
ill a
sk q
uest
ions
.B
. He
will
mak
e ob
serv
atio
ns n
ee-
essa
ry to
ans
wer
que
stio
ns.
C. H
e w
ill h
andl
e da
ta in
app
ro.-
pria
te w
ays.
Exa
mpl
es:
Exa
mpl
es:
Exa
mpl
es:
Ifth
e th
yroi
d gl
and
isre
-m
oved
fro
m m
ice,
wha
t hap
-pe
ns to
thei
r ph
ysic
al c
hara
c-te
rist
ics?
Wha
t will
occ
ur if
we
rem
ove
both
the
isle
t tis
sue
of th
e pa
n-cr
eas
and
the
pitu
itary
gla
ndfr
om m
ice?
If I
cro
ss f
ruitf
lies
with
kno
wn
geno
type
s fo
r ey
e-co
lor,
can
Iex
pect
res
ults
to s
how
a s
impl
edo
min
ant-
rece
ssiv
e pa
ttern
?
Mea
sure
tem
pera
ture
of
mic
ebe
fore
and
aft
er tr
eatm
ent.
Mea
sure
res
pira
tory
rate
of
mic
e.
Mea
sure
wei
ght o
f m
ice.
Prov
ide
for
appr
opri
ate
con-
trol
s.
Mak
e ob
serv
atio
ns s
imila
r to
the
firs
t and
last
exa
mpl
e sh
own
abov
e.
Dis
tingu
ish
diff
eren
ces
in e
ye-
colo
r in
Fi a
nd F
2 ge
nera
tion.
Org
aniz
e da
ta in
tota
bles
and/
or g
raph
s w
hich
sho
wdi
ffer
ence
s in
phy
sica
l cha
r-ac
teri
stic
s of
the
mic
e be
fore
and
afte
r re
mov
al o
f th
eth
yroi
d.
Org
aniz
e da
ta in
way
s si
mi-
lar
to e
xam
ple
show
n ab
ove.
Org
aniz
e da
ta to
sho
w p
ro-
port
ion
of e
ye-c
olor
s in
F1
and
F2 g
ener
atio
ns.
III.
The
str
uctu
re-f
unct
ion
mod
e. T
hest
uden
t will
car
ry o
ut a
ctiv
ities
cha
ract
eris
ticof
the
stru
ctur
e-fu
nctio
n m
ode:
A. H
e w
ill a
sk q
uest
ions
.13
. He
will
iden
tify
obse
rvat
ions
to m
ake
in o
rder
to a
nsw
erqu
estio
ns.
C. H
e w
ill id
entif
y w
ays
toha
ndle
dat
a.
Exa
mpl
es:
Exa
mpl
es:
Exa
mpl
es:
Whe
n ba
cter
ia in
vade
a lo
cal
Iden
tify
obse
rvat
ions
on
chan
ges
inFi
nd w
ays
of s
how
ing
re-
area
, suc
h as
by a
scr
atch
or
punc
ture
wou
nd, w
hat p
ro-
skin
cel
ls n
ear
wou
nd.
Iden
tify
obse
rvat
ions
on
chan
ges
in
latio
nshi
ps, o
r la
ck o
f th
em,
amon
g ob
serv
atio
nsm
ade.
cess
es a
rc s
et in
mot
ion
whi
chse
rve
to p
rote
ctth
e in
vade
dor
gani
sm?
bloo
d ve
ssel
s ne
ar w
ound
.Id
entif
y ob
serv
atio
ns o
n ch
ange
s in
bloo
d ce
lls.
Is th
e m
igra
ting
beha
vior
of
xId
entif
y ob
serv
atio
ns o
n ch
ange
s in
Find
way
s of
sho
win
g re
la-
spec
ies
of b
ird
initi
ated
by
chan
ges
in v
ario
us o
rgan
s? A
reor
gans
.Id
entif
y ob
serv
atio
ns o
n fa
ctor
s in
tions
hips
, or
lack
of
them
,be
twee
n ob
serv
atio
ns m
ade.
thes
e or
gan
chan
ges
trig
gere
dth
e en
viro
nmen
t, su
ch a
s da
y-lig
htby
cha
nges
in e
nvir
onm
ent?
or te
mpe
ratu
re,
whi
ch m
ay a
ffec
tth
ose
orga
ns.
Wha
t is
the
func
tion
of th
eId
entif
y ob
serv
atio
ns o
n ch
ange
s in
Find
way
s of
sho
win
g re
-
mam
mal
's h
eart
in r
elat
ion
toth
e to
tal o
rgan
ism
?th
e st
ruct
ure,
loca
tion,
and
act
ion
on th
e va
riou
s pa
rts
of th
e he
art.
Iden
tify
obse
rvat
ions
of
chan
ges
in
latio
nshi
ps, o
r la
ck o
f th
em,
rega
rdin
g st
ruct
ure,
loca
tion,
and
actio
n be
twee
n ob
serv
a-
neig
hbor
ing
orga
ns f
ollo
win
g he
art
actio
n.
tions
mad
e.
IV.
The
reg
ulat
ion-
hom
eost
asis
mod
e. T
he s
tude
nt w
ill r
ecog
nize
act
iviti
es c
hara
cter
istic
of
the
regu
latio
n-ho
meo
stas
is m
ode:
A. H
e w
ill r
ecog
nize
que
stio
ns.
B. H
e w
ill r
ecog
nize
type
s of
ob-
nerv
atio
ns th
at m
ust b
e m
ade
to a
nsw
er q
uest
ions
.
C. H
e w
ill r
ecog
nize
way
s da
tam
ust b
e ha
ndle
d to
ans
wer
ques
tions
.
Exa
mpl
es:
Exa
mpl
es:
Exa
mpl
es:
How
doe
s da
ily r
apid
wal
king
,th
en r
unni
ng, a
mile
res
ult
in p
rogr
essi
vely
less
fee
ling
of
Rec
ogni
ze o
bser
vatio
nson
bre
ath-
ing
and
circ
ulat
ion.
Rec
ogni
ze o
bser
vatio
ns o
n ch
emic
al
Find
way
s of
rel
atin
g th
ech
ange
s fo
und
in b
reat
hing
,m
uscl
e ac
tivity
, etc
. to
each
stre
ss in
bre
athi
ng a
nd m
uscu
-an
d ot
her
chan
ges
duri
ng m
uscu
lar
othe
r an
d to
red
uctio
n in
lar
actio
n?ac
tivity
.fe
elin
gs o
f st
ress
, by
mea
ns
Rec
ogni
ze o
bser
vatio
ns o
n fe
elin
gsof
tabl
es, g
raph
s, m
athe
mat
-
of s
tres
s re
late
d to
eac
h fa
ctor
sho
wn
abov
e.
ical
ana
lyse
s, a
nd in
fere
nces
.
Why
doe
s th
e re
duct
ion
ofR
ecog
nize
obs
erva
tions
on p
rese
nce
Find
way
s of
rel
atin
g fa
ctor
sfo
od in
take
in th
e hu
man
eve
n-of
foo
d in
sto
mac
h, b
lood
suga
rto
eac
h ot
her
and
to th
etu
ally
res
ult i
n no
fee
lings
of
leve
l, et
c. in
rel
atio
n to
hun
ger
cond
ition
of
the
tota
l or-
hung
er o
r fa
tigue
?pa
ngs
and
fatig
ue.
gani
sm.
Yea
rs a
fter
a f
ores
t fir
e th
atR
ecog
nize
obs
erva
tions
on c
hang
esFi
nd w
ays
of r
elat
ing
chan
ges
dest
roye
d m
ost o
f th
e tr
ees,
why
is th
ere
a si
mila
r fo
rest
in p
lant
and
ani
mal
spe
cies
in th
atar
ea o
ver
man
y ye
ars.
in s
peci
es a
nd e
nvir
onm
enta
lco
nditi
ons
to e
ach
othe
r an
din
that
pla
ce?
Rec
ogni
ze o
bser
vatio
nson
cha
nges
to th
e re
stor
atio
n of
bal
-in
env
iron
men
tal c
ondi
tions
rel
ated
toch
ange
s in
plan
t and
ani
mal
spec
ies.
ante
s be
twee
n th
em.
V.
The
sel
f-re
gula
tory
mod
e. T
he s
tude
nt w
ill r
ecog
nize
act
iviti
es c
hara
cter
istic
of
the
self
-reg
ulat
ory
'mod
e:
A. H
e w
ill r
ecog
nize
the
type
s of
B. H
e w
ill r
ecog
nize
type
s of
dat
a.
C. H
e w
ill r
ecog
nize
way
s of
ques
tions
that
ste
m f
rom
this
need
ed to
ans
wer
que
stio
ns.
hand
ling
the
data
to f
ind
view
of
the
prob
lem
.an
swer
s to
the
ques
tions
.
Exa
mpl
e:E
xam
ples
:E
xam
ple:
Will
des
troy
ing
a pu
etio
n of
the
Rec
ogni
ze d
ata
on th
e re
pert
ory
ofFi
nd w
ays
of r
elat
ing
the
brai
n as
soci
ated
with
a p
artic
u-be
havi
ors
that
mig
ht b
e le
arne
d w
ithda
ta to
sho
w r
elat
ions
hips
lar
lear
ned
beha
vior
mak
e it
diff
eren
tpa
rts
of th
e br
ain
de-
betw
een
fact
ors
of th
eim
poss
ible
for
the
anim
al to
rele
arn
the
beha
vior
aft
er r
e-st
roye
d.
Rec
ogni
ze d
ata
on c
hang
es in
fun
c-
who
lc,c
hang
es in
the
who
le,
and
evid
ence
s fo
r ne
w, i
n-co
very
fro
m s
urge
ry?
tion
and
poss
ible
cha
nges
in s
truc
-tu
re o
f un
dam
aged
par
ts o
f br
ain.
tegr
ated
who
le.
Rec
ogni
ze d
ata
on a
mou
nt a
nd r
e-gi
ons
of u
ndam
aged
bra
in n
eces
sary
for
rele
arni
ng.
VI.
A b
iolo
gica
l situ
atio
n. T
he s
tude
nt w
hen
give
na
biol
ogic
al s
ituat
ion
such
as
a po
nd w
ill:
A.
Stat
e a
prob
lem
in te
rms
of e
ach
of th
epr
inci
ples
of
inqu
iry.
B.
Des
crib
e th
e ex
peri
men
tal d
esig
n ap
prop
riat
eto
eac
h ty
pe o
f pr
oble
m.
Exa
mpl
es:
Exa
mpl
es:
(1)
Wha
t org
anis
ms
(pop
ulat
ions
)ar
e pr
esen
t in
the
pond
? W
hat i
s th
e si
ze o
f ea
ch p
opul
atio
n? W
hat
is it
s di
stri
butio
n?
(1)
Iden
tify
the
popu
latio
ns p
rese
nt. U
sesa
mpl
ing
tech
niqu
es to
det
erm
ine
size
and
dist
ribu
tion
of e
ach
popu
latio
n.(2
)W
hat e
ffec
t doe
s lig
ht in
tens
ity (
or o
thcr
abi
otic
fact
ors
such
as
02,
heat
, etc
.) h
ave
on th
e si
ze a
nd(2
)M
easu
re li
ght i
nten
sity
(or
oth
er a
biot
iefa
ctor
s) a
t var
ious
dep
ths
and
loca
tions
:di
stri
butio
n of
a p
artic
ular
pop
ulat
ion
in th
e po
nd?
rela
te th
ese
find
ings
to s
ize
and
dist
ribu
-tio
n of
the
spec
ifie
d po
pula
tion.
(3)
Wha
t are
the
role
s of
the
vari
ous
popu
latio
ns in
the
food
web
of
this
pon
d? W
hat c
hang
es in
the
web
and
in a
biot
ic f
acto
rs o
ccur
whe
n th
ere
isan
in-
(3)
Mak
e ob
serv
atio
ns to
det
erm
ine
food
web
.In
trod
uce
addi
tiona
l mem
bers
of
a sp
e-ci
fic
popu
latio
n, o
r de
crea
se th
eir
num
-cr
ease
, or
decr
ease
, in
the
vari
ous
popu
latio
ns?
ber,
and
det
erm
ine
chan
ges
in th
e ot
her
popu
latio
ns a
nd in
abi
otic
fac
tors
.(4
)W
hen
sew
age
is in
trod
uced
into
the
pond
, wha
tch
ange
s oc
cur
in th
e si
ze a
nd d
istr
ibut
ion
of th
epo
pula
tions
and
in th
e ab
iotic
fac
tors
? Is
a ne
wba
lanc
e in
the
food
web
est
ablis
hed?
(4)
Intr
oduc
e m
easu
red
amou
nts
ofse
wag
ean
d ob
serv
e ch
ange
s in
abi
otie
fac
tors
,th
e po
pula
tions
, and
thei
r in
terr
elat
ion-
ship
s.(5
)H
ow m
uch
sew
age
may
be
intr
oduc
ed b
efor
e th
ere
is a
cha
nge
in th
e or
igin
al f
ood
web
and
abi
otic
(5)
Ext
rapo
late
fro
m r
esul
ts o
f in
vest
igat
ion
(4)
to p
redi
ct e
hang
e(s)
in o
rigi
nal f
ood
.fa
ctor
s, i.
c., b
efor
e a
"new
pon
d" is
est
ablis
hed?
web
and
abi
otic
fac
tors
.
CH
APT
ER
TH
RE
E
MA
JOR
FA
CT
OR
S IN
IN
QU
IRY
Six
inqu
iry
fact
ors1
hav
e be
en id
entif
ied
that
incl
ude
a w
ide
arra
y of
act
iviti
es th
at b
iolo
gist
s an
d st
uden
ts c
arry
out
whi
le id
en-
tifyi
ng a
nd s
olvi
ng b
iolo
gica
l pro
blem
s. T
hese
fac
tors
arc
com
mon
to a
ll of
the
mod
es o
f in
quir
y. H
owev
er, s
ome
of th
e re
late
d be
-ha
vior
s ar
e st
ated
in th
e te
rms
of th
e co
ntex
t of
the
ante
cede
nt-c
onse
quen
t mod
e. T
he r
elat
ed b
ehav
iors
incl
uded
prob
ably
do
not
exha
ust a
ll of
the
poss
ibili
ties
for
each
inqu
iry
fact
or.
Succ
ess
in a
ny p
artic
ular
inqu
iry
activ
ity m
ay r
equi
re s
ome
but n
ot a
ll of
the
beha
vior
s pr
esen
ted
on th
efo
llow
ing
page
s. A
l-th
ough
the
inqu
iry
beha
vior
s ar
e pr
esen
ted
in a
logi
cal o
rder
, no
atte
mpt
has
bee
n m
ade
to b
ind
them
to a
def
inite
seq
uenc
e or
time.
Als
o, in
act
ual p
ract
ice,
the
inqu
iry
beha
vior
s ar
e cl
osel
y re
late
d an
d m
ay o
ccur
sim
ulta
neou
sly
rath
er th
an s
tep
by s
tep.
Inqu
iry
Fact
ors
Rel
ated
Beh
avio
rs
I.Fo
rmul
atin
g a
prob
lem
.(B
iolo
gist
sfo
rmul
ate
prob
lem
sT
he s
tude
nt w
ill:
with
in id
entif
iabl
e co
ntex
ts o
f th
e di
scip
line.
)A
.Id
entif
y on
e or
mor
e di
scre
pant
eve
nts:
1.In
a s
truc
ture
d si
tuat
ion.
2.In
an
open
or
less
str
uctu
red
situ
atio
n.B
.Se
lect
(ca
rve
out)
a p
robl
em f
or s
tudy
acc
ord-
ing
to th
e fo
llow
ing
crite
ria:
1.U
tiliz
atio
n of
fin
ding
s fr
om o
ther
sou
rces
(tea
cher
, tex
t, re
sear
ch r
epor
ts, e
tc.)
tose
lect
a p
robl
em. l
ie w
ill, f
or e
xam
ple,
in th
e ca
se o
f re
sear
ch r
epor
ts:2
1 I'h
e fa
ctor
s in
clud
ed in
this
cha
pter
arc
exe
mpl
ifie
d in
the
Invi
tatio
ns to
Enq
uiry
and
the
Han
dboo
k, C
hapt
er 4
, as
follo
ws:
Inv
itatio
ns, C
roup
I, N
umbe
rs 1
-16A
; Int
erim
Sum
mar
ies
1
2 Fo
r pa
rtic
ular
s se
e C
hapt
er S
ix, "
Inqu
iry
into
Inq
uiry
," p
age
38.
a. b. C. d.
Iden
tify
sour
ces
of in
form
atio
n.A
naly
ze p
arts
and
rel
atio
nshi
ps.
Des
crib
e it
gene
rally
.
Eva
luat
e th
e re
port
on
crite
ria.
Inte
rim
Sum
mar
ies,
pre
sent
ed in
the
BSC
S Il
iolo
gy T
each
ers'
and
2.
Inqu
iry
Fact
ors
II.
Form
ulat
ing
hypo
thes
es. (
Hyp
othe
ses
are
here
in d
efin
ed a
ste
ntat
ive
answ
ers
to p
robl
ems
or q
uest
ions
that
can
be
inve
s-tig
ated
. Not
all
inve
stig
atio
ns n
eces
sari
ly h
ave
stat
ed, o
r ev
enim
plie
d, h
ypot
hese
s. T
his
is m
ost l
ikel
y to
be
the
case
inst
udie
s co
nduc
ted
in th
e ta
xono
mic
mod
e.)
Rel
ated
Beh
avio
rs
2.Ju
dgm
ent O
f fe
asib
ility
of
the
prob
lem
.H
e w
ill:
a.R
ecog
nize
ther
e ar
e pr
oble
ms
that
cann
ot b
e so
lved
with
in m
an's
kno
w-
ledg
e, s
kill,
and
tech
nolo
gy.
b.Se
lect
a p
robl
em th
at c
an h
e so
lved
with
his
pres
ent k
now
ledg
e an
dsk
ills.
c.Se
lect
a p
robl
em th
at c
an b
e so
lved
with
con
side
ratio
ns o
f lim
itatio
nsan
d av
aila
bilit
y of
tim
e, to
ols,
and
obse
rvat
ions
.
3.Se
lect
ion
of a
pro
blem
whi
ch is
impo
rtan
tto
him
, usi
ng c
rite
ria
such
as:
a.H
is in
tere
st in
the
prob
lem
.b.
His
rec
ogni
tion
that
sol
utio
n of
the
prob
lem
pro
vide
s a
mea
ns f
or s
olv-
ing
othe
r pr
oble
ms
of g
reat
er in
-te
rest
.e.
Iden
tific
atio
n of
the
prob
lem
(s)
aspe
rtin
ent t
o hi
s ne
eds.
C.
Stat
e th
e pr
oble
m in
res
earc
habl
e te
rms.
The
stu
dent
will
:
A.
Iden
tify
the
elem
ents
of
a pr
oble
mon
whi
chhy
poth
eses
cou
ld b
e ba
sed.
B.
Gen
erat
e hy
poth
eses
abo
ut th
e cr
itica
l ele
-m
ents
in th
e si
tuat
ion.
C.
Cla
rify
the
stat
emen
t of
hypo
thes
es:
1.E
limin
ate,
dup
licat
ion.
Inqu
iry
Fact
ors
III.
Des
igni
ng a
stu
dy. (
A.1
-A.3
are
sta
ted
in te
rms
of th
ean
tece
dent
-con
sequ
ent m
ode.
)
-1
6
Rel
ated
Beh
avio
rs
2.D
eter
min
e if
the
hypo
thes
is is
test
able
.
3.D
eter
min
e re
leva
nce
of th
e hy
poth
esis
toth
e. p
robl
em.
Whe
n ap
prop
riat
e, th
e st
uden
t will
:
A.
Plan
to te
st h
ypot
hese
s.
1.Id
entif
y al
l of
the
vari
able
s po
ssib
le.
2.Se
lect
a v
aria
ble
to b
e st
udie
d.
3.E
stab
lish
prop
er c
ontr
ols.
B.
Plan
for
:
1.R
eplic
atio
n.
2.Sy
stem
atic
obse
rvat
ion
ofde
scri
ptiv
eda
ta.
C.
Plan
pro
cedu
res
to y
ield
wan
ted
data
.
1.Se
lect
the
sim
ples
t tec
hniq
ue to
get
. dat
a.
2.Se
lect
, as
need
ed, t
he a
ppro
pria
te:
a.Sa
mpl
e.
b.In
stru
men
ts a
nd c
hem
ical
proc
e-du
res
such
as
gaug
es, m
icro
scop
es,
pH in
dica
tors
, etc
.
c.Id
entif
icat
ion
keys
.
d.M
athe
mat
ical
pro
cedu
res
such
as
dete
rmin
atio
n of
are
a; v
olum
e, d
en-
sity
, or
wei
ght.
c.M
athe
mat
ical
oper
atio
ns s
uch
asad
ditio
n, s
ubtr
actio
n, m
ultip
lica-
tion,
or
divi
sion
.
3.Id
entif
y so
urce
s of
err
ors
such
as
mea
sure
-m
ent,
com
puta
tions
, too
ls a
nd in
stru
-m
ents
, or
oper
ator
.
Inqu
iry
Fact
ors
IV.
Exe
cutin
g th
e pl
an o
f in
vest
igat
ion.
V.
inte
rpre
ting
the
data
or
find
ings
.
- 1
7 -
Rel
ated
Beh
avio
rs
4.D
istin
guis
h be
twee
n ra
ndom
and
s\ s
tem
-at
ic e
rror
.
5.Pl
an p
roce
dure
s to
min
imiz
e ra
ndom
and
syst
emat
ic e
rror
suc
h as
:a.
Mea
suri
ng c
onsi
stfl
itly.
b.Pr
actic
ing
a la
bora
tor>
tech
niqu
e,e.
g., c
ount
ing
yeas
t cel
k.D
.Pl
an a
sys
tem
for
pro
cess
ing
data
to m
ake
itre
ady
for
inte
rpre
tatio
n.I.
Sele
ct a
ppro
pria
te te
chni
ques
suc
h as
grap
hs, c
hart
s, o
r fi
gure
s fo
r or
gani
zing
data
.2.
Sele
ct a
ppro
pria
te s
tatis
tical
pro
cedu
res
such
as
dete
rmin
atio
n of
mea
n, m
ode,
rang
e, s
tand
ard
devi
atio
n, o
r C
hi-s
quar
e.3.
Rec
ord
find
ings
or
sign
ific
ant r
elat
ion-
ship
s in
wri
tten
and
oral
rep
orts
.T
he s
tude
nt w
ill:
A.
Follo
w th
e pl
an f
or c
olle
ctin
g, o
rgan
izin
g, a
ndan
alyz
ing
the
data
, and
for
pre
sent
ing
the
find
ings
.
B.
Use
the
tool
s pr
oper
ly.
C.
Rec
ord
data
acc
urat
ely.
(D
egre
e of
acc
urac
yde
term
ined
by
the
natu
re o
f th
e pr
oble
m.)
D.
Rev
iew
the
tool
s an
d pr
oced
ures
use
d.E
.R
evis
e pr
oced
ures
whe
n in
dica
ted
by r
esul
ts.
The
stu
dent
will
:
A.
Iden
tify
assu
mpt
ions
he
has
used
in th
e st
udy.
B.
Use
res
ults
of
othe
r st
udie
s to
inte
rpre
t the
data
or
find
ings
.
Inqu
iry
Fact
ors
Rel
ated
Beh
avio
rs
(Int
erpr
etin
g th
e da
ta o
r fi
ndin
gs, c
ont.)
C.
Em
ploy
rea
soni
ng s
kills
;
VI.
Synt
hesi
zing
kno
wle
dge
gain
ed f
rom
the
inve
stig
atio
n.
- 1
8 -
I.D
educ
tive
arri
ving
at a
par
ticul
ar im
-pl
icat
ion
from
a g
ener
aliz
atio
n (g
ener
alto
spe
cifi
c).
2.In
duct
ive
arri
ving
at a
gen
eral
izat
ion
from
the
evid
ence
, or
arri
ving
at a
n in
-te
rpre
tatio
n by
rea
soni
ng f
rom
evi
denc
e(s
peci
fic
to g
ener
al).
D.
Use
var
ious
mea
ns o
f pr
esen
ting
the
data
tobr
ing
out d
iffe
rent
fea
ture
s.
E.
Exa
min
e co
llect
ed d
ata
to d
eter
min
e its
rel
-ev
ance
to b
oth
the
prob
lem
and
hyp
othe
ses
at h
and
and
to o
ther
pro
blem
s.
F.Id
entif
y co
nflic
ts o
r di
scre
panc
ies
inth
e da
ta.
G.
Dra
w te
ntat
ive
conc
lusi
ons.
Fl.
Avo
id o
verg
oner
aliz
ing
the
resu
lts:
1.W
ithho
ld ju
dgm
ent u
ntil
suff
icie
nt d
ata
is a
vaila
ble.
2.R
estr
ict i
nter
pret
atio
ns to
lim
itatio
ns o
fth
e hy
poth
eses
bei
ng te
sted
.3.
Res
tric
t int
erpr
etat
ions
to li
mita
tions
of
assu
mpt
ions
.4.
Res
tric
t int
erpr
etat
ions
to li
mita
tions
of
avai
labl
e ev
iden
ce.
The
stu
dent
will
:A
.R
elat
e fi
ndin
gs to
var
ied
pers
onal
inte
rest
s an
dto
the
wor
ld a
t lar
ge.
B.
Col
late
fin
ding
s an
d m
ake
inte
rpre
tatio
ns f
rom
seve
ral e
xper
imen
ts.
1111
1111
1111
1111
1111
1111
11M
ilmum
mim
moi
mm
imis
mis
mom
mig
inio
gim
um...
......
.___
_
Inqu
iry
Fact
ors
Rel
ated
Beh
avio
rs
C.
App
ly k
now
ledg
e ga
ined
to n
ew s
ituat
ions
.(A
pplic
atio
ns a
rc m
ade
in li
ght o
f lim
iting
assu
mpt
ions
and
con
ditio
ns.)
1.Pr
edic
t add
ition
al a
pplic
atio
ns.
2.Sp
ecul
ate
abou
t pot
entia
l app
licat
ions
.
3.M
ake
pred
ictio
ns th
at s
ugge
st n
ew r
e-se
arch
pro
blem
s.
4.D
eter
min
e th
e va
lidity
of
the
rela
tion-
ship
bet
wee
n te
ntat
ive
conc
lusi
ons
and
curr
ent t
heor
ies.
D.
Rec
ogni
ze n
ew p
robl
ems.
LId
entif
y ad
ditio
nal r
esea
rch
prob
lem
s.
2.D
esig
n ne
w in
vest
igat
ions
tote
stth
eva
lidity
of
scie
ntif
ic m
odel
s.
3.D
esig
n m
odif
ied
proc
edur
es f
or in
vest
i-ga
ting
the
sam
e pr
oble
m.
E.
Use
theo
ries
, the
oret
ical
con
stru
cts,
and
mod
-el
s as
a m
eans
of
rela
ting
and
orga
nizi
ng n
ewkn
owle
dge.
F.R
ecog
nize
that
evi
denc
e fo
r or
aga
inst
a g
iven
theo
ry m
ay b
e in
conc
lusi
ve.
G.
Rec
ogni
ze th
at a
theo
ry m
ay o
r m
ay n
ot 1
wte
stab
le a
t the
tim
e of
for
mul
atio
n.
H.
Rec
ogni
ze th
at s
ever
al th
eori
es m
ay b
e us
eful
,ea
ch o
ne m
akin
g a
uniq
ue c
ontr
ibut
ion.
CH
APT
ER
FO
UR
TO
WA
RD
S T
HE
USE
OF
BE
HA
VIO
RA
L O
BJE
CT
IVE
S T
OD
ESI
GN
IN
STR
UC
TIO
N A
ND
DE
VE
LO
P E
VA
LU
AT
ION
IN
STR
UM
EN
TS
The
bas
ic p
urpo
se o
f th
is c
hapt
er is
to d
emon
stra
te h
ow s
ampl
es o
f be
havi
oral
obj
ectiv
es f
or b
iolo
gy c
an b
e w
ritte
n an
d us
edw
ith a
dditi
onal
spe
cifi
city
. It i
s to
be
poin
ted
out t
hat t
he e
xam
ples
pre
sent
ed in
this
doc
umen
t are
exe
mpl
ary,
not
pre
scri
ptiv
e.T
he f
irst
sec
tion
prov
ides
sam
ples
of
how
the
obje
ctiv
es in
"M
ajor
Fac
tors
in I
nqui
ry"
and
"Gui
ding
Pri
ncip
les
of I
nqui
ry"
mig
htap
pear
if th
ey a
re to
be
used
by
teac
hers
or
supe
rvis
ors
to s
peci
fy c
lass
es o
f ac
cept
able
stu
dent
per
form
ance
. The
obj
ectiv
es w
ritte
n at
this
leve
l can
pro
vide
the
fram
ewor
k w
ithin
whi
ch te
ache
rs c
an s
et te
rmin
al c
rite
rion
per
form
ance
s fo
r sp
ecif
ic s
ubje
ct m
atte
r in
thei
row
n cl
assr
oom
situ
atio
ns.
The
sec
ond
sect
ion
prov
ides
sam
ples
of
inst
ruct
iona
l str
ateg
ics
plan
ned
to b
ring
abo
ut th
e de
sire
d be
havi
ors
in s
tude
nts,
plu
sex
ampl
es o
f th
e sp
ecif
ic b
ehav
ior
with
in th
e co
ntex
t of
the
stra
tegy
.
Add
ition
al S
peci
fici
ty f
or I
nqui
ry F
acto
rs (
Ant
eced
ent-
Con
sequ
ent M
ode)
and
Gui
ding
Pri
ncip
les
of I
nqui
ry(S
ymbo
ls in
par
enth
eses
ref
er to
the
obje
ctiv
e in
Cha
pter
s T
wo
and
Thr
ee f
rom
whi
ch th
ese
wer
e de
rive
d.)
Inqu
iry
Fact
ors
Acc
epta
ble
Stud
ent P
erfo
rman
ceI.
Prob
lem
for
mul
atio
n.A
.G
iven
a s
truc
ture
d or
ope
n si
tuat
ion,
the
stud
ent w
illC
omm
unic
ates
one
pro
blem
that
invo
lves
fin
ding
aid
entif
y at
leas
t one
dis
crep
ant e
vent
. (L
A; p
. 14)
caus
e.B
.G
iven
pro
blem
s w
hich
invo
lve
find
ing
caus
es, t
he s
tude
ntE
limin
ates
a p
robl
em o
n th
e cr
iteri
on th
at s
olut
ion
will
elim
inat
e th
ose
that
are
not
fea
sibl
e. (
I, B
, 2, a
; p. 1
5)is
unl
ikel
y w
ithin
the
pres
ent l
imits
of
man
's s
kills
.T
hese
idea
s m
ay b
e ex
pres
sed
inth
e st
uden
t'sla
ngua
ge.
C.
Giv
en p
robl
ems
whi
ch in
volv
e fi
ndin
g ca
uses
, the
stu
dent
Elim
inat
es a
pro
blem
on
the
crite
rion
that
sol
utio
nw
ill e
limin
ate
thos
e th
at a
re n
ot f
easi
ble.
(I,
B, 2
, b; p
. 15)
is u
nlik
ely
with
in th
e st
uden
t's p
rese
nt k
now
ledg
ean
d sk
ills.
The
se id
eas
may
be
expr
esse
d in
the
stud
ent's
lang
uage
.D
epen
ds o
n ex
istin
g lim
itatio
ns.
D.
Giv
en a
pro
blem
, the
stu
dent
will
red
efin
e it
with
in th
elim
its o
f av
aila
ble
time,
tool
s, a
nd o
bser
vatio
ns. (
I, B
, 2,
c; p
. 15)
E.
Giv
en in
stru
ctio
ns to
do
so, t
he s
tude
nt w
ill c
omm
unic
ate
to h
is te
ache
r th
e ex
tent
to w
hich
he
has
utili
zed
the
follo
win
g re
sour
ces
as a
ids
in s
elec
ting
a pr
oble
m:
teac
her
cons
ulta
tion,
text
, oth
er s
tude
nts,
oth
er r
e-so
urce
per
sons
, boo
ks, p
erio
dica
ls, a
nd r
esea
rch
repo
rts.
B, 1
; p. 1
4)
- 2
0 -
Indi
cate
s ex
tent
to w
hich
he
has
utili
zed
a pa
rtic
ular
reso
urce
. (E
, 1 th
roug
h E
, 7 b
elow
are
exa
mpl
es o
fth
is o
bjec
tive
elab
orat
ed f
or r
esea
rch
repo
rts.
)
Inqu
iry
Fact
ors
Acc
epta
ble
Stud
ent P
erfo
rman
ceFo
r R
esea
rch
Rep
ort U
tiliz
atio
n st
uden
t will
hav
e:
1.Id
entif
ied
sour
ces
auth
or, t
itle,
jour
nal,
etc.
(I,
B,
1, a
; p. 1
4)
2.A
naly
zed
the
basi
c pa
rts
of th
e re
sear
ch r
epor
ts,
e.g.
,pr
oble
m, h
ypot
hese
s, e
xper
imen
tal d
esig
n,da
ta c
olle
ctio
n pr
oced
ures
, kin
d(s)
of
data
col
lect
ed,
way
s of
org
aniz
ing
data
, int
erpr
etat
ions
and
/or
conc
lusi
ons,
and
ass
umpt
ions
whi
ch g
uide
d th
efo
rmul
atio
n of
the
prob
lem
and
inte
rpre
tatio
n of
data
. (I,
B, 1
, b; p
. 14)
(A
dditi
onal
ly, a
ll fu
rthe
rpa
rts
of c
ateg
ory
E a
re a
lso
an e
labo
ratio
n of
the
chap
ter
"Inq
uiry
into
Inq
uiry
", p
p. 3
8-43
)
3.A
naly
zed
the
rela
tions
hips
bet
wee
n th
e ba
sic
and
vari
ous
part
s of
rep
orts
suc
h as
:
a.D
ata
soug
ht a
nd th
e pr
oble
m.
b.In
terp
reta
tiiis
and
the
kind
s of
dat
a ob
tain
ed.
c.In
terp
reta
tions
' and
the
way
the
prob
lem
was
form
ulat
ed.
d.A
ssum
ptio
ns, i
mpl
icit
and
expl
icit,
mad
e by
the
rese
arch
er in
rel
atio
n to
the
prob
lem
,re
sear
ch d
esig
n, a
nd in
terp
reta
tions
.
4.D
escr
ibed
eac
h re
port
.
5.E
valu
ated
rep
orts
in th
e fo
llow
ing
way
s; h
e ha
s:
a.ju
dged
the
appr
opri
aten
ess
of th
e pr
oble
m a
ndits
for
mul
atio
n, g
iven
suc
h cr
iteri
a as
fea
sibi
lity
limita
tions
; tim
e an
d to
ol li
mita
tions
; res
earc
hba
ckgr
ound
of
the
auth
or; r
elat
ions
hip
of th
epr
oble
m to
dat
a so
ught
, and
ass
umpt
ions
, bot
him
plic
it an
d ex
plic
it.
- 21
-
Cita
tion
is s
peci
fic
enou
gh to
ena
ble
anot
her
pers
on to
fin
d th
e sa
me
refe
renc
e.
The
ana
lyze
d pa
rts
are
reco
gniz
able
as
entit
ies.
Lim
ited
by th
e nu
mbe
r an
d sc
ope
of b
asic
and
vari
ous
part
s pr
esen
t in
the
repo
rt a
naly
zed.
Sum
mar
y ab
stra
ct o
r tr
ansl
atio
n w
ritte
n by
stu
dent
as a
des
crip
tion
is a
com
preh
ensi
ve m
atch
with
the
orig
inal
.
Lim
ited
by s
tand
ards
to b
e se
t by
the
teac
her
for
the
spec
ific
rep
ort e
valu
ated
.
Inqu
iry
Fact
ors
b.Ju
dged
the
appr
opri
aten
ess
of th
e hy
poth
eses
,gi
ven
the
crite
rion
that
the
hypo
thes
es a
rcte
ntat
ive
solu
tions
to th
e pr
oble
m, a
nd h
e:
(1)
(2)
Mus
t ide
ntif
y cr
itica
l ele
men
ts.
Mus
t cle
arly
sta
te h
ypot
hese
s in
the
de-
duct
ive
sens
e.
(3)
Mus
t ins
ure
that
hyp
othe
ses
are
not
dupl
icat
es.
(4)
Mus
t ins
ure
that
hyp
othe
ses
arc
test
able
in th
at r
equi
red
data
can
be
colle
cted
and
will
sup
port
or
reje
ct th
e hy
poth
eses
,th
us c
ontr
ibut
ing
to s
olut
ion
of th
epr
oble
m. (
The
rea
der
is r
eadv
ised
that
all
part
s of
cat
egor
y E
are
ela
bora
tions
of
the
chap
ter
"Inq
uiry
into
Inq
uiry
",pp
. 38-
43.)
c.Ju
dged
the
appr
opri
aten
ess
of th
e re
sear
chde
sign
, giv
en th
e fo
llow
ing
crite
ria:
(1)
The
des
ign
mus
t be
able
to y
ield
dat
aw
hich
can
be
anal
yzed
.
(2)
The
des
ign
mus
t be
stru
ctur
ed to
test
for
supp
ort o
r re
ject
ion
of a
ll th
e hy
poth
eses
prop
osed
.
(3)
The
des
ign
mus
t mee
t the
res
earc
her's
assu
mpt
ions
, bot
h st
ated
and
impl
ied.
Judg
ed th
e ap
prop
riat
enes
s of
dat
a co
llect
ion
met
hods
giv
en th
e fo
llow
ing
crite
ria:
Acc
epta
ble
Stud
ent P
erfo
rman
ce
Dep
ends
on
the
hypo
thes
es u
nder
con
side
ratio
n.(I
n th
is a
nd o
ther
per
form
ance
s w
hich
dep
end
onst
atem
ents
of
spec
ific
s, it
is s
ugge
sted
that
, in
anob
ject
ive
test
ing
situ
atio
n, th
e st
uden
t will
be
able
to c
orre
ctly
ans
wer
an
item
con
sist
ing
of f
ive
choi
ces
with
one
bei
ng c
orre
ct.)
Lim
ited,
as
abov
e, b
y th
e sp
ecif
ic d
esig
n, d
ata
col-
lect
ion
met
hod(
s), e
tc. p
rovi
ded.
(A
pplie
s to
5 c
thro
ugh
6.)
Inqu
iry
Fact
ors
(1)
Met
hods
mus
t fit
the
type
of
data
colle
cted
.(2
)M
etho
ds m
ust h
ave
func
tione
d to
act
ually
colle
ct th
e da
ta s
ough
t.e.
Judg
ed th
e ap
prop
riat
enes
s of
met
hods
of
orga
nizi
ng d
ata,
giv
en th
e fo
llow
ing
crite
ria:
Met
hods
mus
t pre
sent
the
data
suc
h th
atin
fere
nces
dra
wn
from
the
data
rel
ate
toth
e hy
poth
eses
und
er e
xam
inat
ion.
Dat
a co
uld
not h
ave
been
org
aniz
ed in
anot
her
way
to g
reat
er f
acili
tate
infe
r-en
ces
abou
t the
hyp
othe
ses
unde
r ex
am-
inat
ion.
f.Ju
dged
the
appr
opri
aten
ess
of in
terp
reta
tions
and
conc
lusi
ons
in te
rms
of s
tate
d an
d im
plie
das
sum
ptio
ns, i
n an
d by
the
prob
lem
, hyp
oth-
eses
, res
earc
h de
sign
, dat
a co
llect
ion
met
hods
,an
d da
ta o
rgan
izat
ion
met
hods
.6.
Judg
ed c
oher
ence
of
the
who
le r
epor
t bas
edon
the
num
ber
of in
terl
ocki
ng r
elat
ions
hips
amon
g al
l of
the
part
s.7.
Eva
luat
ed r
epor
ts s
uch
that
ade
quac
y of
the
prob
-le
m is
judg
ed in
term
s of
oth
er p
ossi
ble
assu
mpt
ions
,pe
rtin
ent e
vide
nce,
and
met
hods
of
gath
erin
g da
ta.
8.E
valu
ated
rep
orts
so
that
the
impo
rtan
ce o
f th
ere
sear
ch is
judg
ed in
term
s of
its
sign
ific
ance
to th
est
uden
t, th
e po
litic
al a
nd s
ocia
l tim
es, a
nd th
epo
-te
ntia
l con
trib
utio
n to
sci
entif
ic k
now
ledg
e.F.
Giv
en a
pro
blem
, the
stu
dent
will
sta
te it
in r
esea
rch-
able
term
s. (
I, C
; p.,
15)
i
Acc
epta
ble
Stud
ent P
erfo
rman
ce
Ade
quac
y ha
s be
en ju
dged
in te
rms
ofso
me
othe
ras
sum
ptio
ns, p
ertin
ent e
vide
nce,
and
dat
a ga
ther
ing
met
hods
.
Impo
rtan
ce h
as b
een
judg
ed in
any
way
in te
rms
ofea
ch o
f th
e th
ree
crite
ria.
Com
mun
icat
es th
e el
emen
ts o
f th
e pr
oble
mon
whi
ch h
ypot
hese
s co
uld
be b
ased
.
Inqu
iry
Fact
ors
II.
Form
ulat
ing
hypo
thes
es.
A.
Giv
en a
pro
blem
of
a ca
use-
effe
ct n
atur
e., t
he s
tude
ntw
ill id
entif
y po
tent
ial i
ndep
ende
nt v
aria
bles
, and
com
-m
unic
ate
one
or m
ore
(fun
ctio
nally
sep
arat
e) h
ypot
hese
sw
hich
incl
ude
the
vari
able
in c
ontr
olla
ble
form
. The
stud
ent s
hall
incl
ude
evid
ence
that
the
hypo
thes
es a
reac
cept
ed a
s te
nabl
e an
d fr
uitf
ul. T
he h
ypot
hese
s sh
all
take
the
dedu
ctiv
e fo
rm. S
ee "
BSC
S In
vita
tion
toE
nqui
ry #
10."
(Sc
hwab
, 137
)1.
Giv
en a
pro
blem
sta
tem
ent i
n re
sear
chab
le te
rms,
the
stud
ent w
illlis
t any
fac
tors
whi
ch m
ay b
ere
late
d to
the
prob
lem
on
the
crite
rion
: "an
ythi
ngth
at c
omes
to m
ind.
" (I
I, A
; p. 1
5)2.
Giv
en a
list
of
fact
ors
said
to b
e po
ssib
ly r
elat
ed to
a ce
rtai
n pr
oble
m, t
he s
tude
ntw
ill o
rder
the
fact
ors
with
res
pect
to r
elev
ance
to th
e pr
oble
m: (
II, A
;p.
15)
3.G
iven
a p
robl
em s
tate
men
t in
rese
arch
able
term
s,th
e st
uden
t will
for
mul
ate
a hy
poth
esis
. (II
, A &
B;
p. 1
5)4.
Giv
en a
hyp
othe
sis,
the
stud
ent w
ill c
lari
fy it
.(I
I, C
; p. 1
5)
5.G
iven
a g
roup
of
hypo
thes
es d
eriv
ed f
rom
one
prob
lem
, the
stu
dent
will
elim
inat
e du
plic
atio
n.(I
I, C
, 1; p
. 15)
6.G
iven
a g
roup
of
hypo
thes
es (
as in
5),
the
stud
ent
will
com
mun
icat
e hi
s de
cisi
ons
as to
the
test
abili
tyan
d re
leva
nce.
(II
, C, 2
& 3
; p. 1
6)
- 24
-
Acc
epta
ble
Stud
ent P
erfo
rman
ce
Any
siz
e lis
t of
any
fact
ors
mor
e th
an o
ne.
Any
ord
er o
f fa
ctor
s on
the
crite
rion
that
som
e ar
em
ore
"cen
tral
," "
impo
rtan
t,""r
elat
ed,"
to th
epr
oble
m th
an o
ther
s, o
r so
me
othe
r re
ason
off
ered
by th
e st
uden
t.Id
entif
ies
pote
ntia
l ind
epen
dent
var
iabl
es.
The
impl
ied
inde
pend
ent v
aria
ble
or v
aria
bles
art
'co
ntro
llabl
e (s
tude
nt g
ives
exa
mpl
e of
at l
east
one
way
of
cont
rolli
ng).
Com
bine
s or
elim
inat
es h
ypot
hese
s so
that
ther
e is
no d
uplic
atio
n.
Ord
ers
the
grou
p of
hyp
othe
ses
on th
e ba
sis
of h
isju
dgm
ent o
f te
stab
ility
and
rel
evan
ce.
Inqu
iry
Fact
ors
III.
Des
igni
ng a
stu
dy.
A.
Giv
en a
pro
blem
, and
/or
hypo
thes
is(e
s), t
he s
tude
nt w
illco
mm
unic
ate
all t
he v
aria
bles
that
mig
ht o
pera
te d
urin
ga
test
of
the
hypo
thes
is(e
s). (
III,
A, 1
; p.
16)
B.
Giv
en a
pro
blem
and
hyp
othe
sis,
the
stud
ent w
ill c
om-
mun
icat
e th
e si
ngle
inde
pend
ent v
aria
ble
that
mus
t be
stud
ied
to te
st th
e hy
poth
esis
. (II
I, A
, 2; p
. 16)
C.
Giv
en a
pro
blem
, hyp
othe
ses,
and
list
of
all o
ther
oper
.,iit
vari
able
s, th
e st
uden
t will
com
mun
icat
e a
plan
to c
ontr
ol th
e in
depe
nden
t var
iabl
es. (
III,
A, 3
; p. 1
6)
D.
Giv
en in
stru
ctio
ns to
pre
pare
the
desi
gn o
f an
exp
eri-
men
t (ba
sed
on a
hyp
othe
sis
or h
is o
wn
or a
noth
er's
choi
ce)
that
cou
ld b
e ex
ecut
ed b
y ot
hers
in th
e sa
me
way
it w
as to
be
exec
uted
by
the
stud
ent
him
self
, the
stud
ent w
ill p
repa
re s
uch
a de
sign
. (II
I, B
, 1; p
. 16)
E.
Giv
en in
stru
ctio
ns to
do
so, t
he s
tude
nt w
ill p
rodu
ceev
iden
ce th
at h
e ha
s pl
anne
d fo
r sy
stem
atic
obs
erva
-tio
n of
des
crip
tive
data
. (II
I, B
, 2; p
. 16)
F.Pl
ans
proc
edur
es to
yie
ld w
ante
d da
ta:
1.G
iven
a s
ituat
ion
that
req
uire
s ga
ther
ing
data
, and
give
n fi
ve m
eans
of
diff
erin
g si
mpl
icity
for
gat
her-
ing
data
, the
stu
dent
will
sel
ect t
he s
ingl
e si
mpl
est
mea
ns. (
III,
C, 1
; p. 1
.6)
2.G
iven
dif
fere
nt s
ampl
es p
urpo
rted
to r
epre
sent
the
dist
ribu
tion
of a
giv
en d
ata
popu
latio
n, th
e st
uden
tw
ill s
elec
t the
one
mos
t rep
rese
ntat
ive
(Sam
ples
vary
in n
and
ran
dom
ness
.) (
III,
C, 2
a; p
.16
)
3.G
iven
inst
ruct
ions
to c
omm
unic
ate
the
corr
ect i
n-st
rum
ent a
nd/o
r te
chni
que
for
gath
erin
g a
give
n se
tof
dat
a, th
e st
uden
t will
so
com
mun
icat
e. (
III,
C,
2, b
; p. 1
6)
25
Acc
epta
ble
Stud
ent P
erfo
rtna
nce
Indi
cate
s at
leas
t one
var
iabl
e ot
her
than
tlw
inde
-pe
nden
t var
iabl
e un
der
stud
y.
Indi
cate
s as
a v
aria
ble
that
fac
tor
whi
ch is
man
i-pu
late
d in
the
dedu
ctiv
e st
atem
ent o
f th
e hy
poth
-es
is.
Incl
udes
for
eac
h in
depe
nden
t var
iabl
e a
situ
atio
nin
whi
ch it
is h
eld
cons
tant
and
a s
ituat
ion
in w
hich
it is
left
fre
e to
var
y.
Prep
ares
a d
esig
n th
at, w
hen
give
n to
oth
ers
with
-ou
t exe
cutio
n pl
ans,
can
yie
ld e
xecu
tion
plan
sid
entic
alto
thos
e in
tend
ed o
r pr
oduc
ed b
y th
est
uden
t.
Dis
play
s re
gula
rity
of
time
inte
rval
s fo
r m
easu
re-
men
t, is
con
stan
t in
skill
s of
tool
use
, is
cons
tant
inal
l are
as r
elat
ive
to d
escr
iptiv
e ob
serv
atio
n.
Sele
cts
the
"mea
ns"
judg
ed s
impl
est b
y th
e te
ache
r.
SCIe
etti
the
tiam
ple
judg
ed m
ost r
epre
sent
ativ
e by
the
teac
her.
Indi
cate
s in
stru
men
t and
/or
teeh
niqu
e ju
dged
cor
-re
ct b
y th
e te
ache
r.
Inqu
iry
Fact
ors
4.G
iven
inst
ruct
ions
to c
omm
unic
ate
a m
etho
d of
dete
rmin
ing
the
area
of
a fl
at f
ield
, the
stu
dent
will
,de
pend
ing
on r
egul
arity
of
the
peri
pher
y, c
om-
mun
icat
e ac
cept
able
met
hods
. (II
I, C
, 2, d
; p. 1
6)
Giv
en a
cyl
inde
r of
500
ml w
ater
fro
m a
lake
and
inst
ruct
ions
to d
eter
min
e its
vol
ume,
the
stud
ent
will
det
erm
ine
the
wat
er c
olum
n's
volu
me.
(II
I, C
,2,
d; p
. 16)
6.G
iven
a c
up o
f a
soil
of u
nkno
wn
dens
ity, a
gra
d-ua
ted
cylin
der,
and
a c
entig
ram
bal
ance
, the
stu
dent
will
com
mun
icat
e ac
cura
tely
the
dens
ity o
f th
esu
bsta
nce.
(II
I, C
, 2, d
; p. 1
6)
7.G
iven
an
obje
ct o
f un
know
n w
eigh
t, a
cent
igra
mba
lanc
e, a
nd th
e va
lue
of th
e fo
rce
of g
ravi
ty, t
hest
uden
t will
com
mun
icat
e th
e co
rrec
t wei
ght o
f th
eob
ject
. (II
I, C
, 2, d
; p. 1
6)
G.
Giv
en in
stru
ctio
ns to
sel
ect t
he m
ost a
ppro
pria
te m
athe
-m
atic
al o
pera
tion
in a
cer
tain
set
of
circ
umst
ance
s, th
est
uden
t will
so
sele
ct. (
III,
C, 2
, e; p
. 16)
H.
Giv
en te
chni
ques
and
/or
equi
pmen
t for
mea
suri
ng a
ndpr
oces
sing
dat
a in
an
expe
rim
enta
l stu
dy, a
nd g
iven
in-
form
atio
n th
at th
e eq
uipm
ent i
s in
accu
rate
to a
kno
wn
degr
ee a
bove
the
corr
ect f
igur
e, a
nd th
at s
he o
pera
tor
habi
tual
ly w
orks
with
in a
cer
tain
set
of
erro
r lim
its, t
hest
uden
t will
com
mun
icat
e th
at th
e te
chni
ques
and
/or
equi
pmen
t is
syst
emat
ical
ly in
err
or, a
nd th
e op
erat
orer
ror
is r
ando
m. (
III,
C, 3
, 4; p
p. 1
6 an
d 17
)
I.T
he s
tude
nt w
ill a
lso
com
mun
icat
e th
e ex
tent
to w
hich
he w
ill w
eigh
t or
calib
rate
the
syst
emat
ic e
rror
pro
duce
rto
acc
ount
for
its
erro
r. (
III,
C, 5
; p. 1
7)
Acc
epta
ble
Stud
ent P
erfo
rman
ce
Incl
udes
for
mul
ae f
or f
indi
ng c
ircu
lar,
rec
tang
ular
,an
d ir
regu
larl
y bo
rder
ed a
reas
(in
the
latte
r ca
seon
e of
sev
eral
map
ping
pro
cedu
res
coul
d be
use
dal
ong
with
a p
olar
or
hatc
het p
lani
met
er).
Stat
es v
olum
e to
+ 5
ml e
rror
.
Incl
udes
acc
urac
y to
±. .
5g /c
c.
Incl
udes
acc
urac
y to
±. .
1g.
Incl
udes
indi
catio
n of
an
oper
atio
n de
fine
d in
ad-
vanc
e by
the
teac
her
as m
ost a
ppro
pria
te f
or th
eci
rcum
stan
ces.
Such
a c
omm
unic
atio
n.
Incl
udes
cal
ibra
tion
+ 1
/2 o
f th
e lim
its o
f fl
uctu
atio
n.
Inqu
iry
Fact
ors
J.H
e w
ill o
r w
ill n
ot a
ccep
t the
wor
k of
the
oper
ator
,gi
ven
a po
pula
tion
of d
ata
gath
ered
by
the
oper
ator
repr
esen
ting
obse
rvat
ions
of
a si
ngle
mea
sure
, and
giv
ensi
mila
r m
ater
ial f
or f
our
othe
r op
erat
ors.
(II
I, C
, 5; p
. 17)
K.
Giv
en a
ded
uced
ant
eced
ent-
cons
eque
nt h
ypot
hesi
s, it
sex
peri
men
tal d
esig
n, a
nd th
e na
ture
of
data
to b
e co
l-le
cted
, the
stu
dent
will
com
mun
icat
e a
plan
for
pro
cess
-in
g co
llect
ed d
ata
so a
s to
pre
pare
it f
or in
terp
reta
tion.
(III
, D, 1
, 2 &
3; p
. 17)
IV.
Exe
cutin
g th
e pl
an o
f in
vest
igat
ion.
A.
Giv
en in
stru
ctio
ns to
exe
cute
a p
lan
whi
ch in
clud
esga
ther
ing
and
proc
essi
ng d
ata
from
a c
ontr
olle
d ex
peri
-m
ent,
the
stud
ent w
ill:
1.Pr
oduc
e ev
iden
ce th
at h
e is
gat
heri
ng a
nd p
roce
ssin
gda
ta a
ccor
ding
to th
c pl
an. (
IV, A
; p. 1
7)
2.U
se g
athe
ring
tech
niqu
es (
or in
stru
men
ts),
pro
cess
-in
g fo
rms,
and
sta
tistic
al p
roce
dure
s, in
acc
orda
nce
with
wha
teve
r cr
ror
cons
ider
atio
ns a
nd a
ssum
ptio
nsth
e te
chni
ques
(or
inst
rum
ents
), p
roce
ssin
g fo
rms,
and
stat
istic
al p
roce
dure
s m
ay h
ave,
to c
lari
fy th
eer
ror
cons
ider
atio
n ab
ove
for
data
col
lect
ion.
If
appl
icab
le, a
n er
ror
anal
ysis
will
be
used
to d
eter
-m
ine
if a
ctua
l crr
or is
with
in p
redi
cted
lim
its. I
fno
t app
licab
le, a
ccur
acy
will
be
dete
rmin
ed b
y th
ena
ture
of
the
prob
lem
as
inte
rpre
ted
by th
e te
ache
r.(I
V, B
; p. 1
7)
3.R
evie
w th
e te
chni
ques
(or
inst
rum
ents
) an
d pr
o-ce
dure
s by
indi
catin
g th
c ex
tent
to w
hich
eac
hfu
nctio
ned
as p
lann
ed d
urin
g ex
ecut
ion
of th
epl
an. (
IV, D
; p. 1
7)
Acc
epta
ble
Stud
ent P
erfo
rman
ce
Incl
udes
sel
ectio
n of
the
oper
ator
who
se d
istr
ibu-
tion
has
the
smal
lest
var
ianc
e, s
prea
d, o
r its
equ
iva-
lent
in th
e st
uden
t's o
wn
lang
uage
.
Form
ulat
es a
pla
n ut
ilizi
ng o
ne o
r m
ore
of th
efo
llow
ing
orga
niza
tiona
l for
ms:
gra
phs
(app
ropr
iate
to th
e da
ta),
cha
rts,
or
figu
res.
For
mul
ates
a p
lan
utili
zing
one
or
both
of
the
follo
win
g st
atis
tical
proc
edur
es: m
easu
rem
ent o
f ce
ntra
l ten
denc
ies,
Chi
-sq
uare
. Des
igns
a f
orm
at to
rec
ord
find
ings
or
sig-
nifi
cant
rel
atio
nshi
ps.
Incl
udes
a m
atch
of
gath
erin
g an
d pr
oces
sing
to th
epr
ovid
ed p
lan.
Con
tinge
nt u
pon
natu
re o
f sp
ecif
ic p
robl
em.
Incl
udes
suc
h de
mon
stra
tions
in th
e st
uden
t's id
iom
,w
ith s
peci
fic
acce
ptan
ce m
inim
a to
be
dete
rmin
edby
the
teac
her
for
a gi
ven
prob
lem
.
Inqu
iry
Fact
ors
V.
Inte
rpre
ting
the
data
or
find
ings
.
Giv
en p
roce
ssed
dat
a an
d a
syno
psis
of
the
prob
lem
, hyp
oth-
eses
, and
the
cont
rolle
d ex
peri
men
tal d
esig
n th
at p
rodu
ced
it, th
e st
uden
t will
:
A.
Cor
rect
ly id
entif
y th
e as
sum
ptio
ns o
f th
e st
udy.
(V
, A;
p. 1
7)
B.
Use
the
resu
lts o
f at
leas
t one
of
thre
e ot
her
stud
ies
pro-
vide
d to
inte
rpre
t the
dat
a or
fin
ding
s. (
V, B
; p. 1
7)
Indu
ctiv
e:
C.
Giv
en a
set
of
data
, com
mun
icat
e a
gene
raliz
atio
n.(V
, C, 2
; p. 1
8)
Ded
uctiv
e:
D.
Giv
en d
ata
and
a ge
nera
lizat
ion,
the
stud
ent w
ill s
olve
apr
oble
m u
sing
the
gene
raliz
atio
n. (
V, C
, 1; p
. 18)
E.
Use
at l
east
two
diff
eren
t mea
ns o
f pr
esen
ting
the
data
to b
ring
out
dif
fere
nt f
eatu
res
of th
e da
ta. (
V, D
; p. 1
8)F.
Giv
en th
at th
ere
is a
con
flic
t in
the
data
, com
mun
icat
eth
e pa
rtic
ular
con
flic
t. (V
, F; p
. 18)
G.
Whe
n in
stru
cted
to d
raw
con
clus
ions
fro
m d
ata,
kno
wn
by th
e te
ache
r to
be
insu
ffic
ient
, with
hold
judg
men
t unt
ilfu
rthe
r da
ta is
ava
ilabl
e. (
V, H
, 1; p
. 18)
H.
Will
sel
ect f
rom
a li
st th
e on
e in
terp
reta
tion
whi
ch is
limite
d to
the
rest
rict
ions
of
the
hypo
thes
es. (
V, H
, 2;
p. 1
8)
Acc
epta
ble
Stud
ent P
erfo
rman
ce
Iden
tifie
s at
leas
t thr
ee a
ssum
ptio
ns; o
ne e
ach
inar
eas
of: t
heor
etic
al, o
pera
tor
erro
r, in
stru
men
ter
ror.
Com
mun
icat
es th
e ex
tent
to w
hich
ano
ther
stu
dyw
as u
sed
to m
ake
a ju
dgm
ent o
f su
ppor
t or
lack
of
supp
ort o
f hy
poth
eses
by
the
new
dat
a or
fin
ding
s.
(Fro
m g
raph
ed d
ata)
sta
tes
a re
latio
nshi
p be
twee
ntw
o va
riab
les.
Thi
s m
ust b
e th
e ac
tual
rel
atio
nshi
pju
dged
cor
rect
by
the
teac
her.
(Fro
m a
sta
ted
rela
tions
hip
betw
een
two
vari
able
s)st
ates
the
beha
vior
of
one
vari
able
whe
n gi
ven
the
beha
vior
of
the
othe
r. A
ccur
acy
spec
ific
to p
robl
emin
volv
ed.
Pres
ents
dat
a tw
o di
ffer
ent w
ays
judg
ed a
ccep
tabl
ew
hen
aske
d to
do
so b
y th
e te
ache
r.In
clud
es a
sta
tem
ent,
in th
e st
uden
t's o
wn
wor
ds, o
fth
e co
nflic
t sou
ght b
y th
e te
ache
r.W
ithho
lds
judg
men
t.
Sele
cts
the
one
judg
ed c
orre
ct b
y th
e te
ache
r.
Inqu
iry
Fact
ors
I.W
ill s
elec
t fro
m a
list
the
one
inte
rpre
tatio
n w
hich
islim
ited
to th
e re
stri
ctio
ns o
f as
sum
ptio
ns a
vaila
ble.
(V, H
, 3; p
. 18)
Will
sel
ect f
rom
a li
st th
e on
e in
terp
reta
tion
whi
ch is
limite
d to
the
rest
rict
ions
of
evid
ence
ava
ilabl
e. (
V, H
, 4;
p. 1
8)
VI.
Synt
hesi
zing
kno
wle
dge
gain
ed f
rom
the
inve
stig
atio
n.
A.
Giv
en li
mite
d an
tece
dent
-con
sequ
ent c
oncl
usio
ns, s
up-
port
ing
data
, and
oth
er e
xper
imen
tal
repo
rts,
the
stud
ent w
ill d
emon
stra
te th
at h
e ha
s co
mpa
red
thes
eda
ta a
nd c
oncl
usio
ns w
ith d
ata
and
conc
lusi
ons
ofsi
mila
r an
d/or
rep
licat
e st
udie
s. (
VI,
B; p
. 18)
B.
Giv
en li
mite
d an
tece
dent
-con
sequ
ent c
oncl
usio
ns, s
up-
port
ing
data
, and
com
preh
ensi
ve k
now
ledg
e of
mat
chof
one
stu
dy's
dat
a an
d co
nclu
sion
s to
sim
ilar
and/
orre
plic
ate
stud
ies,
the
stud
ent w
ill li
st a
pplic
atio
ns o
fth
is s
tudy
. (V
I, C
; p. 1
9)
C.
Giv
en li
mite
d an
tece
dent
-con
sequ
ent c
oncl
usio
ns, s
up-
port
ing
data
, com
preh
ensi
ve k
now
ledg
e of
mat
ch o
fon
e st
udy'
s da
ta a
ndco
nclu
sion
s to
sim
ilar
and/
orre
plic
ate
stud
ies,
and
inst
ruct
ions
to r
esol
ve a
new
and
rela
ted
prob
lem
, the
stu
dent
will
pre
dict
the
natu
reof
the
new
pro
blem
's s
olut
ion.
(V
I, C
, 1; p
. 19)
D.
Giv
en a
rep
ort o
f a
rese
arch
stu
dy, i
nclu
ding
tent
a-tiv
e co
nclu
sion
s, a
nd g
iven
cur
rent
theo
ries
that
see
k to
acco
unt f
or s
uch
phen
omen
a as
wer
e co
nsid
ered
pro
b-le
mat
ic in
the
stud
y, th
e st
uden
t will
com
mun
icat
e th
atth
e co
nclu
sion
s ar
e (a
re n
ot)
valid
ly r
elat
ed, i
.e. a
c-co
unte
d fo
r, n
ot c
ontr
adic
tory
to th
e cu
rren
t the
orie
s.(V
I, C
, 4; p
. 19)
J.
Acc
epta
ble
Stud
ent P
erfo
rman
ce
Sele
cts
the
one
judg
ed c
orre
ct b
y th
e te
ache
r.
Sele
cts
the
one
judg
ed c
orre
ct b
y th
e te
ache
r.
Incl
udes
a c
ompr
ehen
sive
com
mun
icat
ion
of s
imi-
lari
ties
and
diff
eren
ces
as th
ey a
ctua
lly e
xist
.
Lis
ts a
t lea
st tw
o ap
plic
atio
ns w
here
app
licat
ions
are
poss
ible
as
defi
ned
by th
e te
ache
r.
Incl
udes
any
app
licat
ion
of th
e lim
ited
conc
lusi
ons
of th
e st
udie
s gi
ven
orig
inal
ly a
nd in
sim
ilar
orre
plic
ate
stud
ies.
Dep
ends
, for
a p
ositi
ve o
r ne
gativ
e an
swer
, on
the
prob
lem
and
theo
ries
giv
en.
Inqu
iry
Fact
ors
E.
Giv
en a
rep
ort a
s ab
ove,
its
find
ings
, and
a li
st o
f "e
very
-da
y" o
ccur
renc
es o
r ad
oles
cent
inte
rest
s, th
e st
uden
tw
ill s
elec
t the
occ
urre
nce
or in
tere
st m
ost c
lose
ly r
elat
edto
the
find
ings
. (Id
eally
this
obj
ectiv
e w
ould
be
mea
s-ur
ed u
nobt
rusi
vely
rat
her
than
thro
ugh-
an
obje
ctiv
ete
st it
em.)
(V
I, A
; p. 1
8)
F.G
iven
(as
abo
ve),
the
stud
ent w
ill id
entif
y at
leas
t one
new
pro
blem
in w
hich
a c
ause
of
som
eph
enom
enon
is n
ot k
now
n. (
VI,
D, 1
; p. 1
9)
G.
Giv
en a
theo
retic
al m
odel
, the
stu
dent
will
com
mun
i-ca
te a
n ex
peri
men
tal p
roce
dure
des
igne
d to
pro
duce
data
whi
ch w
ill (
thro
ugh
inte
rpre
tatio
n) s
uppo
rt, f
ail t
osu
ppor
t, or
con
trad
ict t
he th
eore
tical
mod
el. (
VI,
D, 2
;p.
19)
H.
Giv
en a
pro
blem
whi
ch h
e ha
s al
read
y st
udie
d an
d co
n-cl
uded
abo
ut, t
he s
tude
nt w
ill c
omm
unic
ate
a m
odif
ied
proc
edur
e fo
r re
inve
stig
atin
g it.
(V
I, D
, 3; p
. 19)
I.G
iven
a li
st o
f th
eori
es a
nd a
new
pro
blem
with
rel
ated
obse
rvat
iona
l dat
a, th
e st
uden
t will
sel
ect t
he th
eory
whi
ch b
est r
elat
es o
r or
gani
zes
the
data
per
tain
ing
to th
ene
w p
robl
em. (
VI,
E; p
. 19)
Giv
en a
set
of
inco
nclu
sive
evi
denc
e fo
r or
aga
inst
ath
eory
, the
stu
dent
will
cat
egor
ize
the
new
evi
denc
e as
inco
nclu
sive
. (V
I, F
; p. 1
9)
K.
Giv
en in
stru
ctio
ns to
test
a th
eory
of
life
on o
ther
plan
ets,
the
stud
ent w
ill c
omm
unic
ate
that
we
are
not
capa
ble
at th
is ti
me
of te
stin
g th
is th
eory
. (V
I, G
; p.1
9)L
.G
iven
sev
eral
dif
fere
nt th
eori
es th
at a
ccou
nt f
or a
cer
tain
phen
omen
on a
nd f
aced
with
the
nece
ssity
to e
xpla
in th
eph
enom
enon
, the
stu
dent
will
sel
ect t
he m
ost a
ppro
-pr
iate
of
the
seve
ral t
heor
ies.
Add
ition
ally
, the
stu
dent
J.
Acc
epta
ble
Stud
ent P
erfo
rman
ce
Is p
robl
em s
peci
fic
as a
bove
.
Incl
udes
a p
robl
em d
efin
ed f
rom
the
sam
e ge
nera
lar
ea a
s th
e gi
ven
prob
lem
s, a
nd w
hich
wou
ld n
otha
ve b
een
reco
gniz
able
had
not
the
prev
ious
stu
dies
been
und
erta
ken.
Dep
ends
on
stru
ctur
es a
nd d
esig
ns g
iven
by
teac
her
and
stud
ents
. Dat
a m
ust b
e ab
le to
sup
port
, fai
l, or
cont
radi
ct.
Com
mun
icat
es a
t lea
st o
ne s
uch
proc
edur
e (m
ust
be n
ot id
entic
al to
ori
gina
l).
Sele
cts
the
one
theo
ry th
at w
ill f
rom
a li
st o
f fi
ve.
Mar
ks "
inco
nclu
sive
" th
e on
e su
ch s
et o
f ev
iden
cefr
om a
tota
l of
thre
e se
ts, t
wo
of w
hich
are
con
-cl
usiv
e as
judg
ed b
y th
e te
ache
r.
Incl
udes
suc
h a
stat
emen
t in
the
stud
ents
ow
nw
ords
.
Sele
ctio
ns a
nd s
tate
men
ts (
in h
is o
wn
wor
ds)
assu
ch. (
Giv
en w
ide
vari
ance
in a
ppro
pria
tene
ss o
fth
eori
es p
rovi
ded.
)
i
Inqu
iry
Fact
ors
will
com
mun
icat
e th
at n
eith
er th
eory
is b
road
ly "
mos
tco
rrec
t," b
ut r
athe
r ea
ch f
unct
ions
as a
use
ful t
ool i
nin
stan
ces
whe
re th
e ot
her(
s) d
o no
t. (V
I, H
; p. 1
9)V
II.
Dif
fere
ntia
tion
of th
e va
riou
s pr
inci
ples
of
inqu
iry.
(Par
-en
thet
ical
ref
eren
ces
are
for
the'
chap
ter
"Gui
ding
Pri
ncip
les
of I
nqui
ry: R
ecog
nitio
n an
d D
iffe
rent
iatio
n.")
Prin
cipl
es o
f In
quir
yA
.G
iven
exa
mpl
es o
f th
e va
riou
s pr
inci
ples
of
inqu
iry,
the
stud
ent w
ill s
elec
t the
exa
mpl
e w
hich
is a
ntec
eden
t-co
nseq
uent
, lab
el it
as
such
, and
sep
arat
e th
is p
artic
ular
stud
y fr
om th
e ot
hers
by
listin
g its
dif
fere
nces
and
by
stat
ing
that
it in
volv
es f
indi
ngca
uses
of
effe
cts.
(II
; p. 6
)B
.G
iven
a p
robl
em w
hich
invo
lves
fin
ding
a ca
use,
the
stud
ent w
ill s
tate
whi
ch p
rinc
iple
of
inqu
iry
is a
p-pr
opri
ate.
(C
hapt
er T
wo,
Int
rodu
ctio
n;p.
5)
C.
Giv
en a
com
plet
ed s
tudy
inon
e pr
inci
ple,
thc
stud
ent
will
list
cha
nges
whi
ch w
ould
app
ly th
roug
hout
the
stud
y if
a d
iffe
rent
pri
ncip
le o
f in
quir
yw
ere
used
.(C
hapt
er T
wo
Intr
oduc
tion;
p. 5
)
Acc
epta
ble
Stud
ent P
erfo
rman
ce
Incl
udes
suc
h be
havi
ors
com
mun
icat
ed in
the
stud
ent's
ow
n w
ords
.
Incl
udes
a c
ompr
ehen
sive
and
ope
ratio
nal
com
-m
unic
atio
n of
the
ante
cede
nt-c
onse
quen
t pri
ncip
le,
inth
e st
uden
t's id
iom
, whi
ch is
func
tiona
llyid
entic
al to
the
form
al d
efin
ition
.
Dep
ends
on
prin
cipl
e-ch
ange
and
pro
blem
area
.E
xam
ple
belo
w:
In c
hang
ing
from
a ca
use-
effe
ct s
tudy
to a
taxo
nom
ic s
tudy
, ope
ratio
ns w
ould
ceas
e w
ithcl
assi
fica
tion
of d
ata
into
cat
egor
ies.
The
clas
sifi
catio
n w
ould
be
the
end
in a
nd o
fit-
self
, with
lite
ratu
re r
evie
ws
dire
cted
at r
efin
ing
colle
ctio
n m
etho
dsor
sup
port
ing
use
of a
taxo
nom
ic s
chem
e. A
cha
nge
from
thc
tax-
onom
ic to
the
ante
cede
nt-c
onse
quen
t pri
ncip
leis
not
like
ly w
ithou
t ref
orm
ulat
ion
ofth
epr
oble
m it
self
.
Sam
ples
of
Inst
ruct
iona
lStr
ateg
ies
to B
ring
abo
utD
esir
ed B
ehav
ior.
The
pag
e nu
mbe
rs b
elow
, as
in th
e pr
evio
us c
hapt
er,
refe
r ba
ck to
Cha
pter
s T
wo
and
Thr
ee. O
nly
the
last
ent
ryin
this
sec
tion
refe
rs to
Cha
pter
Tw
o.)
I.Fo
rmul
atin
g a
prob
lem
.(I
, A; p
. 14)
The
teac
her
mig
ht p
rese
ntB
SCS
"Inv
itatio
n to
Enq
uiry
#10"
(Sc
hwab
, 137
) to
cla
ssin
suc
h a
way
as
to g
ive
raw
info
rmat
ion
abou
t sic
knes
s oc
curr
ing,
ceas
ing,
and
reo
ccur
ring
upo
nm
ovin
g to
Bou
lder
, to
Chi
cago
,and
bac
k to
Bou
lder
. Sat
isfa
ctio
nof
this
obje
ctiv
e w
ould
be
evid
ent
whe
n a
maj
ority
of
stud
ents
or
team
s fo
rmed
a c
ausa
lpro
blem
suc
h as
:
"Wha
t cau
sed
the
sick
ness
inB
ould
er?"
or:
"Wha
t was
in B
ould
er th
atm
ade
them
sic
k?"
or:
"Cou
ld s
omet
hing
pre
sent
inC
hica
go, b
ut n
ot in
Bou
lder
,be
res
pons
ible
for
thei
rsi
ckne
ss?"
II.
Form
ulat
ing
hypo
thes
es.
(II,
3; p
. 16)
The
cla
ss if
fac
ed w
ith a
prob
lem
rel
atin
g to
"In
vita
tion
toE
nqui
ry #
10":
"W
hat c
ause
dth
e si
ckne
ss in
Bou
lder
?" T
hete
ache
r
mig
ht le
ad th
em to
sug
gest
poss
ible
cau
ses
and
to p
hras
eth
eir
stat
emen
ts a
bout
cau
sein
a d
educ
tive
mod
e: I
f...,
then
.... A
ccep
t-
able
stu
dent
per
form
ance
wou
ld b
e re
ache
d w
hen
alli
ndiv
idua
ls o
r te
ams
gene
rate
atl
east
one
suc
h st
atem
ent i
n w
hich
man
ipu-
latio
n of
som
e po
tent
ial i
ndep
ende
ntva
riab
le is
sug
gest
ed. E
xam
ple:
For
polle
n al
lerg
y as
apo
ssib
le c
ause
: "If
we
wea
r po
llen
filte
ring
mas
ks w
hile
in B
ould
er,
then
we
shou
ld n
ot g
et s
ick.
"
III.
Des
igni
ng a
stu
dy.
(III
, C; p
. 16)
The
cla
ss h
as a
ccep
ted
the
prob
lem
: "W
hat i
s th
e ro
le o
f th
ela
tera
l lin
e sy
stem
in f
ish?
" A
nhy
poth
esis
, tha
t the
late
ral l
ine
sys-
tem
is a
ligh
t-se
nsor
y sy
stem
,ha
s be
en s
elec
ted
as a
pos
sibl
eex
plan
atio
n. T
he te
ache
r ha
s le
adth
e cl
ass
to f
orm
this
hyp
othe
sis
in th
e de
duct
ive
sens
e: I
f w
ein
terf
ere
with
the
abili
ty o
f th
is s
yste
m to
rece
ive
light
, the
n th
e be
havi
orof
the
fish
will
be
affe
cted
.
The
cla
ss h
as a
lso
been
exp
osed
thro
ugh
disc
ussi
on to
the
pote
ntia
l inf
luen
ce o
f ot
her
fact
ors,
such
as
soun
d an
d te
mpe
ratu
re,
as p
ossi
ble
stim
uli t
o th
e la
tera
l lin
e sy
stem
.T
he te
ache
r su
gges
ts th
at th
eyde
sign
a c
ontr
olle
d ex
peri
men
t whi
chw
ill te
st th
eir
hypo
thes
is. E
vide
nce
of a
ttain
men
t of
this
obj
ectiv
e w
ould
be
prod
uctio
n by
eac
h te
am o
r in
divi
dual
of a
des
ign
whi
ch in
terf
eres
with
the
abili
ty o
f th
e la
tera
llin
e sy
stem
to r
ecei
ve li
ght w
hile
enab
ling
it to
rec
eive
sou
nd a
nd b
eex
pose
d to
dif
fere
nt te
mpe
ra-
ture
s.
IV.
Exe
cutin
g th
e pl
an o
f in
vest
igat
ion.
(IV
, A, B
and
C; p
. 17)
The
cla
ss h
as ju
st s
tart
ed to
perf
orm
a la
bora
tory
act
ivity
whi
chre
quir
es ti
trat
ion
and
spec
ific
calc
ulat
ion
in o
rder
to b
e ab
le to
- 32
-
reco
rd n
umbe
r of
mill
imol
esof
exh
aled
CO
2. T
he te
ache
r m
oves
am
ong
the
team
s or
indi
vidu
als
as th
eyw
ork.
She
che
cks
whe
ther
or
not t
he p
hysi
cal
man
ipul
atio
ns a
nd m
athe
mat
ical
calc
ulat
ions
are
bei
ng p
erfo
rmed
acco
rdin
g to
the
plan
pro
vide
d in
the
labo
rato
ry g
uide
. Evi
denc
e of
succ
essf
ul p
erfo
rman
ce is
man
ipul
atio
nan
d ca
lcul
atio
n ex
actly
as
calle
dfo
r in
the
plan
.
V.
Inte
rpre
ting
the
data
or
find
ings
.(V
, C, 2
, Ind
uctio
n; p
. 18)
The
stu
dent
s, in
team
s or
as
indi
vidu
als,
are
sho
wn
a gr
aph
whi
chre
late
s fr
eque
ncy
of c
hrom
osom
ebr
eaka
ge to
uv
A f
or m
aze.
The
teac
her
sam
ples
und
erst
andi
ngan
d ex
plai
ns w
here
nee
ded
until
all
com
preh
end
that
the
rela
tions
hip
betw
een
the
vari
able
s
is e
xpre
ssed
by
the
plot
ted
poin
ts.
The
teac
her
then
sho
ws
the
clas
sth
e ab
sorp
tion
spec
tra
(sam
plin
gan
d ex
plai
ning
to a
ssur
e
com
preh
ensi
on th
is f
ar)
of a
cer
tain
nucl
eic
acid
, and
two
or th
ree
othe
rm
ater
ials
for
uv
ener
gy. S
he in
vite
sdi
scus
sion
, by
the
who
le c
lass
or
with
in te
ams,
of
the
poss
ible
rel
atio
nshi
p be
twee
n th
e fi
rst
and
seco
nd s
how
ings
with
res
pect
toth
e na
ture
of
chro
mos
omes
. The
ens
uing
dis
cuss
ion
prod
uces
evi
denc
e of
atta
inm
ent o
fth
is o
bjec
tive
if th
e in
fere
nce
is m
ade
from
the
curv
es
that
chr
omos
omes
mig
ht b
e m
ade
ofnu
clei
c ac
id.
(V, C
, 1, D
educ
tion;
p. 1
8)G
iven
the
abov
e in
trod
uctio
n an
dco
ntin
uing
with
the
sam
e to
pic
the
teac
her
asks
, "W
hich
of
seve
ral u
vfr
eque
ncie
s w
ould
be
mos
t lik
ely
to b
reak
a s
tran
dof
nuc
leic
aci
d?"
Succ
essf
ul p
erfo
rman
ceis
atta
ined
whe
n st
uden
ts s
elec
t fre
quen
cies
com
mon
to
the
chro
mos
ome
brea
kage
gra
ph a
ndnu
clei
c ac
id a
bsor
ptio
n gr
aph
(or,
mor
esi
mpl
y, a
ny f
requ
ency
rep
rese
nted
at a
peak
on
the
chro
mos
ome
brea
kage
gra
ph)
as o
nly
this
info
rmat
ion
is n
eede
d, o
nce
the
V, C
, 2re
latio
nshi
p ab
ove
is a
ccep
ted,
to s
tron
gly
infe
r th
e co
rrec
t fre
quen
cy f
or b
reak
age
of n
ucle
ic a
cid.
VI.
Synt
hesi
zing
kno
wle
dge
gain
ed f
rom
the
inve
stig
atio
n.
(VI
A, B
, C, &
E; p
p. 1
8-19
)T
he c
lass
has
stu
died
Men
del's
and
Sut
ton'
sw
ork
and
has
an u
nder
stan
ding
of
(a)
Men
del's
con
clus
ion
that
ger
m-c
ells
in r
espe
ct
to e
ach
char
acte
r ar
e pu
re, a
ndth
at th
ese
char
acte
rs a
re tr
ansm
itted
inde
pend
ently
, and
(b)
Sut
ton'
s ob
serv
atio
nsof
chr
omo-
som
e be
havi
or d
urin
gge
rm-c
ell d
ivis
ion.
Dur
ing
an o
pen
disc
ussi
on o
fth
ese
pape
rs, t
he s
tude
nt ta
n sh
ow th
ere
latio
nshi
p be
-
twee
n th
ese
find
ings
, thu
s in
dica
ting
atta
inm
ent o
f th
is o
bjec
tive,
by
desc
ribi
ngth
e pa
ralle
l bet
wee
n pu
rity
and
inde
pend
ent
tran
smis
sion
of
here
dita
ry f
acto
rs a
nd th
est
ruct
ural
inte
grity
and
inde
pend
ent a
ssor
tmen
tof
chr
omos
omes
.
Dif
fere
ntia
ting
the
vari
ous
prin
cipl
es o
f in
quir
y.(G
uidi
ng P
rinc
iple
s of
Inq
uiry
, II;
p. 5
)T
he c
lass
has
stu
died
Men
del's
pap
er,"
Exp
erim
ents
in P
lant
Hyb
ridi
satio
n."
The
stud
ents
can
rec
ogni
ze th
at th
e fi
rst p
art o
f th
e
stud
y w
as in
the
taxo
nom
ic m
ode,
that
the
seco
nd p
art(
"The
Rep
rodu
ctiv
e C
ells
of
the
Hyb
rids
") is
in th
ean
tece
dent
-con
sequ
ent
mod
e, a
nd c
an d
escr
ibe
the
diff
eren
ces
inpr
oble
m-f
orm
ulat
ion
and
expe
rim
enta
l des
ign
of th
e tw
o pa
rts
whi
ch ju
stif
y th
e
dist
inct
ion
betw
een
the
two
mod
es. D
urin
g a
disc
ussi
onof
Men
del's
pap
er a
imed
at d
iffe
rent
iatin
g th
egu
idin
g pr
inci
ples
of
inqu
iry,
the
obje
ctiv
e (t
o di
ffer
entia
te)
will
hav
ebe
en o
btai
ned
if e
ach
team
of
stud
ents
diff
eren
tiate
s as
abo
ve f
or e
ach
part
of
the
pape
r.
VII
.
- 33
-
CH
APT
ER
FIV
E
AFF
EC
TIV
E O
R A
TT
ITU
DIN
AL
QU
AL
ITIE
S O
F IN
QU
IRY
BE
HA
VIO
RS
Am
ong
beha
vior
s im
port
ant t
o su
cces
s at
inqu
iry
are
thos
e so
met
imes
term
ed a
ffec
tive
or a
ttitu
dina
l. A
lthou
gh a
vari
ety
of th
ese
beha
vior
s se
em to
per
vade
the
entir
e in
quir
y pr
oces
s, n
oco
nsis
tent
met
hod
of id
entif
ying
, des
crib
ing,
or
mea
suri
ngth
eir
exte
nt is
now
ava
ilabl
e. T
heir
impo
rtan
ce, h
owev
er, i
s no
t to
be n
egat
ed o
r m
inim
ized
. As
mor
eis
kno
wn
abou
t the
m, t
hey
will
be
acco
rded
mor
e sp
ecif
ican
d de
taile
d at
tent
ion
and
trea
tmen
t. St
eine
r(1
56)
has
rece
ntly
ope
ratio
naliz
ed a
nd m
easu
red
som
e of
thes
eob
ject
ives
.
Man
y of
thes
e be
havi
ors
are
diff
icul
t to
iden
tify
beca
use
nove
rifi
able
psy
chom
otor
res
pons
e ca
n be
ass
ocia
ted
with
them
. Yet
,
cert
ain
obse
rvab
le b
ehav
iors
may
rea
sona
bly
be ta
ken
as in
dica
tive
of a
ffec
t or
as e
xpre
ssio
ns o
f at
titud
e. T
o th
at e
xten
t, a
sam
plin
g
of th
ose
beha
vior
s ha
s be
en in
clud
ed h
ere
asde
sira
ble
obje
ctiv
es o
f th
e in
quir
y ex
peri
ence
.
No
atte
mpt
has
bee
n m
ade
to b
e al
l inc
lusi
ve, t
o pr
escr
ibe
sequ
ence
, or
toas
soci
ate
thes
e be
havi
ors
with
par
ticul
ar a
ctiv
ities
. It
is a
ssum
ed th
at s
tude
nts
will
dem
onst
rate
thes
ean
d ot
her
desi
rabl
e be
havi
ors
to v
aryi
ng d
egre
es a
t the
beg
inni
ng o
f th
e co
urse
and
will
app
ly a
nd b
uild
on
them
thro
ugho
ut th
eir
inqu
iry
expe
rien
ce. I
t is
furt
her
assu
med
that
the
stud
ent p
erce
ives
his
rol
e in
the
in-
quir
y pr
oces
s as
one
of
a vo
lunt
ary
activ
e pa
rtic
ipan
t rat
her
than
a p
assi
ve r
ecep
tor.
Atti
tude
or
Qua
lity
I.C
urio
sity
.
II.
Ope
nnes
s.
Rel
ated
Obs
erva
ble
Beh
avio
r
The
Stu
dent
:A
.E
xpre
sses
a d
esir
e to
inve
stig
ate
new
thin
gs o
rid
eas.
B.
Exp
ress
es a
des
ire
for
addi
tiona
l inf
orm
atio
n.
C.
Ask
s fo
r ev
iden
ce to
sup
port
con
clus
ions
mad
efr
om s
cien
tific
mat
eria
ls.
D.
Exp
ress
es in
tere
st in
sci
entif
ic is
sues
in th
epu
blic
dom
ain.
E.
Exp
ress
es a
des
ire
for
expl
anat
ions
.
The
Stu
dent
:A
.D
emon
stra
tes
will
ingn
ess
to s
ubje
ct d
ata
and/
orop
inio
ns to
cri
ticis
m a
nd e
valu
atio
n by
oth
ers.
B.
Seek
s an
d co
nsid
ers
new
evi
denc
e.
C.
Exp
ress
es th
e re
aliz
atio
n th
at k
now
ledg
e is
inco
mpl
ete.
D.
Exp
ress
es k
now
ledg
e of
the
tent
ativ
e na
ture
of c
oncl
usio
ns a
s pr
oduc
ts o
f sc
ienc
e.
- 34
-
Atti
tude
or
Qua
lity
Rel
ated
Obs
erva
ble
Beh
avio
r
III.
Rea
lity
orie
ntat
ion.
The
Stu
dent
:A
.D
emon
stra
tes
know
ledg
e an
d ac
cept
ance
of
his
limita
tions
.
B.
Exp
ress
es a
war
enes
s th
at c
hang
e is
the
rule
rath
er th
an th
e ex
cept
ion.
C.
Exp
ress
es a
war
enes
s of
sev
eral
sou
rces
of
know
ledg
e.
D.
Exp
ress
es a
war
enes
s of
the
falli
bilit
y of
hum
anef
fort
.E
.E
xpre
sses
bel
ief
in s
cien
ce a
s a
mea
ns o
fin
flue
ncin
g th
e en
viro
nmen
t.F.
Doe
s no
t alte
r hi
s da
ta.
.:
G.
Dem
onst
rate
s th
e re
aliz
atio
n th
at r
esea
rch
insc
ienc
e re
quir
es h
ard
wor
k.H
.D
emon
stra
tes
awar
enes
s of
the
limita
tions
of
pres
ent k
now
ledg
e.
I.E
xpre
sses
aw
aren
ess
of th
e hi
stor
ic d
evel
op-
men
t of
patte
rns
of in
quir
y an
d of
the
proc
esse
san
d ch
arac
teri
stic
s of
sci
ence
.
J.D
emon
stra
tes
belie
f th
at th
e se
arch
for
de-
sira
ble
nove
lty s
houl
d be
tem
pere
d by
aw
are-
ness
and
und
erst
andi
ng o
f tr
aditi
onal
con
cept
s.
IV.
Ris
k-ta
king
.T
he S
tude
nt:
A.
Will
ingl
y su
bjec
ts h
imse
lf to
pos
sibl
e cr
itici
sman
d/or
fai
lure
.
B.
Exp
ress
es h
is o
pini
ons,
fee
lings
, or
criti
cism
sre
gard
less
of
the
pres
ence
of
auth
ority
.
C.
Part
icip
ates
fre
ely
in c
lass
dis
cuss
ions
.
D.
Indi
cate
s a
will
ingn
ess
to tr
y ne
w a
ppro
ache
s.
V.
Obj
ectiv
ity.
The
Stu
dent
:A
.In
dica
tes
a pr
efer
ence
for
sta
tem
ents
sup
-po
rted
by
evid
ence
ove
r un
supp
orte
d op
inio
n.
Atti
tude
or
Qua
lity
VI.
Prec
isio
n.
VII
.C
onfi
denc
e.
VII
I.Pe
rsev
eran
ce.
IX.
Satis
fact
ion.
X.
Res
pect
for
theo
retic
al s
truc
ture
s.
The
Stu
dent
:
The
Stu
dent
:
The
Stu
dent
:
The
Stu
dent
:
The
Stu
dent
:
- 36
-
Rel
ated
Obs
erva
ble
Beh
avio
rs
B.
Indi
cate
s a
pref
eren
ce f
or s
cien
tific
gen
eral
iza-
tions
that
hav
e w
ithst
ood
the
test
of
criti
cal
revi
ew.
A.
Indi
cate
s a
pref
eren
ce f
or c
oher
ent s
tate
men
ts.
B.
Seek
s de
fini
tions
of
impo
rtan
t wor
ds.
C.
Dem
onst
rate
s se
nsiti
vity
to th
e ap
prop
riat
e-ne
ss o
f ge
nera
l and
/or
spec
ific
sta
tem
ents
in a
give
n co
ntex
t.
D.
Exp
ress
es th
e ne
ed to
exa
min
e a
prob
lem
fro
mm
ore
than
one
poi
nt o
fvi
ew.
A.
Exp
ress
es c
onfi
denc
e th
at h
e ca
n ac
hiev
esu
cces
s at
inqu
iry.
B.
Dem
onst
rate
s w
illin
gnes
s to
take
"in
tuiti
vele
aps.
"
A.
Purs
ues
a pr
oble
m to
its
solu
tion
or to
apr
actic
al p
oint
of
term
inat
ion.
A.
Exp
ress
es s
atis
fact
ion
with
the
proc
ess
ofin
quir
y.
B.
Exp
ress
es c
onfi
denc
e th
at h
is in
quir
y ex
peri
-en
ce w
ill e
nabl
e hi
m to
atta
in f
utur
e go
als.
A.
Dem
onst
rate
s aw
aren
ess
of th
e im
port
ance
of
mod
els,
theo
ries
, and
con
cept
s as
mea
ns o
fre
latin
g an
d or
gani
zing
new
kno
wle
dge.
B.
Dem
onst
rate
s aw
aren
ess
of th
e im
port
ance
of
curr
ently
acc
epte
d th
eori
es a
nd c
once
pts
as a
fram
ewor
k or
bas
is f
or th
e em
erge
nce
of n
ewkn
owle
dge.
C.
Dem
onst
rate
s aw
aren
ess
of th
e im
port
ance
of
scie
ntif
ic p
roce
dure
s to
the
gene
ratio
n of
new
know
ledg
e, th
eori
es, a
nd c
once
pts.
XI.
Res
pons
ibili
ty.
Atti
tude
or
Qua
lity
Rel
ated
Obs
erva
ble
13eb
avio
rs
The
Stu
dent
:A
.Is
act
ive
in h
elpi
ng to
iden
tify
and
esta
blis
hle
arni
ng g
oals
.
13.
Dem
onst
rate
s w
illin
gnes
s to
wor
k be
yond
the
assi
gnm
ent.
C.
Insi
sts
upon
ade
quat
e ev
iden
ce o
n w
hich
toba
se c
oncl
usio
ns.
D.
Sugg
ests
cha
nges
to im
prov
e pr
oced
ure.
E.
Show
s re
spec
t for
the
cont
ribu
tions
of
othe
rs.
F.D
emon
stra
tes
will
ingn
ess
to s
hare
kno
wle
dge
with
oth
ers.
G.
Off
ers
a ra
tiona
le f
or c
ritic
ism
.
H.
Initi
ates
act
ion
for
the
bene
fit o
f th
e gr
oup.
The
Stu
dent
:A
.D
emon
stra
tes
will
ingn
ess
to c
hang
e fr
om o
neid
iom
, sty
le, o
r fr
ame
of r
efer
ence
whe
n w
ork-
ing
with
oth
ers.
13.
Cal
ls u
pon
othe
r ta
lent
fro
m w
ithin
the
grou
pw
hen
opin
ions
and
hel
p ar
c ne
eded
.C
.Se
eks
clar
ific
atio
n of
ano
ther
per
son'
s po
int
of v
iew
or
fram
e of
ref
eren
ce.
XII
.C
onse
nsus
and
col
labo
ratio
n.
CH
APT
ER
SIX
INQ
UIR
Y I
NT
O I
NQ
UIR
Y
The
re a
re m
eans
oth
er th
an d
irec
t lab
orat
ory
expe
rien
ces
to in
volv
e st
uden
ts in
inqu
iry.
One
mea
ns c
onsi
sts
of a
llow
ing
stud
ents
to c
ritiq
ue s
cien
tific
pap
ers,
(Se
e A
ppen
dix
B f
or e
xam
ple)
abs
trac
ts, o
r ot
her
repo
rts
to d
isco
ver
the
vari
ety
of lo
gica
lpa
ttern
s in
scie
ntif
ic in
vest
igat
ions
car
ried
out
by
scie
ntis
ts a
nd s
cien
ce s
tude
nts.
Thi
s ty
pe o
f ac
tivity
can
be c
halle
ngin
g an
d ca
rt h
elp
stud
ents
deve
lop
skill
s an
d ap
prec
iatio
ns o
f cr
itica
l rea
ding
and
thin
king
that
arc
gene
raliz
able
to o
ther
type
s of
com
mun
icat
ion.
Ass
umin
gth
at th
e m
ajor
ity o
f st
uden
ts e
nrol
led
in b
iolo
gy w
ill b
ecom
eco
nsum
ers
of s
cien
ce r
athe
r th
an s
cien
tists
, the
se s
kills
and
app
reci
atio
nsar
e ve
ry im
port
ant.
1.A
naly
zing
res
earc
h fo
r its
bas
ic p
arts
. The
stu
dent
will
The
stu
dent
mig
ht a
skid
entif
y:
A.
The
pro
blem
.
B.
The
hyp
othe
ses.
C.
The
exp
erim
enta
l des
ign.
D.
The
pro
cedu
res
for
colle
ctin
g th
e da
ta.
E.
The
kin
d(s)
of
data
col
lect
ed.
Wha
t que
stio
n w
as th
e in
vest
igat
or c
once
rned
with
?W
as th
e pr
oble
m s
tate
d ex
plic
itly?
Flow
did
the
inve
stig
ator
lim
it th
e pr
oble
m,
e.g.
,or
gani
sms
stud
ied,
fac
tors
look
ed f
or, t
ime
over
whi
ch d
ata
was
col
lect
ed?
Wha
t ini
tial g
uess
es d
id th
e in
vest
igat
or m
ake?
How
did
he
sele
ct a
mon
g th
ese?
Wha
t con
sequ
ence
s, if
any,
did
he
pred
ict f
rom
his
best
gue
ss?
Wha
t pla
n w
as u
sed
to a
nsw
er th
e qu
estio
n?W
hat w
ere
the
expe
rim
enta
l fac
tors
?W
hat o
ther
var
iabl
es w
ere
iden
tifie
d?W
hat c
ontr
ols
wer
e us
ed?
Wha
t pro
cedu
res
wer
e us
ed?
Wha
t ins
trum
ents
, too
ls, e
tc.
wer
e us
ed?
Wha
t pro
cedu
res
wer
e m
ade
for
repl
icat
ion?
Wer
e ve
rbal
des
crip
tions
, dia
gram
s, e
tc. c
onst
ruct
ed?
Wer
e qu
alita
tive
and
quan
titat
ive
mea
sure
s ta
ken?
Wer
e sa
mpl
ing
tech
niqu
es u
sed?
F.T
he w
ays
of o
rgan
izin
g th
e da
ta.
G.
The
inte
rpre
tatio
ns a
nd/o
r co
nclu
sion
s.
H.
The
ass
umpt
ions
, bot
h ex
plic
it an
d im
plic
it, th
at g
uide
dth
e re
sear
cher
in f
orm
ulat
ing
the
prob
leir
tnd
inte
rpre
t-in
g th
e da
ta.
II.
Ana
lyzi
ng r
elat
ions
hips
am
ong
basi
c pa
rts.
Exa
mpl
es a
re:
A.
Dat
a so
ught
and
the
prob
lem
.
B.
Inte
rpre
tatio
ns a
nd th
e ki
nds
of d
ata
obta
ined
.
C.
Inte
rpre
tatio
ns a
nd th
e w
ay th
e pr
oble
m w
as f
orm
ulat
ed.
The
stu
dent
mig
ht a
sk
How
wer
e th
e da
ta o
rgan
ized
?W
ere
grap
hs, c
hart
s, a
nd/o
r st
atis
tical
pro
cedu
res
used
?
Wha
t ass
umpt
ions
wer
e m
ade
in m
akin
g th
e in
ter-
pret
atio
ns?
Wer
e di
scre
panc
ies
or c
onfl
icts
in th
e da
ta id
enti-
fied
?
Wer
e in
terp
reta
tions
mad
e w
ithin
the
limits
of
the
orig
inal
pro
blem
and
hyp
othe
sis?
Wha
t ide
as a
bout
the,
nat
ure
of th
e pr
oble
m s
itua-
tion
does
the
inve
stig
ator
take
for
gra
nted
, e.g
.,si
ngle
fact
or, m
ultip
le f
acto
rs, d
iscr
ete
entit
ies,
dyna
mic
sys
tem
, sta
ble
syst
em, l
inea
r ea
usal
cha
ins,
cycl
ical
cau
sal c
hain
s?
Are
the
data
sou
ght c
onsi
sten
t with
the
way
the
prob
lem
is s
tate
d?A
re th
e m
eans
of
colle
ctin
g th
e da
ta c
onsi
sten
t with
the
way
the
prob
lem
is d
elim
ited?
In h
is e
xper
imen
tal d
esig
n 1w
sel
ecte
d pl
ants
with
part
icul
ar c
hara
cter
istic
s. W
hy?
Do
the.
inte
rpre
tatio
ns "
fit"
the
data
? D
o th
ey g
obe
yond
the
data
? A
re th
ey m
ore
limite
d th
an th
eda
ta w
arra
nt?
Do
the
inte
rpre
tatio
ns p
rovi
de a
n an
swer
to th
epr
oble
ms
as s
tate
d?D
o th
ey s
how
the
need
for
add
ition
al d
ata
in o
rder
to a
dequ
atel
y in
vest
igat
e th
e st
ated
pro
blem
?
D.
Impl
icit
and
expl
icit
assu
mpt
ions
mad
e by
the
rese
arch
erin
rel
atio
n to
the
prob
lem
, res
earc
h de
sign
, and
inte
r-pr
etat
ions
.
E.
Am
ong
othe
r co
mbi
natio
ns o
f th
e ab
ove:
(Exa
mpl
esre
port
.)
III.
Eva
luat
ing
a re
sear
ch r
epor
t.
A.
Eva
luat
e th
e co
mpo
nent
s of
the
stud
y (w
here
pre
sent
).I.
Prob
lem
and
its
form
ulat
ion.
The
stu
dent
mig
ht a
skW
hat a
ssum
ptio
ns w
ere
mad
e in
del
imiti
ng o
rfo
rmul
atin
g th
e pr
oble
m?
Wha
t ass
umpt
ions
wer
e m
ade
in d
esig
ning
the
stud
y?W
hat a
ssum
ptio
ns w
ere
mad
e in
inte
rpre
ting
the
data
?
Wer
e th
e as
sum
ptio
ns m
ade
info
rmul
atin
g th
epr
oble
m ta
ken
into
acc
ount
in in
terp
retin
g th
e da
ta?
are
stat
ed in
gen
eral
term
s;th
ey w
ould
be
phra
sed
mor
e sp
ecif
ical
ly w
hen
refe
rrin
g to
par
ticul
ars
of th
e gi
ven
2.H
ypot
hese
s.
3.R
esea
rch
desi
gn.
4.M
etho
ds o
f co
llect
ing
data
.
5.M
etho
ds o
f or
gani
zing
dat
a.
Is th
e pr
oble
m s
tate
d as
cle
arly
as
poss
ible
giv
enth
e pr
ior
know
ledg
e av
aila
ble
that
is r
elev
ant t
o th
epr
oble
m?
Why
or
why
not
?
If a
n hy
poth
esis
is n
ot s
tate
d, w
as it
nec
essa
ry to
do
so g
iven
the
type
of
prob
lem
? W
hy o
r w
hy n
ot?
Wer
e th
e as
sum
ptio
ns u
sed
in d
esig
ning
the
stud
yth
e m
ost a
ppro
pria
te?
Cou
ld o
ther
s ha
ve. b
een
used
?W
hy o
r w
hy n
ot?
Wer
e al
l the
ava
ilabl
e te
chni
ques
for
col
lect
ing
the
data
con
side
red'
?W
hat i
s th
e in
vest
igat
or's
just
ific
atio
n fo
r us
ing
the
met
hods
sel
ecte
d ra
ther
than
oth
er p
ossi
ble
ones
?
Wou
ld o
ther
met
hods
of
orga
nizi
ng th
e da
ta h
ave
mad
e ce
rtai
n fe
atur
es o
f th
em m
ore
appa
rent
?If
sta
tistic
al p
roce
dure
s w
ere
used
, wer
e th
e as
sum
p-tio
ns in
them
con
sist
ent w
ith th
e as
sum
ptio
ns o
f
r
6.In
terp
reta
tions
and
con
clus
ions
.
B.
Eva
luat
e th
e in
terl
ocki
ng r
elat
ions
hips
of
all
part
s w
hich
form
the
cohe
rent
who
le.
(Que
stio
ns li
sted
for
II,
"A
naly
zing
rel
atio
nshi
ps...
,"ar
eal
so p
ertin
ent h
ere,
but
in a
dditi
on w
ould
ask
for
just
i-fi
catio
n an
d fo
r re
ason
s fo
r co
here
ncy
or la
ck o
f it.
)
C.
Eva
luat
e th
e ad
equa
cy o
f th
e pr
oble
m in
term
s of
oth
er:
1.Po
ssib
le a
ssum
ptio
ns.
2.Pe
rtin
ent e
vide
nce.
3.M
etho
ds o
f ga
ther
ing
data
.
The
stu
dent
mig
ht a
skth
e pr
oble
m a
nd d
esig
n of
the
stud
y? W
ere
the
stat
istic
al p
roce
dure
s ap
plie
d co
rrec
tly?
Cou
ld o
ther
pos
sibl
e in
terp
reta
tions
hav
e be
enm
ade?
If s
tatis
tical
pro
cedu
res
wer
e us
ed, i
s th
e in
terp
re-
tatio
n ba
sed
only
on
the
stat
istic
al r
elat
ions
hips
oris
ther
e su
bsta
ntiv
e ev
iden
ce f
or th
e in
terp
reta
tion
also
?
If th
ere
arc
disc
repa
ncie
sor
con
flic
ts in
the
data
,ho
w d
oes
the
inve
stig
ator
just
ify
his
trea
tmen
t of
them
?
Are
the
rela
tions
hips
sta
ted
or im
plie
d?D
id th
e in
vest
igat
or o
verl
ook
som
e po
ssib
le r
ela-
tions
hips
?
Arc
ther
e ot
her
assu
mpt
ions
that
mig
ht h
ave
been
mad
e? W
ould
thes
e ha
ve p
rovi
ded
addi
tiona
l cla
ri-
fica
tion
or d
elim
itatio
n of
the
prob
lem
? W
hyor
why
not
?
Are
ther
e ot
her
kind
s'of
evi
denc
e th
at c
ould
hav
ebe
en c
onsi
dere
d? I
f th
ese
had
been
use
d, w
ould
the
data
be
mor
e co
mpl
ete?
Why
or
why
not
?
If o
ther
tech
niqu
es f
or g
athe
ring
the
data
had
bee
nus
ed, w
ould
the
data
be
mor
e co
mpl
ete?
Wou
ldfe
wer
ass
umpt
ions
hav
e ha
d to
be
mad
e? W
ould
the
inte
rpre
tatio
n ha
ve h
ad b
ette
r su
ppor
ting
evid
ence
?W
hy o
r w
hy n
ot?
D.
Eva
luat
e th
e si
gnif
ican
ce o
f th
e sc
ient
ific
pap
er to
:1.
The
stu
dent
him
self
.
2.T
he p
oliti
cal a
nd th
e so
cial
tim
es.
3.Sc
ient
ific
kno
wle
dge.
IV.
Com
pari
ng s
cien
tific
pap
ers.
A.
Com
pare
sev
eral
res
earc
h re
port
s th
at d
eal w
ith c
lose
lyre
late
d pr
oble
ms,
yet
giv
e si
mila
r an
d/or
dif
fere
nt r
e-su
lts. G
iven
two
or m
ore
of s
uch
repo
rts,
the
stud
ent
will
:
1.St
ate
how
they
dif
fer
with
res
pect
to:
a.Pr
oble
m a
nd/o
r hy
poth
eses
.
b.R
esea
rch
desi
gn.
c.M
etho
ds o
f co
llect
ing
data
.
d.M
etho
ds o
f or
gani
zing
dat
a.
e.In
terp
reta
tions
and
con
clus
ions
.
2.Id
entif
y va
riat
ions
and
pos
sibl
e ca
uses
for
var
ianc
e.
The
stu
dent
mig
ht a
sk
Wha
t do
the
find
ings
of
this
stu
dy m
ean
to m
e?
Wha
t lig
ht d
oes
this
stu
dy th
row
on
cont
empo
rary
issu
es?
Doe
s it
help
me
unde
rsta
nd, e
.g.,
the
argu
-m
ents
pro
or
con
on p
opul
atio
n co
ntro
l? D
oes
itpr
ovid
e ev
iden
ce p
ro o
r co
n?
Hav
e I
lear
ned
som
ethi
ng n
ew a
bout
mod
es o
f in
-ve
stig
atio
n?
Wha
t wer
e th
e si
mila
ritie
s an
d di
ffer
ence
s in
the
way
the
prob
lem
s w
ere
stat
ed?
In th
e hy
poth
eses
(if
stat
ed)?
Wha
t arc
the
sim
ilari
ties
and
diff
eren
ces
in th
ede
sign
s of
the
stud
ies?
Wha
t are
the
sim
ilari
ties
and
diff
eren
ces
in th
ete
chni
ques
for
col
lect
ing
the
data
?
Wha
t are
the
sim
ilari
ties
and
diff
eren
ces
in m
etho
dsof
org
aniz
ing
the
data
?
Are
ther
e di
ffer
ence
s in
the
inte
rpre
tatio
ns?.
Wer
e di
ffer
ent a
ssum
ptio
ns u
sed?
Wer
e di
ffer
ent t
echn
ique
s fo
r co
llect
ing
and
orga
n-iz
ing
data
ava
ilabl
e? W
hy?
Wer
e tim
e st
udy
diff
er-
ence
s do
ne?
In te
chno
logi
cal d
evel
opm
ent o
f eq
uip-
men
t?
3.D
eter
min
e if
and
how
dif
fere
nt s
olut
ions
(if
pres
ent)
to th
e pr
oble
m c
an b
esy
nthe
size
d.
4.Id
entif
y so
me
impl
icat
ions
of
the
inte
rpre
tatio
nsto
oth
er p
robl
ems,
as
wel
l as
toth
e on
e at
han
d.
B.
Com
pare
sev
eral
sci
entif
ic p
aper
s to
iden
tify
auth
or's
purp
ose,
eith
er b
asic
or
prac
tical
, for
wri
ting
pape
r.A
utho
r's p
urpo
se m
ay b
e to
rep
ort a
spe
cifi
cre
sear
chpr
ojec
t, to
enc
oura
ge r
esea
rch,
to s
umm
ariz
efi
ndin
gsfr
om s
ever
al p
roje
cts,
and
/or
to e
valu
ate
are
sear
ch r
e-po
rt o
r ot
her
scie
ntif
ic p
aper
.
V.
App
lyin
g sk
ills
gain
ed f
rom
ana
lyzi
ng r
esea
rch
repo
rts
to
othe
r ki
nds
of r
epor
ts.
The
stu
dent
mig
ht a
sk
Did
one
inve
stig
ator
take
som
ethi
ngin
to a
ccou
ntth
at th
e ot
her
did
not?
Can
the
diff
eren
ces
be r
esol
ved
byta
king
into
ac-
coun
t the
var
iatio
ns n
oted
in,a-
d an
d 2?
How
do
the
resu
lts o
f th
ese
stud
ies
pert
ain
toot
her
know
ledg
e in
this
are
a of
bio
logy
?W
hat n
ew p
robl
ems
are
sugg
este
d by
the
resu
ltsof
thes
e st
udie
s?
Wha
t typ
e of
rep
ort i
s th
is?
Is it
a r
epor
t of
a pa
r-tic
ular
inve
stig
atio
n? D
oes
it su
mm
ariz
ese
vera
lin
vest
igat
ions
? Is
its
purp
ose
to r
aise
que
stio
ns?
Is
it ai
med
at t
he la
y re
ader
or
atot
her
inve
stig
ator
sin
this
fie
ld?
Wha
t is
the
auth
or's
pur
pose
in w
ritin
gth
is?
Wha
t is
the
repo
rt a
bool
?
Wha
t doe
s he
say
?
Wha
t is
the
func
tion
of k
ey s
tate
men
ts, o
r pa
rts,
ofth
e re
port
to o
ther
par
ts a
nd to
the
who
le?
Wha
t are
the
mea
ning
s of
key
term
s w
hich
he u
ses?
Wha
t are
the
inte
rrel
atio
nshi
ps o
f th
e pa
rts?
Is th
ere
cohe
renc
e am
ong
the
part
s?H
ow a
dequ
ate
is it
in te
rms
of c
rite
ria
1 ha
veus
edpr
evio
usly
in e
valu
atin
g ot
her
sim
ilar
pape
rs?
CH
APT
ER
SE
VE
N
CL
ASS
RO
OM
DIS
CU
SSIO
NS:
IN
QU
IRY
IN
TO
IN
QU
IRY
Perh
aps
one
of th
e be
st w
ays
to d
evel
op a
n un
ders
tand
ing
of in
quir
y is
by
exam
ple.
Hen
ce th
is c
hapt
er in
clud
es tw
o ex
ampl
es o
fcl
ass
disc
ussi
ons
whi
ch il
lust
rate
inqu
iry
into
inqu
iry
(see
Cha
pter
Six
). T
hepa
per
unde
r di
scus
sion
is th
e fi
rst p
ortio
n of
Gre
gor
Men
del's
Exp
erim
ents
in P
lant
Hyb
ridi
satio
n (H
arva
rd U
nive
rsity
Pre
ss, 1
958,
pp. 1
-13)
, whi
ch is
incl
uded
in A
ppen
dix
B.
The
two
exam
ples
of
clas
s di
scus
sion
s ar
c no
t pre
sent
edas
idea
l mod
els.
Rat
her,
they
are
typi
cal o
f te
ache
rs a
nd s
tude
nts
who
are
begi
nnin
g in
quir
y in
to in
quir
y. B
oth
disc
ussi
on p
atte
rns
show
muc
h th
at is
des
irab
le in
a d
iscu
ssio
n fo
cuse
d on
dev
elop
ing
an u
n-de
rsta
ndin
g of
inqu
iry,
and
bot
h de
al w
ith e
ssen
tially
the
sam
e pa
rts
of th
e re
port
. How
ever
, the
sty
les
of th
e te
ache
rs a
nd th
eir
pat-
tern
s of
que
stio
ning
arc
dif
fere
nt. I
t is
impo
rtan
t to
reco
gniz
e th
at th
ese
diff
eren
ces
are
not o
nly
poss
ible
, but
des
irab
le, a
nd th
at th
ere
is n
o se
t str
ateg
y fo
r in
quir
y in
to in
quir
y. H
owev
er, i
t sho
uld
be n
oted
that
dif
fere
nt li
nes
of q
uest
ioni
ng te
ndto
elic
it di
ffer
ent s
tu-
dent
res
pons
es, a
nd s
o th
e di
scus
sion
s ar
e di
ffer
ent f
rom
the
stan
dpoi
nt o
f st
uden
t par
ticip
atio
n an
d pr
obab
le le
arni
ng.
Eac
h di
scus
sion
has
bee
n an
nota
ted
in o
rder
to p
oint
out
var
ious
thin
gs th
at b
ecom
eap
pare
nt o
n an
alys
is. T
he a
naly
sis
has
been
done
in te
rms
of te
achi
ng s
trat
egy.
Tha
t is,
the
teac
her's
que
stio
ns a
nd s
tate
men
ts h
ave
been
cat
egor
ized
ina
man
ner
desi
gned
to m
ake
appa
rent
the
stra
tegy
bei
ng u
sed.
Thr
ee s
ets
of c
ateg
orie
s ha
ve b
een
used
for
cla
ssif
icat
ion.
Bot
h m
anag
eria
l. an
d gu
idin
g qu
estio
ns a
ndst
atem
ents
are
bas
ed o
n T
aba'
s w
ork
(158
)1. T
he th
ird
set o
f ca
tego
ries
is b
ased
on th
e ta
sks
of in
quir
y in
to in
quir
y ou
tline
d in
Cha
p-te
r Si
x. O
ther
sch
emes
cou
ld h
ave
been
use
d fo
r an
nota
tion
of th
e di
scus
sion
s, b
ut th
e th
ree
used
wer
e fo
und
to b
e pa
rtic
ular
ly w
orth
-w
hile
bec
ause
of
thei
r si
mpl
icity
and
bec
ause
they
bri
ng in
to f
ocus
man
y im
port
ant a
spec
ts o
f an
inqu
iry
disc
ussi
on. I
n ad
ditio
n to
the
clas
sifi
catio
n of
the
teac
her's
que
stio
ns, o
ccas
iona
l not
es h
ave
been
inse
rted
whi
ch c
all a
ttent
ion
to in
tere
stin
g oc
curr
ence
s in
the
disc
ussi
on p
atte
rn.
The
fir
st s
et o
f ca
tego
ries
use
d in
ann
otat
ion
is m
anag
eria
l. T
hese
are
ques
tions
or
stat
emen
ts w
hich
hav
e a
man
ager
ial o
r ps
ycho
-lo
gica
l fun
ctio
n an
d w
hich
indi
cate
app
rova
l, di
sapp
rova
l, ag
reem
ent,
etc.
Fou
r su
b -ca
tego
ries
are
dis
tingu
ishe
d: s
uppo
rtiv
e, in
vitin
gm
ore
thin
king
, ref
ocus
ing,
and
neg
ativ
e.
The
sec
ond
type
of
ques
tions
or
stat
emen
ts g
uide
the
disc
ussi
on a
ndar
c re
late
d to
the
logi
c of
the
cont
ent a
nd to
the
cogn
itive
oper
atio
ns s
ough
t. T
hree
sub
-cat
egor
ies
are
used
: foc
usin
g, e
xten
ding
, and
lift
ing.
The
cog
nitiv
e op
erat
ions
sou
ght m
ust a
lso
be s
peci
-fi
ed in
ord
er to
mak
e cl
assi
fica
tion
of g
uidi
ng q
uest
ions
mos
t use
ful.
Sinc
e th
e ta
sks
of in
quir
y in
to in
quir
yin
volv
e bo
th d
iffe
rent
cogn
itive
ope
ratio
ns a
nd th
e lo
gic
of th
e co
nten
t, th
ese
task
s pr
ovid
e th
e th
ird
set o
f ca
tego
ries
.
:See
als
o K
linck
man
n (1
37),
Cha
pter
5, f
or a
dditi
onal
dis
cuss
ion
of te
achi
ng s
trat
egie
s in
rel
atio
nto
inqu
iry.
Par
t of
the
mat
eria
lin
Cha
pter
5 h
as b
een
adap
ted
for
incl
usio
n he
re.
r-
Des
crip
tions
of
Cat
egor
ies
Use
d in
the
Ann
otat
ions
of th
e D
iscu
ssio
ns.
I.M
anag
eria
l que
stio
ns a
nd s
tate
men
ts. T
hese
indi
cate
appr
oval
, dis
appr
oval
, agr
eem
ent,
etc.
M.1
.Su
ppor
tive:
pro
vide
app
rova
l,en
cour
agem
ent.
E.g
.,, "
Yes
;" "
Tha
t'son
the
righ
t tra
ck;"
"L
et's
see
if I
und
erst
and
you
corr
ectly
....
M.2
.In
vite
mor
e th
inki
ng: p
robi
ng,
purs
ue th
e st
ated
res
pons
e to
cla
rify
, bri
ngou
t fur
ther
det
ails
, res
olve
inac
cura
cies
ordi
scre
panc
ies.
E.g
., "I
'm n
ot s
ure
I un
ders
tand
your
poi
nt;"
"C
ould
you
cla
rify
for
us h
ow y
our
poin
t rel
ates
to th
e to
pic?
""C
anyo
ugi
ve u
s an
exa
mpl
e?"
"Can
you
expl
ain
for
us h
ow y
ou a
rriv
ed a
t tha
tin
terp
reta
tion?
"M
.3.
Ref
ocus
es th
e co
nten
tor
lim
its o
f di
scus
sion
.E
.g.,
"Rem
embe
r th
atw
e on
ly h
ave
data
on
one
type
of
plan
t;" "
We
shou
ld r
emem
ber
that
Men
del's
stu
dies
wer
e do
nebe
fore
chr
omos
omes
had
bee
n de
scri
bed.
"M
.4.
Neg
ativ
e: d
isap
prov
al, d
isco
urag
emen
t,co
ntro
lling
.E
.g.,
"No,
that
's w
rong
;" "
You
'reno
t thi
nkin
g;"
"I d
on't
agre
e w
ith y
ou;"
'Tha
t doe
sn't
answ
er m
y qu
estio
n;"
"Tha
t'sno
t wha
t you
wer
e to
ld to
do.
"O
bvio
usly
, the
last
type
inhi
bits
bot
h th
inki
ngan
d ve
rbal
izat
ion
whe
reas
the
firs
t thr
ee ty
pes
invi
tem
ore
thin
king
and
dis
cuss
ion.
II.
Gui
ding
que
stio
ns a
nd s
tate
men
ts. T
hese
are
desi
gned
to a
chie
ve th
ree
type
s of
purp
oses
by
diff
eren
t que
stio
ning
str
ateg
ies:
G.1
.Fo
cusi
ng: e
stab
lish
the
cont
ent
or to
pic
and
the
cogn
itive
ope
ratio
n to
be
perf
orm
ed.
E.g
., "H
ow d
oes
the
data
obt
aine
d by
grou
p A
com
pare
with
that
of
grou
p B
?""W
hat d
o yo
u ob
serv
e in
that
dro
p of
pond
wat
er?"
"Wha
t are
som
e po
ssib
le e
xpla
natio
nsof
why
the
frog
did
not
sw
allo
wth
e ro
bber
fly
?"G
.2.
Ext
endi
ng: c
ontin
ue e
xplo
ratio
n of
the
cont
ent b
y en
cour
agin
g th
ough
ton
the
sam
e co
gniti
ve le
vel.
(Dis
tingu
ishe
d fr
omM
.2. t
ype
beca
use
it br
ings
in a
dditi
onal
cont
ent o
n th
e sa
me
cogn
itive
leve
l; M
.2.
type
ask
s fo
r cl
arif
icat
ion
or f
urth
ersp
ecif
icity
, etc
., of
con
tent
alr
eady
und
erdi
scus
sion
.)E
.g.,
"Can
any
one
thin
k of
ano
ther
way
we
mig
ht o
btai
n th
e ne
eded
dat
a?"
"Wha
t are
som
e ot
her
ques
tions
we
mig
ht a
sk a
bout
the
chan
ges
whi
ch o
ccur
red
in th
e po
nd?"
"Tha
t's a
n im
port
ant g
ener
aliz
atio
n.W
ould
any
one
stat
e it
ina
diff
eren
t way
?"(A
dds
to th
e' 'c
onte
nt b
ypr
ovid
ing
addi
tiona
l exa
mpl
esor
sta
tem
ents
that
exp
and
or e
nlar
gea
key
idea
;al
so a
llow
s fo
r as
sim
ilatio
n of
an im
port
ant i
dea
and
enco
urag
esm
ore
stud
ents
to r
trtic
ipat
e by
thin
king
abou
t and
sta
ting
the
idea
in th
eir
own
term
s.)
G.3
.L
iftin
g: m
ovem
ent o
f th
ough
tto
a m
ore
com
plex
cog
nitiv
e le
vel.
E.g
., "N
ow th
at w
e've
iden
tifie
dso
me
of th
e ch
arac
teri
stic
s of
thes
e an
imal
s,ca
n w
e gr
oup
them
in o
ne o
r m
ore
way
s?"
(fro
m d
iffe
rent
iatio
n to
gro
upin
g)
- 4
5 -
"Wha
t par
t of
the
data
lead
syo
u to
that
inte
rpre
tatio
n?"
(fro
m in
terp
reta
tion
toex
plan
atio
n by
sho
win
g re
latio
n-sh
ip) "A
ssum
ing
our
gene
raliz
atio
ns a
bout
the
grow
th o
f a
yeas
t pop
ulat
ion
appl
y to
oth
er p
opul
atio
ns, w
hat c
anyo
upr
edic
t abo
ut c
hang
es in
the
hum
an p
opul
atio
n?"
III.
Tas
ks o
f in
quir
y in
to in
quir
y (s
eepp
. 38-
43)
1.1.
Ana
lysi
s in
to p
arts
:I.
1.a.
Iden
tific
atio
n of
pro
blem
.1.
1.b.
Iden
tific
atio
n of
hyp
othe
ses.
1.1.
c.D
esig
n of
the
stud
y.1.
1.d.
Exe
cutio
n of
the
plan
(in
clud
es p
roce
dure
s fo
r co
llect
ing
data
, kin
ds o
f da
ta c
olle
cted
, way
sof
org
aniz
ing
data
).1.
1.e.
Inte
rpre
tatio
ns o
f da
ta.
1.1.
f.Id
entif
icat
ion
of a
ssum
ptio
ns.
1.2.
Ana
lysi
s of
rel
atio
nshi
ps a
mon
g ba
sic
part
s:I.
2.a.
Dat
a an
d pr
oble
m.
I.2.
b.In
terp
reta
tions
and
kin
ds o
f da
ta.
I.2.
c.In
terp
reta
tions
and
pro
blem
.I.
2.d.
Ass
umpt
ions
re
othe
r pa
rts.
I.2.
e.O
ther
rel
atio
nshi
ps.
1.3.
Eva
luat
ion
of r
esea
rch
repo
rt.
1.4.
Com
pari
son
of s
cien
tific
pap
ers.
I.S.
App
lyin
g sk
ills
to o
ther
kin
ds o
f re
port
s.
Exa
mpl
es o
f C
lass
room
Dis
cuss
ions
I.Fi
rst d
iscu
ssio
n of
"E
xper
imen
ts in
Pla
nt H
ybri
disa
tion,
"by
Gre
gor
Men
del (
see
App
endi
x B
for
cop
y of
p(L
eft c
olum
n in
dica
tes
type
of
ques
tion
or s
tate
men
t use
d by
teac
her.
Tw
elve
stu
dent
s pa
rtic
ipat
ed, b
utm
ade
to d
istin
guis
ham
ong
them
in th
e re
spon
ses.
)G
.1.
Focu
sing
I.1.
a.Id
entif
icat
ion
of p
robl
emT
.T
oday
we'
d lik
e to
mak
e an
Men
del's
pla
nt h
ybri
disa
tion
aper
).no
atte
mpt
has
bee
n
inqu
iry
into
Gre
gor
pape
r.T
here
are
cer
-ta
in th
ings
we'
ll be
look
ing
for.
To
set t
he to
ne,
reca
ll w
hen
the
pape
r w
asw
ritte
n. N
ow, w
hat w
asth
e in
vest
igat
or c
once
rned
with
?
S.I
thin
k he
was
tryi
ng to
exp
lain
the
patte
rn o
fdi
ffer
ent t
raits
as
they
app
eare
d in
diff
eren
t gen
er-
atio
ns, t
o ex
plai
n th
ere
ason
s fo
r th
e pa
ttern
.M
.2.
Invi
te m
ore
thin
king
'F.
Wha
t do
you
mea
n by
pat
tern
s?(N
ote:
Rat
her
than
telli
ng s
tude
nt h
e is
corr
ect,
and
thus
tend
ing
to c
lose
off
the
resp
onse
, the
teac
her
enco
urag
es th
est
uden
t to
cont
inue
.)
M.2
.In
vite
mor
e th
inki
ng
M.3
.R
efoc
usin
g
S.L
ike
how
a tr
ait w
ould
sho
wup
in o
ne g
ener
atio
n,th
en s
kip
a ge
nera
tion,
and
then
sho
wup
in a
thir
dge
nera
tion.
Thi
s is
a pa
ttern
.T
.W
here
in th
epa
per
did
you
find
this
pat
tern
or
this
pro
blem
? W
as it
sta
ted
spec
ific
ally
?S.
I do
n't t
hink
he
stat
ed it
as a
hyp
othe
sis,
he
kind
of
stat
ed th
e re
sults
.S.
On
page
9, w
here
it f
irst
star
ts w
ith th
e P2
gen
era-
tion,
it s
ays
that
ther
ear
e do
min
ant c
hara
cter
istic
san
d th
at th
e re
cess
ive
ones
rea
ppea
r.
..
T.
Do
you
thin
k th
at's
sta
ting
the
prob
lem
?S.
Wel
l, ye
s. T
he p
robl
em is
how
can
one
char
acte
r-is
tic c
ompl
etel
y di
sapp
ear
from
one
gene
ratio
n, a
ndth
en it
com
es b
ack
..
.
S.O
n pa
ge 4
he
says
, "T
he o
bjec
t of
the
expe
rim
ent..
.
was
to o
bser
ve th
ese
vari
atio
ns in
the
case
of
each
pair
of
diff
eren
tiatin
g ch
arac
ters
, and
to d
educ
e th
ela
w a
ccor
ding
to w
hich
they
appe
ar in
the
succ
es-
sive
gen
erat
ions
."S.
Tha
t's in
a w
aya
stat
emen
t of
his
obje
ct.
S.W
ell,
on th
e fi
rst
page
, ded
uce
this
law
..
.
S.D
educ
e th
is la
w?
Wha
t kin
d of
law
?(N
ote:
Sev
eral
stu
dent
s re
spon
d an
din
tera
ct w
ith e
ach
othe
r w
ithou
t the
teac
her
guid
ing
until
it's
nece
ssar
y fo
r th
ete
ache
r to
pro
vide
som
e su
ppor
t or
guid
ance
. Suc
h st
uden
t int
erac
tion
occu
rs r
athe
r fr
eque
ntly
in th
is d
iscu
ssio
n.)
M.1
.Su
ppor
tT
.G
o ah
ead
with
wha
t you
wer
e go
ing
to s
ay.
S.W
ell,
on th
e fi
rst p
age
he s
tate
s th
e pr
oble
m: "
Sofa
r no
gen
eral
ly a
pplic
able
law
gov
erni
ng th
e fo
rma-
tion
and
the
deve
lopm
ent o
f hy
brid
s ha
s be
en s
uc-
cess
fully
for
mul
ated
." A
ctua
lly,'
he d
idn'
t sta
tew
hat h
e th
inks
is th
e la
w, h
e di
dn't
say
wel
l I th
ink
the
law
is th
us a
nd s
o. I
kin
d of
take
it h
e ha
s a
hunc
h be
caus
e al
l thr
ough
it h
e br
ings
in th
e po
ssi-
bilit
y th
at th
ere
are
two
alle
les
and
com
pute
s th
era
tios.
(Not
e: S
tude
nt u
ses
the
term
"al
lele
s" w
hich
Men
del d
oes
not u
se. T
each
er m
ight
hav
e pi
cked
up
on th
isfo
r th
e pu
rpos
eof
cla
rify
ing
wha
t Men
del d
id s
ay a
nd th
e te
rms
he d
id u
se.)
G.2
.E
xten
ding
M.2
.In
vite
mor
e th
inki
ng
G.1
.Fo
cusi
ngI.
1.b.
Iden
tific
atio
n of
hyp
othe
ses
T.
Do
you
agre
e?
S.T
his
is th
e fi
rst t
ime
anyo
ne h
as u
sed
mat
hem
atic
s,an
d it'
s so
met
hing
new
. I th
ink
that
he
had
an id
ea,
wel
l, si
nce
noth
ing
else
had
com
e up
, let
me
try
this
.M
aybe
I c
an f
ind
som
ethi
ng e
xpla
inin
g th
is d
iffe
r-in
g, th
e re
cess
ive
and
dom
inan
t tra
its h
o na
mes
.
T.
You
thin
k he
pre
tty a
ccur
atel
y st
ates
the
prob
lem
?
S.H
e do
esn'
t com
e ou
t and
say
it in
so
man
y w
ords
that
this
is m
y pr
oble
m.
..
T.
Let
's g
o on
, kee
ping
in m
ind
the
natu
re o
f th
epr
oble
m. W
hat i
nitia
l gue
sses
do
you
thin
k M
ende
lm
ight
hav
e m
ade,
in th
e se
nse
of w
hat k
ind
of h
y-po
thes
is h
e's
wor
king
und
er?
(Not
e: A
"w
hat"
que
stio
n im
plie
s th
at th
ere
is a
sta
ted
hypo
thes
is. S
ince
no
hypo
thes
is is
sta
ted
in th
e po
rtio
n of
the
pape
r us
ed, a
bet
ter
ques
tion
wou
ld h
ave
been
, "D
id M
ende
l sta
te a
hyp
othe
sis?
" T
his
is a
n ex
ampl
e of
the
focu
s-in
g be
ing
slig
htly
mis
dire
cted
. See
ref
ocus
ing
belo
w.)
S.D
o yo
u m
ean
his
big
assu
mpt
ions
?
M.1
.Su
ppor
t'F
.R
ight
. Wha
t wer
e so
me
of h
is a
ssum
ptio
ns?
(Not
e: T
empo
rari
ly te
ache
r sh
ifts
fro
m "
hypo
thes
es"
to "
assu
mpt
ions
" in
kee
ping
with
stu
dent
's u
se o
f th
e w
ord.
)
- 4
8 -
M.3
.R
efoc
usin
g
Md.
Supp
ort
M.3
.R
efoc
usin
g
2_-
4 9
-
S.I
thou
ght m
aybe
he
figu
red
out t
he tw
o al
lele
sth
e do
min
ant a
nd r
eces
sive
. I d
on't
know
whe
ther
this
was
poi
nted
out
bef
ore
hint
..
.
S.H
e w
as p
roba
bly
the
firs
t one
to s
it do
wn
and
thin
kab
out i
t and
def
ine
rece
ssiv
e an
d do
min
ant.
I th
ink
that
may
be.
T.
Is th
ere
a pl
ace
in th
e pa
per
whe
re h
e st
ates
his
hypo
thes
es?
(lon
g pa
use)
S.W
ell,
at th
e ve
ry e
nd h
e so
rt o
f st
ates
his
con
clu-
sion
s, h
e sa
ys, "
..
.th
e hy
brid
s fo
rm s
eeds
hav
ing
one
or th
e ot
her
of th
e tw
o di
ffer
entia
ting
char
ac-
ters
, and
of
thes
e, o
ne-h
alf
deve
lop
agai
n th
e hy
brid
form
, whi
le th
e ot
her
half
yie
ld p
lant
s w
hich
re-
mai
n co
nsta
nt a
nd r
ecei
ve th
e do
min
ant o
r re
ces-
sive
cha
ract
ers
resp
ectiv
ely
in e
qual
num
bers
."(N
ote:
p. 1
3)S.
He
mig
ht h
ave
thou
ght t
here
cou
ld h
ave
been
apa
ttern
.T
.T
hat's
ver
y go
od. Y
ou're
say
ing
then
that
this
was
his
hunc
h, b
ut it
was
n't r
eally
sta
ted
that
way
...
S.H
e ha
s no
t bee
n su
re o
f al
l the
par
ts, h
e w
ent
thro
ugh
the
expe
rim
ents
...
1'.
So c
an w
e sa
y th
at th
e hy
poth
esis
was
sta
ted
ex-
plic
itly?
S.I
don'
t bel
ieve
that
in th
is m
uch
of th
e pa
per,
the
sect
ion
we
have
, he
actu
ally
sta
ted
it. H
e ju
st k
ind
of d
rew
con
clus
ions
fro
m h
is d
ata;
als
o, I
thin
k hi
sda
ta w
as k
ind
of s
lant
ed to
war
d a
hypo
thes
is. I
don'
t thi
nk h
e co
uld
have
had
the
data
ari
d th
enju
st p
icke
d up
any
hyp
othe
sis.
I th
ink
it w
as d
e-si
gned
to a
nsw
er, w
hat h
e fi
nally
rea
ched
, but
Ido
n't t
hink
he
stat
ed it
in b
lack
and
whi
te.
G.1
.Fo
cusi
ngT
.1.
3.E
valu
atio
n of
rep
ort
S.
M.2
.In
vite
sno
re th
inki
ngT
.
S.
G.1
.Fo
cusi
ngT
.1.
4.C
ompa
riso
n of
rep
orts
S.
M.2
.In
vite
mor
e th
inki
ngT
.
S.
M.2
.In
vite
mor
e th
inki
ngT
.M
.1.
Supp
ort
Do
you
thin
k th
at's
goo
d fo
r sc
ient
ists
to d
o?
I do
n't t
hink
he
wan
ted
to s
tick
out h
is n
eck
too
far.
Do
you
thin
k th
is is
a q
ualit
y in
dif
fere
nt in
vest
i-ga
tions
, oat
exp
licitl
y st
atin
g a
hypo
thes
is?
I do
n't t
hink
that
the
laym
an r
eadi
ng it
wou
ldun
ders
tand
it.
Do
you
supp
ose
he w
rote
this
pap
er f
or th
e la
yman
?I
don'
t thi
nk p
eopl
e w
ere
that
wor
ried
abo
ut p
lant
s.W
as th
ea
hint
of
that
in th
e pa
per?
tt 8e
.em
s to
me
he c
ould
hav
e w
ritte
n al
l thi
s do
wn
as ti
se
expe
rim
ent w
ent a
long
, but
inst
ead
of le
av-
ing;
the
pope
s th
at w
ay, w
hy d
idn'
t he,
whe
n he
reco
pied
it, s
ay n
ow, t
his
is m
y hy
poth
esis
: one
-hi
ed o
f th
em is
goi
ng to
turn
out
dom
inan
t and
wha
teve
r, s
o it
wou
ld m
ake
him
sou
nd g
ood.
Why
didn
't he
do
that
?D
o yo
u th
ink
it's
nece
ssar
y al
l the
tim
e to
do
this
?Y
ou'v
e le
arne
d th
at it
is.
(Not
e: P
revi
ousl
y in
the
disc
ussi
on, a
nd b
ecom
ing
.mor
e ap
pare
nt a
t thi
s po
int,
the
stud
ents
are
con
fuse
d ab
out t
he h
y-po
thes
is. T
he a
ppar
ent r
easo
n fo
r th
is, w
hich
the
teac
her
reco
gniz
es h
ere,
is a
wel
l-es
tabl
ishe
d fr
ame
of r
efer
ence
whi
ch le
ads
the
stud
ents
to e
xpec
t exp
licitl
y st
ated
hyp
othe
ses.
Thi
s is
pro
babl
y du
e to
dea
ling
prev
ious
ly in
the
cour
se a
lmos
t exc
lusi
vely
with
inqu
iry
in th
e an
tece
dent
- co
nseq
uent
mod
e. T
he p
ortio
n of
Men
del's
pap
er w
ithw
hich
they
are
dea
ling
is, h
owev
er, i
n th
e ta
xono
mic
mod
e. I
nves
tigat
ions
in th
is m
ode
char
acte
rist
ical
ly d
o no
tha
ve h
ypot
hese
s, e
spec
ially
not
of
the
if.
,th
en.
. .ty
pe.)
S.O
ne th
ing
that
I'm
thin
king
abo
ut is
whe
n I
read
som
ethi
ng li
ke th
is, a
nd I
don
't kn
ow w
hat t
hey'
relo
okin
g fo
r, P
m m
ore
likel
y to
com
e up
with
dif
-fe
rent
idea
s ab
out i
t too
. If
you
know
wha
t you
'relo
okin
g fo
r, th
en y
ou e
xpec
t it t
o tu
rn o
ut.
S.A
lso,
if h
e st
ates
the
hypo
thes
is a
t the
ver
y be
gin-
ning
, and
then
he
give
s hi
s ev
iden
ce, y
ou s
ee th
is
rirrm
ilpep
wire
terw
w,1
-7r.
o.T
cwnw
ftEpn
wor
mrir
rrri
M.1
.Su
ppor
tG
.1.
Focu
sing
I.1.
c.D
esig
n of
stu
dy
M.3
.R
efoc
usin
g
M.2
.In
vite
mor
e th
inki
ng
G.1
.Fo
cusi
ngI.
2.e.
Rel
atio
n be
twee
n de
sign
and
pro
blem
(Not
e:
goes
with
the
hypo
thes
is, a
nd it
's a
lot e
asie
r. A
ntth
is w
ay, y
cu h
ave
Z,o
rea
d th
e w
hole
pape
r, a
ndyo
u se
e th
e co
nclu
sion
at t
he e
nd, a
nd th
en y
ouga
back
thro
ugh
and
see
how
the
data
app
lies
to th
ehy
poth
esis
.S.
Act
ually
, he
didn
't re
ally
sta
rt h
is e
xper
imen
tri
ght
away
. He
does
a lo
t of
back
grou
nd w
ork
at f
irst
,lik
e ex
plai
ning
the
diff
eren
t cha
ract
eris
tics
of th
efl
.).v
ers,
exp
lain
ed w
hy h
e pi
cked
this
flo
wer
.W
hy w
ould
he
do th
at?
We
star
t her
e w
ith e
xp:tr
i-m
enta
l des
ign.
Tha
t's s
omet
hing
we
shou
ld m
en-
tion.
You
mig
ht g
o ah
ead
with
it.
Why
he
pick
ed th
ese
flow
ers?
Yes
, wha
t wer
e th
ere
ason
s fo
r th
e se
lect
ion
ofth
ese
part
icul
ar p
lant
s?S.
The
re. w
ere
lot o
f ty
pes;
they
cou
ld b
e pr
otec
ted
from
for
eign
pol
len,
and
they
had
a sh
ort l
ife
cycl
e.T
.D
o yo
u th
ink
that
's n
eces
sary
?S.
You
hav
e to
fin
d so
met
lii-.
g to
sui
tyo
ur p
urpo
se.
It's
a lo
t eas
ier
to lo
ok a
t the
col
or o
f th
epo
ds o
rw
hate
ver,
but
if s
ome
plan
ts' o
nly
diff
erin
g ch
arac
-te
rist
ics
wer
e th
e si
ze o
f th
e xy
lem
, tha
t wou
ldbe
hard
to c
hop
up a
ll th
e pl
ants
and
look
at t
he x
ylem
.Y
ou d
o la
ve to
cho
ose
acco
rdin
gto
the
need
.T
.Y
ou're
say
ing
he h
ad to
cho
ose
thin
gsac
cord
ing
toth
e ne
ed. N
ow in
his
exp
erim
enta
l des
ign
hese
lect
edpl
ants
with
thes
e pa
rtic
ular
cha
ract
eris
tics.
Why
?S.
Bec
ause
som
e ar
e do
min
ant a
ndso
me
rece
ssiv
e.
S. T.
Stud
ent i
s us
ing
info
rmat
ion
lear
ned
else
whe
rera
ther
than
not
ing
func
tion
of th
ese
term
s in
this
pap
er. T
his
also
occu
rred
ear
lier
in th
e di
scus
sion
with
thes
etw
o te
rms.
)M
.2.
Invi
te m
ore
thin
king
T.
Did
he
know
that
thou
gh?
S.
M.2
.In
vite
mor
e th
inki
ngT
.S. S. S.
M.3
.R
efoc
usin
gT
.
S. S. S.
M.2
.In
vite
mor
e th
inki
ngT
.
S. S
M.2
.In
vite
mor
e th
inki
ngT
.
S.
M.1
.Su
ppor
tT
.
He
said
that
they
nev
er m
ixed
. lik
e so
me
char
acte
r-is
tics,
like
red
or
whi
te, b
ut n
o pi
nk. T
here
's n
otr
ansi
tiona
l.H
ow c
ould
he
do th
at?
How
cou
ld h
e te
ll al
l tha
t'?W
ell,
he p
roba
bly
had
done
oth
er e
xper
imen
te-
and
got i
nfor
mat
ion
from
them
, plu
s he
live
d in
an
agri
-cu
ltura
l are
a.H
e'd
prob
ably
see
n pe
as b
efor
e.H
e se
lect
ed h
is p
lant
s fr
om g
arde
n pe
as a
nd th
engr
ew th
em a
nd s
elec
ted
them
acc
ordi
ng to
wha
the
pic
ked.
On
page
2 h
e sa
ys e
xper
imen
tal p
lant
s m
ust n
ec-
essa
rily
pos
sess
con
stan
t dif
fere
ntia
ting,
cha
ract
er-
istic
s. W
hat d
id h
e m
ean
by th
at?
By
"con
stan
t?"
Tha
t it a
ppea
rs in
eve
ry g
ener
atio
n.
Wel
l, th
at w
ould
n't b
e tr
ue o
f w
hat h
e la
ter
calle
dre
cess
ive,
they
wou
ldn'
t be
cons
tant
.
The
y ne
ver
had
thos
e tr
ansi
tiona
l one
s.
Why
was
this
impo
rtan
t? I
t say
s he
re, "
cons
tant
char
acte
rs."
Why
wou
ld h
e w
ant t
hat?
I th
ink
he's
tryi
ng to
mak
e it
easi
er. I
wou
ldn'
tw
ant t
o w
ork
with
pea
pla
nts
for
eigh
t yea
rs.
Tha
t's w
hat h
is w
hole
exp
erim
ent i
s fo
r to
see
how
thes
e ch
arac
teri
stic
s pa
ss o
n. I
t see
ms
logi
cal,
you
know
..
.
Wha
t do
you
mea
n "l
ogic
al?"
How
the
char
acte
rist
ics
are
pass
ed o
n. H
e's
stud
y-in
g th
e w
ay th
at it
hap
pens
.T
hat's
all
righ
t. Y
ou're
say
ing
the
way
that
itha
ppen
s: o
bser
vatio
ns o
n th
e pl
ants
, wha
t the
ylo
oked
like
. Is
this
wha
t you
mea
n by
"w
ay'?
"I
thin
k it
is.
S.W
ell,
I'm ta
lkin
g ab
out t
he p
atte
rn, h
ow o
ften
itha
ppen
s, w
hy th
e di
ffer
ent c
hara
cter
istic
s ap
pear
ed.
M.1
.Su
ppor
tT
.A
gain
you
're g
oing
bac
k to
the
orig
inal
pro
blem
.
M.3
.R
efoc
usin
gW
hy w
ould
he
wan
t con
stan
t cha
ract
eris
tics
tost
art w
ith?
S.W
ell,
if th
ey w
eren
't co
nsta
nt, h
e'd
have
a h
ard
time
coun
ting
them
. He'
d ha
ve A
l the
se d
iffe
rent
..
M.3
.R
efoc
usin
g (b
y st
uden
t)S.
Hav
e w
e de
cide
d w
hat h
e m
eant
by
"con
stan
t?"
S.Y
es, I
don
't un
ders
tand
that
wor
d at
all.
T.
In e
ach
gene
ratio
n it
wou
ld a
ppea
r th
e sa
me,
like
pure
-bre
edin
g.
S.B
y ch
arac
teri
stic
, doe
s he
mea
n iik
c ye
llow
see
dsor
the
gree
n se
eds?
Or
does
he
just
mea
nth
e co
lor
of th
e se
eds?
Whe
n he
say
s co
nsta
nt c
hara
cter
s,do
es h
e m
ean
just
the
size
or
..
T.
Eith
er '.
.)ne
, as
long
as
they
're c
onst
ant.
S.O
kay.
T.
In o
ther
wor
ds, a
pla
nt th
at h
ad r
ound
pea
s w
ould
give
rou
nd p
eas,
ano
ther
kin
d w
ould
giv
e w
rink
led.
S.Y
es.
(Not
e: I
n th
e cl
assi
fica
tion
sche
me
we
are
usin
g fo
r an
nota
tion,
ther
eis
no
trul
y ap
prop
riat
e ca
tego
ry f
or w
hen
the
teac
her
answ
ers
a di
rect
que
stio
n.T
he o
nly
one
that
mig
ht b
e us
ed is
"su
ppor
t," in
that
the
teac
her
does
not
disc
oura
ge
or d
ispa
rage
the
stud
ent f
or a
skin
g a
"sim
ple"
que
stio
n.)
G.1
.Fo
cusi
ngI.
1.c.
Des
ign
of s
tudy
- 5
3 -
T.
Oka
y, n
ow th
at w
e've
got
that
set
tled,
how
abo
utth
e se
cond
cha
ract
eris
ticpr
otec
ted
from
for
eign
polle
n. W
hat's
he
sayi
ng h
ere?
S.Se
e th
at m
aze
over
ther
e? S
uppo
se a
mou
se w
ere
runn
ing
in it
and
all
of a
sud
den
he s
topp
ed, a
nd if
ther
e w
ere
a lo
t of
light
in th
e ro
om a
nd a
lot o
fso
und
in th
e ro
om, y
ou w
ould
n't k
now
whe
ther
it.
was
the
light
or
the
soun
d or
wha
t. Y
ou'v
e ju
st g
ot
to h
ave
one
vari
able
to a
ffec
t the
exp
erim
ent o
ryo
u do
n't k
now
whi
ch o
ne it
is th
at's
cau
sing
the
dist
urba
nce,
or
wha
teve
r.M
.1.
Supp
ort
T.
Oka
y, th
en y
ou're
say
ing,
wha
t are
the
cont
rols
; he
M.2
.In
vite
mor
e th
inki
ngha
d a
plan
t tha
t wou
ld n
ot b
e di
stur
bed
by o
ther
polle
n. W
hy w
ould
he
do.th
at?
(Not
e: U
se o
f th
e te
rms
"con
trol
" an
d "c
ontr
ollin
g" h
ere
and
follo
win
g su
gges
ts a
gain
that
stu
dent
s ha
vea
stro
ng f
ram
eof
ref
eren
ce r
e in
quir
y in
the
ante
cede
nt-c
onse
quen
t mod
e. T
he te
ache
r, in
usi
ng th
e te
rm, a
ppar
ently
rec
ogni
zes
its m
eani
ng f
or s
tude
nts.
)
S.
M.1
.Su
ppor
tT
.M
.3.
Ref
ocus
S.
M.3
.R
efoc
usT
.
S.G
.1.
Focu
sing
T.
1.1.
d.E
xecu
tion
of p
lan
Wel
l, w
hen
you'
re e
xper
imen
ting
with
dif
fere
ntcr
osse
s, if
you
get
pol
len
from
an
unkn
own,
it w
illth
row
it o
ff b
ecau
se y
ou w
on't
know
whi
ch c
hara
c-te
rist
ics
you
got f
rom
the
pare
nts.
All
righ
t, ve
ry g
ood.
Now
the
last
one
, "hy
brid
'sof
fspr
ing
shou
ld s
uffe
r no
mar
ked
disr
uptio
n in
fert
ility
." W
hat d
oes
that
mea
n?(l
ong
paus
e)
I do
n't r
eally
und
erst
and
it. B
ut in
the
next
par
a-gr
aph
..
.
He'
s re
ally
say
ing
that
he
wan
ts p
lant
s th
at a
rcw
hat?
Tha
t are
fer
tile.
Let
's lo
ok a
t the
pro
cedu
res
that
Men
del m
ight
have
use
d in
col
lect
ing
the
data
. Do
you
thin
k th
athe
was
con
trol
ling
his
oper
atio
n ra
ther
eff
ectiv
ely?
(Not
e: T
he te
rm "
mig
ht"
and
"con
trol
ling"
tend
to d
isto
rt th
e in
tend
ed f
ocus
. The
mos
t sig
nifi
cant
pro
cedu
re o
f th
ecr
osse
s an
d th
e re
sults
is n
ot, t
here
fore
, sha
rply
em
phas
ized
in th
e su
bseq
uent
res
pons
es. A
bet
ter
ques
tion
mig
htbe
, "W
hat d
id h
e do
in h
is f
irst
exp
erim
ents
?")
S.It
see
ms
to m
e th
at h
e w
as, b
ecau
se h
e ha
s th
egr
eenh
ouse
pla
nts;
he
says
som
ethi
ng a
bout
inse
cts.
He
says
a c
erta
in in
sect
cou
ld m
ess
up th
e ex
peri
-m
ent,
so h
e w
atch
ed f
or th
at. I
thou
ght i
t sou
nded
M.2
.In
vite
mor
e th
inki
ng
M.3
.R
efoc
usin
gI.
1.d.
Exe
cutio
n of
pla
n
like
he c
ontr
olle
d ev
eryt
hing
. The
sm
alle
r pl
ants
wer
e tr
ansp
lant
ed s
o th
ey w
ould
n't b
e ta
ken
over
by th
e bi
gger
one
s. I
gues
s he
bel
ieve
d in
evo
lutio
n,w
ell,
natu
ral s
elec
tion,
bec
ause
he
took
the
smal
ler
plan
ts o
ut b
ecau
se h
e re
aliz
ed th
ey'd
be
sele
cted
agai
nst
..
.
S.H
e w
as r
eally
ass
umin
g D
arw
in's
hyp
othe
sis.
S.I
just
thou
ght o
f so
met
hing
. Whe
n he
did
this
, it
real
ly b
ecom
es s
ort o
fan
idea
t situ
atio
n, h
is w
hole
idea
; it's
sur
pris
ing
that
it w
ould
wor
k th
atw
aybe
caus
e, r
eally
, the
rear
e so
man
y co
nditi
ons
that
wou
ld a
ffec
t pla
nts.
And
aft
er e
ight
year
s,. t
hat
ther
e w
asn'
t a d
roug
htor
som
ethi
ng, o
r ev
en th
egr
ound
. It t
ook
so m
uch
area
. It d
oesn
't sa
y th
at h
eha
d tr
oubl
e w
ith d
iffe
rent
com
posi
tions
of
soil.
May
be th
ere
was
n't t
hat m
uch
diff
eren
ce.
T.
It d
oesn
't m
entio
n th
at in
the
pape
r th
ough
, doe
sit?
We
real
ly d
on't
know
. We'
ll ha
ve to
mak
e th
atas
sum
ptio
n.S.
Sure
ly th
e di
rt in
the
sam
e ga
rden
was
all
the
sam
e.T
.T
hat's
an
assu
mpt
ion
now
, and
cou
ld w
e ge
nera
lize
and
say,
kno
win
g th
at h
e ha
d su
ch g
ood
cont
rols
,an
d he
was
cau
tious
, tha
t he
wou
ld p
roba
bly
take
care
of
the
soil?
S.Y
es, i
f he
had
not
iced
any
stra
nge
diff
eren
ces,
he
wou
ld h
ave
mad
e no
te o
f it.
T.
Wha
t wer
e so
me
of th
e pr
oced
ures
he
used
in c
ol-
lect
ing
the
data
? N
ow, w
e've
sta
ted
the
prob
lem
,an
d a
little
abo
ut th
e ex
peri
men
tal d
esig
n. W
ere
ally
hav
en't
said
muc
h ab
out t
he d
esig
n, h
ave
we,
but t
he c
ontr
ols.
Wha
t abo
ut th
e de
sign
itse
lf?
(Not
e: T
wo
slig
htly
dif
fere
nt q
uest
ions
wer
e as
ked
here
. The
fir
st o
ne is
mor
e sh
arpl
y fo
cuse
d th
an th
e se
cond
.)
- 55
-
M.1
.Su
ppor
t
G.2
.E
xten
ding
M.2
.In
vite
mor
e th
inki
ng
M.3
.R
efoc
us
- 56
-
lihIII
IIIIII
IIIIII
IIIIII
IINM
IIIIII
IMIII
MN
MIII
MM
INIIM
NIIM
IMIN
MIII
IINM
Iimrr
miw
S.W
ell,
on p
age
3 it
says
, in
the
next
toth
e la
st p
ara-
grap
h, h
e sa
ys th
at h
e's
subj
ecte
d th
e pe
as,
the
diff
eren
t var
ietie
s, to
two
year
tria
ls. A
ndth
at h
edi
d th
at b
efor
e cr
ossi
ng th
em, a
nd th
atth
e pu
rebr
eeds
rem
aine
d co
nsta
nt.
T.
Tha
t's g
ood.
S.H
e m
ade
sure
of
that
bef
ore
he s
tart
ed.
S.H
e sp
ent t
wo
year
s ju
st m
akin
g su
re h
e w
asst
artin
gou
t rig
ht.
T.
Any
oth
er th
ings
abo
ut th
e de
sign
?
S.Pa
ge 3
, in
abou
t the
mid
dle
of th
e pa
ge,
he ta
lks
abou
t art
ific
ial f
ertil
izat
ion
and
how
he
did
it.A
nd a
noth
er th
ing
that
he
did
was
tom
ake
a ta
ble
of a
ll th
e di
ffer
ence
s.. .
S.So
met
hing
I d
on't
unde
rsta
nd is
, did
he
take
a p
lant
that
had
like
rou
nd s
eeds
and
gre
en o
rye
llow
al-
bum
en a
nd a
ll di
ffer
ent k
inds
of
char
acte
rist
ics
and
mix
ed th
em w
ith o
ther
s th
at h
adch
arac
teri
stic
sop
posi
te to
the
firs
t?T
.W
hat d
o yo
u th
ink
he d
id?
S.I
don'
t kno
w. S
eem
s lik
e th
ere'
s so
man
ych
arac
-
teri
stic
s he
wor
ked
with
, but
I d
on't
know
exac
tly
wha
t he
did.
S.I
thin
k he
div
ided
them
in s
ectio
ns o
f pl
ants
with
diff
eren
t kin
ds o
f se
eds
and
cros
sed
them
six
tim
es.
He
cros
sed
one
with
the
othe
r fi
ve a
nd n
otes
wha
the
is lo
okin
g fo
r.
S.D
o yo
u m
ean
he to
ok tw
o pl
ants
whi
ch w
ere
exac
tly a
like
exce
pt f
or s
hape
of
seed
s?S.
Is s
he s
ayin
g on
e ch
arac
teri
stic
?'
T.
Rig
ht. D
oesn
't it
say
som
ethi
ng a
bout
that
inth
epa
per?
1
G.1
.Fo
scus
ing
I.2.
a.R
elat
ion
of d
ata
and
prob
lem
(Not
e: Q
uest
ion
impl
ies
that
ref
eren
ce m
ust b
e m
ade
to th
e na
ture
of
the
prob
lem
, but
it p
robl
ably
wou
ldbe
cle
arer
toth
e st
uden
ts if
this
wer
e w
orde
d to
sho
w th
at "
good
" m
eans
look
ing
at th
e re
latio
nshi
p be
twee
n th
e da
ta a
ndth
epr
oble
m. A
lso,
it is
usu
ally
bet
ter
to c
ontin
ue w
ith id
entif
icat
ion
of p
arts
of
the
repo
rt b
efor
e as
king
ques
tions
abou
t rel
atio
nshi
ps b
etw
een
the
part
s.)
S.O
h, s
o on
e ch
arac
teri
stic
, lik
e w
rink
led
or r
ound
.A
nd h
e di
d an
exp
erim
ent f
or e
ach
type
, for
eac
hch
arac
teri
stic
.T
.W
as th
at a
goo
d w
ay f
or h
im to
do
it?
S. S.
Yes
.
One
thin
g w
e ha
ven'
t tal
ked
abou
t tha
t I th
ough
tw
as in
tere
stin
g w
as w
hen
he s
aid
he c
ross
ed th
eman
d th
e hy
brid
s ha
d, w
ell,
onpa
ge 8
, he
cros
sed
ash
ort o
ne, a
bout
one
foo
t, w
ithon
e si
x fe
et a
ndgo
t som
e 6
-71
/2 f
eet.
Wha
t wou
ld c
ause
that
?S.
Seem
; lik
e th
at is
tran
sitio
nal.
Lik
eyo
u m
ix r
edan
d w
hite
and
get
pin
k.S.
It's
not
bet
wee
n, it
's ju
st a
ddin
g it
toge
ther
.M
.2.
Invi
te m
ore
thin
king
T.
Wel
l, w
hat w
ould
app
ear
to b
e do
min
ant?
S.L
ong.
M.1
.Su
ppor
tT
.T
all.
All
righ
t, so
I d
on't
thin
k it
wou
ld b
e tr
ansi
-tio
nal.
S.M
aybe
the
rece
ssiv
e tr
ait w
ith th
e do
min
ant t
rait
prod
uced
som
ethi
ng e
xtra
.S.
Seem
s lik
e th
at w
ould
be
tran
sitio
nal.
S.B
ut h
e sa
ys a
gre
ater
luxu
rian
ceap
pear
s in
all
part
sof
the
plan
ts. I
t's n
ot o
nly
talle
r, b
ut h
as m
ore
onth
e pl
ant.
M.1
.Su
ppor
tT
.A
hea
lthie
r pl
ant?
S.Y
esM
.3.
Ref
ocus
T.
Wel
l, le
t's g
o ba
ck to
sel
ectio
n of
the
plan
ts.
- 5
7 -
M.3
.R
efoc
us
M.2
.In
vite
mor
e th
inki
ng
M.1
.Su
ppor
t
G.1
.Fo
cusi
ng
1.3.
Eva
luat
ing
of r
epor
t
(Nex
t day
)
G.1
.Fo
cusi
ngI.
l.c.
Des
ign
of s
tudy
I.1.
d.E
xecu
tion
of p
lan
- 58
-
S.H
e di
dn't
real
ly s
ay w
hat k
ind
of r
esul
ts h
e ex
pect
ed.
T.
Was
he
look
ing
for
that
, tho
ugh?
S.H
e's
tryi
ng to
see
if th
ere'
s a
patte
rn.
T.
But
rem
embe
r, y
ou s
aid
that
on
page
1 h
e ha
s so
me-
thin
g sp
ecif
ic h
e's
look
ing
for.
S.If
he
has
a pa
ttern
, in
wor
king
a m
athe
mat
ical
for
-m
ula
to f
ind
the
solu
tion,
I th
ink
the
conc
lusi
onha
s to
fit
ever
y ca
se.
T.
Do
you
thin
k it
does
?
S.A
mut
atio
n is
an
exce
ptio
n to
the
rule
. How
can
you
fit i
t in
exce
pt a
s an
odd
one?
T.
Con
side
r it
anot
her
prob
lem
.S.
He
does
say
that
this
will
hap
pen,
on
page
s6
and
7, th
at th
ere
are
prob
lem
s. I
thin
k he
als
o sa
ysth
athe
doe
sn't
coun
t the
m.
T.
Shcu
ld h
e co
unt t
hem
?
S.Se
para
tely
. On
thei
r ow
n, n
ot w
ith th
e re
st o
f th
epl
ants
.
T.
Do
you
thin
k it
was
goo
d to
put
that
in h
is p
aper
?
S.H
e ha
s to
. Yes
.
T.
We
ende
d up
dis
cuss
ing
the
prob
lem
, the
pro
cedu
res
and
som
e of
the
data
. The
pro
cedu
res
for
colle
ct-
ing
the
data
, we
ough
t loo
k at
that
a li
ttle
mor
e.O
n pa
ges
4 an
d 5
he ta
lks
abou
t arr
ange
men
ts o
fth
e ex
peri
men
ts. H
ow d
oes
he s
et th
e pr
oced
ures
up?
Wha
t doe
s he
do
with
thes
e pl
ants
, the
one
sth
athe
has
sel
ecte
d as
pur
e-br
eedi
ng p
lant
s?
S.H
e cr
osse
d th
e on
es th
at h
ad th
edi
ffer
entia
ting
char
acte
rist
ics,
like
the
ones
with
the
roun
d an
dw
rink
led
seed
s, a
nd g
ot h
ybri
ds.
M.1
.Su
ppor
t
M.3
.R
efoc
us
T.
May
be o
ne o
f yo
u w
ould
wri
te th
ese
dow
n as
we
go a
long
. In
othe
r w
ords
you
're s
ayin
g w
hat t
rait.
Let
's p
ick
out a
par
ticul
ar tr
ait a
nd s
ee if
we
can
follo
w h
is p
artic
ular
des
ign.
Wha
t tra
it do
you
wan
tto
pic
k?
S.Fi
rst o
ne.
T.
Wha
t did
he
do w
ith th
is n
ow?
Wri
te th
is d
own.
Wha
t was
his
fir
st c
ross
?S.
Rou
nd w
as c
ross
ed w
ith w
rink
led.
T.
How
wou
ld y
ou p
ut it
in le
tters
?
S.R
R x
rr
4+ R
r.
(Not
e: S
tude
nt a
gain
is u
sing
pre
viou
sly
lear
ned
info
rmat
ion
rath
er th
an r
estr
ictin
g hi
s st
atem
ent t
o w
hat i
s st
ated
inth
e pa
per
abou
t thi
s fi
rst s
et o
f cr
osse
s.)
G.3
.L
iftin
g fr
om
I.l.d
to I
.2.a
.
M.2
.In
vite
mor
e th
inki
ng
(Not
e: T
his
stud
ent h
as s
tate
d a
criti
cally
impo
rtan
t poi
nt;
S.It
's s
moo
th o
r w
rink
led.
S.T
he d
omin
ant i
s ro
und.
T.
Why
did
he
mak
e th
at k
ind
of c
ross
?
S.H
e ha
d to
cro
ss h
omoz
ygou
s pl
ants
.T
.H
ow d
o yo
u kn
ow th
at th
ese
are
hom
ozyg
ous
plan
ts?
S.H
e co
uldn
't be
sur
e, b
ut a
fter
two
year
s.
..
T.
Tha
t get
s ba
ck to
the
sele
ctio
n of
the
plan
t.S.
On
page
8 it
say
s w
hich
ever
cha
ract
eris
tic s
how
s up
in th
e hy
brid
s is
the
dom
inan
t tra
it. L
ike
whe
n he
cros
sed
roun
d an
d w
rink
led
peas
, he
got r
ound
.A
nd s
o al
l his
res
ults
sho
w th
e re
cess
ive
is c
arri
edin
the
hybr
id.
S.B
ut y
ou h
ave
to g
o on
to a
noth
er g
ener
atio
n an
dco
me
back
.
it is
pur
sued
late
r.)
M.2
.In
vite
mor
e th
inki
ng
M.2
.In
vite
mor
e th
inki
ng
M.2
.In
vite
mor
e th
inki
ng
G.3
.L
iftin
g (t
o pr
edic
tion)
G.1
.Fo
cusi
ngI.
1.d.
Exe
cutio
n of
pla
n
G.1
.Fo
cusi
ngI.
1.e.
Inte
rpre
tatio
ns o
f da
ta
M.2
.In
vite
mor
e th
inki
ng
M.2
.In
vite
mor
e th
inki
ng
- 60
-
T.
(Dir
ecte
d to
oth
er s
tude
nt)
Wha
t do
you
thin
ks h
e
got a
ll th
e of
fspr
ing
and
they
wer
e al
l wha
t?
S.R
ound
.
T.
Now
wha
t kin
d of
thou
ght m
ight
hav
e be
engo
ing
thro
ugh
his
min
a w
hen
he g
ot th
e da
ta?
S.It
see
ms
like
it w
ould
be h
alf
and
half
.
T.
Tra
nsiti
on?
S.N
o. I
mea
n ha
lf r
ound
seed
s an
d ha
lf w
rink
led
seed
s.
Tha
t's w
hat I
mea
nt.
T.
Wha
t if
he g
ot th
at?
Let
'sju
st s
uppo
se it
.
S.H
e'd
prob
ably
hav
em
ade
up a
for
mul
a fo
rth
at.
T.
Did
he
chec
k al
l the
setr
aits
out
? D
id th
ey a
llsh
ow
the
sam
e pa
ttern
of
dom
inan
t and
rec
essi
ve?
S.Y
es.
T.
But
the
thin
g th
atbo
ther
s m
e is
this
: How
does
he
know
this
?
S.H
e cr
osse
d on
es th
athe
kne
w w
hat t
he p
aren
tsw
ere
like,
the
pare
nts
that
had
the
rece
ssiv
e tr
aits
.
S.B
ut h
ow c
ome
hew
ould
n't s
ay li
ke th
edo
min
ant
pare
nt is
the
one
that
is r
espo
nsib
le?
S.B
ut h
ow a
bout
whe
n he
cro
sses
pure
-bre
edin
g,
wri
nkle
d se
eds?
T.
Isn'
t tha
t pur
e-br
eedi
ng p
retty
impo
rtan
t, fr
om th
e
very
sta
rt?
S.A
nd th
e of
fspr
ing,
that
'sfi
ne, s
ome
of th
em a
rego
ing
to b
e do
min
ant,
som
ere
cess
ive
..
.
S.B
ut h
e ha
s to
be
sure
that
he'
s ju
st c
ross
ing
the
hybr
ids,
and
not
mix
them
up
with
the
pure
-br
eedi
ng.
T.
Do
you
thin
k th
at's
wha
t he
did?
G.S
.L
iftin
g to
I.2.
b.(R
elat
ion
betw
een
inte
rpre
tatio
ns a
ndki
nds
of d
ata)
S.I
thin
k he
had
to g
o on
e st
ep b
eyon
d, a
nd th
enba
cktr
ack,
8o
he'd
kno
w w
hich
wer
e hy
brid
and
whi
ch p
ure-
bree
ding
. But
to b
e su
re h
e'd
have
to g
oon
to th
e ne
xt g
ener
atio
n.
T.
Why
wou
ld h
e ha
ve to
go
on to
the
next
gen
erat
ion?
S.Fl
ow w
ould
he
know
that
the
rece
ssiv
e w
as th
ere
unle
ss h
e'd
gone
on?
(End
of
time:
dis
cuss
ion
not c
ompl
eted
.)
II.
Seco
nd d
iscu
ssio
n of
"E
xper
imen
ts in
Pla
nt H
ybri
disa
tion"
by
Gre
gor
Men
del.
(Lef
t col
umn
indi
cate
s ty
pe o
f qu
estio
n or
sta
tem
ent u
sed
by te
ache
r. F
ifte
en s
tude
nts
part
icip
ated
, but
no
atte
mpt
has
bee
nm
ade
to d
istin
guis
h am
ong
them
in th
e re
spon
ses.
)
G.1
.Fo
cusi
ngT
.B
efor
e w
e be
gin
look
ing
at th
e sp
ecif
ic p
arts
of
the
pape
r, I
wou
ld li
ke to
sta
ri. o
ut: i
n ge
nera
l and
ask
seve
ral q
uest
ions
.
Iden
tific
atio
n of
pro
blem
Why
do
you
supp
ose
a m
an w
ould
wor
k on
this
topi
c? D
o yo
u ha
ve a
ny id
ea?
S.H
e w
ante
d to
try
out s
omet
hing
dif
fere
nt; h
e w
ascu
riou
s.
M.1
.Su
ppor
tT
.A
ll ri
ght,
he w
as c
urio
us, w
asn'
t he,
abo
ut h
owhy
brid
s, w
ell t
he p
atte
rn b
y w
hich
'the
y tr
ansm
itch
arac
teri
stic
s fr
om o
ne g
ener
atio
n to
ano
ther
. He
give
s yo
u so
mew
hat o
f a
hint
to th
is in
the
intr
o-du
ctor
y re
mar
ks a
s to
why
he
chos
e th
is p
artic
ular
prob
lem
to w
ork
on. C
an a
ny o
f yo
u pi
ck it
up
ther
e? Y
es?
(Not
e: B
y us
ing
an M
.2. t
ype
of q
uest
ion,
e.g
., "W
hat w
as h
e cu
riou
s ab
out?
", s
tude
nts
wou
ldha
ve h
ad to
do
mor
eth
inki
ng.)
S.T
hat "
so f
ar n
o ge
nera
lly a
pplic
able
law
gov
erni
ngth
e fo
rmat
ion
and
deve
lopm
ent o
f hy
brid
s ha
s be
ensu
cces
sful
ly f
orm
ulat
ed."
-- 6
1 --
M.2
.In
vite
mor
e th
inki
ng
M.1
.Su
ppor
tG
.2.
Ext
endi
ng
M.1
.Su
ppor
tG
.1.
Focu
sing
I.1.
a.Id
entif
icat
ion
of p
robl
em
M.1
.Su
ppor
t
G.2
.E
xten
ding
M.3
.R
efoc
usin
g
T.
Wha
t do
you
thin
k ab
out t
he s
tate
men
t tha
t he
wro
te:?
Wha
t is
he r
efer
ring
to?
S.H
is m
otiv
atio
n fo
r do
ing
it.
T.
His
mot
ivat
ion
for
doin
g it;
ye'
s, h
e w
l...5
mot
ivat
edbe
caus
e th
ere
had'
t bee
n an
y la
w. O
ther
com
men
tsab
out t
his?
Yes
?
S.SM
ILs
to m
e th
at n
o ap
plic
able
law
has
bee
n fo
und.
T.
I th
ink
you'
re r
ight
. Let
's g
o on
to s
ee if
we
can
Vio
.d th
e pr
oble
m h
i the
pap
er. W
hat w
as th
e qu
es-
ton
the
inite
stig
etor
was
con
cern
ed w
ith?
(On
page
4, u
nder
"D
ivis
ion
end
Arr
ange
men
t of
Exp
erim
ent"
)
T.
Wou
ld y
ou r
ead
it fo
r us
ple
ase?
S."T
he o
bjec
t of
the
expe
rim
ent w
as to
obs
erve
:- th
ese
vari
atio
ns in
the
case
of
each
pai
r of
dif
fere
ntia
ting
char
acte
rist
ics
and
to d
educ
e th
e la
w a
ccor
ding
Lo
whi
ch th
ey a
ppea
r in
suc
cess
ive
gene
ratio
ns."
T.
Do
all o
f yo
u ag
ree
with
that
? Is
ther
e an
ybod
y w
hom
ight
dis
agre
e th
at th
at is
a s
tate
men
t of
the
prob
-le
m?
S.O
n pa
ge 1
he
stat
es, "
The
str
ikin
g re
gula
rity
with
whi
ch th
e sa
me
hybr
id f
orm
s al
way
s re
appe
ared
whe
neve
r fe
rtili
zatio
n to
ok p
lace
bet
wee
n th
e sa
me
spec
ies
indu
ced
furt
her
expe
rim
ents
to b
e un
der-
take
n, th
e ob
ject
of
whi
ch w
as to
fol
low
up
the
deve
lopm
ents
of
the
hybr
ids
in th
eir
prog
eny.
"T
.W
ould
you
rea
d th
e la
st p
art o
f th
at a
gain
ple
ase,
star
ting
with
"th
e ob
ject
."
S."t
he o
bjec
t of
whi
ch w
as to
fol
low
up
the
deve
lop.
men
ts o
f th
e hy
brid
s in
thei
r pr
ogen
y."
M.2
.In
vite
mor
e th
inki
ng'1
'.D
o yo
u fe
el th
at th
is is
als
o a
stat
emen
t of
prob
-le
m?
So I
gue
ss w
hat w
e're
say
ing
is th
at th
e pr
ob-
lem
mig
ht b
e st
ated
in tw
o or
thre
e di
ffer
ent p
lace
sin
the
earl
y pa
rt o
f th
e pa
per.
Rig
ht?
Do
you
wis
hto
add
any
thin
g to
wha
t has
bee
n sa
id?
(Not
e: A
t thi
s po
int t
he te
ache
r m
ight
hav
e ch
osen
to f
irm
ly e
stab
lish
that
thes
ear
e tw
o st
atem
ents
of
the
prob
lem
by
aski
ng th
e st
uden
ts to
com
pare
the
stat
emen
ts. A
re th
ey r
eally
say
ing
the
sam
e th
ing,
the
sam
e pr
oble
m?
If s
o,w
hat i
s th
e si
gnif
ican
ce o
f th
e di
ffer
ence
in th
e w
ordi
ng?)
G.1
.Fo
cusi
ngT
.H
ow d
o yo
u su
ppos
e he
fel
t abo
ut w
orki
ng o
nth
is p
robl
em?
(Not
e: A
foc
usin
g qu
estio
n, b
ut it
is n
ot in
clud
ed in
the
cate
gori
es b
eing
use
d. S
ince
it p
erta
ins
mor
e to
a p
sych
olog
ical
appr
oach
to in
quir
y th
an to
the
logi
cal a
naly
sis,
whi
ch is
the
basi
s of
our
cate
gori
es.)
S.W
ell,
it sa
ys o
n pa
ge 2
, it s
ays
it re
quir
es in
deed
som
e co
urag
e to
und
erta
ke a
labo
r of
suc
h fa
rre
achi
ng e
xten
t. T
hen
it sa
ys o
n do
wn
furt
her,
"Whe
ther
the
plan
upo
n w
hich
the
sepa
rate
exp
eri-
men
ts w
ere
cond
ucte
d an
d ca
rrie
d ou
t was
the
best
suite
d to
atta
in th
e de
sire
d en
d is
left
to th
e fr
iend
lyde
cisi
on o
f th
e re
ader
."
And
I g
uess
that
's w
hat w
e're
goi
ng to
be
doin
g fo
rth
e re
st o
f th
e pe
riod
is ta
king
a c
aref
ul lo
ok a
tw
hat h
e di
d an
d th
en to
con
side
r it
care
fully
and
mak
e a
deci
sion
of
how
wel
l we
thin
k he
did
the
wor
k.
Wha
t was
his
nex
t ste
p af
ter
he s
tate
d th
e pr
oble
m?
M.1
.Su
ppor
t
G.1
.Fo
cusi
ngI.
l.c.
Des
ign
of s
tudy
M.2
.In
vite
mor
e th
inki
ng
G.2
.E
xten
ding
S.A
fter
he
stat
ed th
e pr
oble
m, h
e w
ent r
ight
into
the
desi
gn o
f th
e ex
peri
men
t.T
.A
re y
ou s
ayin
g th
at h
e di
d no
t hav
e a
hypo
thes
is?
S,Y
es.
T.
How
do
the
rest
of
you
feel
abo
ut th
is?
Wer
eyo
uab
le to
fin
d a
hypo
thes
is?
M.1
.Su
ppor
tG
.1.
Focu
sing
1.3.
Eva
luat
ion
of r
epor
t
S.W
ell I
don
't be
lieve
he
had
a hy
poth
esis
eith
er, b
e-ca
use
he d
idn'
t kno
w w
hat h
e w
ould
get
aft
er h
ecr
osse
d th
ose,
so
I co
uldn
't se
e ho
w h
e co
uld
have
one.
T.
So h
e ju
st s
ort o
f w
orke
d in
duct
ivel
y. H
e st
ated
the
prob
lem
, and
then
he
sat d
own
to s
tart
sol
v-in
g it.
Do
you
thin
k th
is a
val
id w
ay f
or a
sci
entis
tto
wor
k? N
ow th
at w
e un
ders
tand
the
way
Men
del
did
this
, do
you
thin
k th
is w
as a
val
id a
ppro
ach?
(Not
e: A
ser
ies
of le
ad-u
p qu
estio
ns m
ight
hav
e he
lped
stu
dent
to r
espo
nd to
teac
her's
eva
luat
ive
ques
tion.
)
S.I
don'
t bel
ieve
he
had
a hy
poth
esis
bec
ause
, to
form
a hy
poth
esis
, you
mus
t hav
e so
me
guid
elin
es to
go
by to
kno
w if
you
r id
eas
are
righ
t. If
you
just
jum
pin
hea
dlon
g, y
ou w
on't
know
wha
t kin
d of
res
ults
you
need
to g
et. Y
ou c
an't
look
bac
k on
you
r re
-su
lts a
nd g
et a
n ex
plan
atio
n fo
r th
em.
All
righ
t, yo
u've
bro
ught
up
som
ethi
ng th
ere
that
is in
tere
stin
g. Y
ou s
aid
he ju
mpe
d in
sor
t of
head
-lo
ng. D
o yo
u th
ink
Men
del i
s gu
ilty
of th
is?
Wel
l, he
kin
d of
had
eve
ryth
ing
plan
ned
out;
hekn
ew w
hat p
robl
em h
e w
as w
orki
ng o
n. S
ince
he
didn
't ha
ve a
hyp
othe
sis,
he
didn
't ha
ve a
ny id
eaw
hat h
e w
as g
oing
to g
et.
Do
you
real
ly th
ink
that
he
didn
't ha
ve a
ny id
ea o
fw
hat h
e w
as g
oing
to g
et?
I'd li
ke to
hea
r fr
om th
isyo
ung
lady
.
Wel
l, I
thin
k th
at h
e w
as p
retty
sur
e he
wou
ld f
ind
a la
w.
He
stat
es in
two
or th
ree
plac
es th
at h
e's
look
ing
for
a la
w o
f or
der
by w
hich
thes
e ch
arac
teri
stic
sar
e tr
ansm
itted
fro
m o
ne g
ener
atio
n to
ano
ther
,
M.1
.Su
ppor
tT
.M
.2.
Invi
te m
ore
thin
king
S.
M.2
.In
vite
mor
e th
inki
ngT
.
S.
M.1
.Su
ppor
tT
.
G.1
.Fo
cusi
ngI.
2.d.
Ass
umpt
ions
re
prob
lem
M.1
.G
.1.
I.2.
e.
Supp
ort
Focu
sing
Rel
atio
n be
twee
n de
sign
of s
tudy
and
pro
blem
M.2
.In
vite
mor
e th
inki
ng
- 6
5 -
spec
ific
ally
dea
ling
with
hyb
rid
form
s. Y
ou'v
e al
-re
ady
quot
ed f
rom
two
plac
es in
the
pape
r in
whi
chth
is is
sta
ted
or im
plie
d.W
hat a
ssum
ptio
ns d
id h
e m
ake
in r
egar
d to
this
?D
irer
you
pic
k up
som
e of
that
?
S.W
ell,
whe
re h
e st
ated
the
part
abo
ut f
indi
ng a
gen
-er
ally
app
licab
le la
w. I
thin
k he
mus
t hav
e as
sum
edth
ere
is a
law
.
T.
He
assu
mes
that
ther
e is
a la
w.
Now
let m
e re
fer
you
to p
age
2 of
the
pape
r, u
nder
"Sel
ectio
n of
Exp
erim
enta
l Pla
nts.
""T
he s
elec
tion
of th
e pl
ant g
roup
whi
ch s
hall
serv
efo
r ex
peri
men
ts o
f th
is k
ind
mus
t be
mad
e w
ith a
llpo
ssib
le c
are
if it
is to
be
desi
red
to a
void
fro
m th
eou
tset
eve
ry r
isk
of q
uest
iona
ble
resu
lts."
The
n it
goes
thro
ugh
thre
e of
the
nece
ssar
y qu
alif
icat
ions
of th
e pl
ants
. Why
was
it n
eces
sary
for
him
to h
ave
plan
ts th
at p
osse
ssed
con
stan
t dif
fere
ntia
ting
char
-ac
teri
stic
s? W
hy d
o yo
u su
ppos
e he
mad
e th
is a
prer
equi
site
?
S.B
ecau
se if
he
didn
't ha
ve p
lant
s th
at w
ere
cons
tant
,he
wou
ldn'
t kno
w w
hat c
hang
ed in
the
plan
ts d
ur-
ing
the
expe
rim
ents
.S.
He
wou
ld h
ave
had
no c
ontr
ol.
T.
All
righ
t, di
d M
ende
l hav
e a
cont
rol i
n th
e w
ork
hew
as d
oing
?
S.W
ell,
he p
ut s
ome
kind
s in
a g
reen
hous
e, a
nd th
atco
uld
be a
con
trol
bec
ause
the
rest
of
them
wer
eou
tdoo
rs, a
nd h
e sa
id if
ther
e w
as a
nyth
ing,
if th
ein
sect
s bo
ther
ed th
em (
he d
idn'
t thi
nk th
ey'd
both
er th
em v
ery
muc
h, b
ut if
they
did
) he
cou
ldte
ll w
hat t
he in
sect
s di
d be
caus
e he
had
som
e m
ore
in th
e gr
eenh
ouse
.
T.
Tha
t was
a c
ontr
ol f
or in
sect
s, w
asn'
t it?
Did
he
also
hav
e co
ntro
l for
the
way
the
char
ac-
teri
stic
s w
ere
tran
smitt
ed f
rom
one
gen
erat
ion
toth
e ne
xt a
s he
was
doi
ng th
e ex
peri
men
t? D
id h
eco
ntro
l the
gen
etic
s?
S.W
ell,
he o
nly
had
one
vari
able
in e
ach
plan
t.
T.
How
did
he
know
that
thes
e pl
ants
wer
e di
ffer
ent?
S.H
e ob
serv
ed th
e pl
ants
two
year
s be
fore
he
cros
sed
them
.
T.
So, i
n th
is c
ase
he c
ould
con
trol
the
expe
rim
ent
befo
re h
e st
arte
d in
as
far
as th
e ch
arac
teri
stic
s of
the
plan
ts a
re c
once
rned
.L
et's
rea
d nu
mbe
r 2,
on
page
2: "
The
hyb
rids
of
said
pla
nts
mus
t, du
ring
the
flow
erin
g pe
riod
, be
prot
ecte
d fr
om th
e in
flue
nce
of a
ll fo
reig
n po
llen,
or b
e ea
sily
cap
able
of s
aid
prot
ectio
n."
Why
was
this
nec
essa
ry?
I th
ink
we
brou
ght t
his
out b
efor
e,bu
t let
's b
e su
re it
's c
lear
to a
ll of
us.
Let
's s
ee, I
'mhe
arin
g fr
om o
ne, t
wo,
thre
e, f
our,
fiv
e, s
ix p
eopl
e.
S.W
ould
you
rep
eat t
he q
uest
ion?
T.
It r
efer
s to
num
ber
2 un
der
"Sel
ectio
n of
Exp
eri-
men
tal P
lant
s."
S.H
e ha
d to
kno
w w
hat p
olle
n en
tere
d w
hat
plan
tsan
d fe
rtili
zed
them
.
T.
Why
is th
at im
port
ant?
S.B
ecau
se o
ther
wis
e he
wou
ldn'
t kno
w w
hich
pla
nts
wer
e th
e pa
rent
s.
T.
Let
's g
o on
and
look
at t
he th
ird
prer
equi
site
:"t
he h
ybri
ds a
nd th
eir
offs
prin
g .
.."
(I'm
rea
ding
unde
r nu
mbe
r 2)
"th
e hy
brid
s an
d th
eir
offs
prin
gsh
ould
suf
fer
no m
arks
of
dist
urba
nce
in th
eir
fer-
tility
in s
ucce
ssiv
e ge
nera
tions
." W
hy w
as th
is a
prer
equi
site
?
A
M.1
.Su
ppor
t
G.1
.Fo
cusi
ngI.
1.f.
Iden
tific
atio
n of
ass
umpt
ions
M.2
.In
vite
mor
e th
inki
ng
M.2
.In
vite
mor
e th
inki
ng
M.1
.Su
ppor
t
- 6
7 -
S.W
ell,
if th
ey c
ould
n't p
rodu
ce o
ffsp
ring
, the
n th
eyco
uldn
't go
any
fur
ther
.
T.
All
righ
t, he
cou
ldn'
t fin
d ou
t wha
t hap
pene
d as
far
as th
e of
fspr
ing
are
conc
erne
d. S
o he
set
s th
e cr
iteri
afo
r th
e se
lect
ion
of th
e ex
peri
men
tal p
lant
s. N
oww
e've
take
n a
look
at t
he p
robl
em a
nd w
e ha
ve s
aid
that
ther
e is
n't r
eally
a h
ypot
hesi
s, b
ut y
et h
e's
very
care
ful a
bout
how
he
sele
cts
the
expe
rim
enta
lpl
ants
. He
rais
es th
ese
plan
ts f
or tw
o ye
ars
befo
rehe
sta
rts
to d
o th
e cr
ossi
ngth
at is
, the
cro
ssin
gbe
twee
n th
e pa
rent
al p
lant
s us
ed in
the
expe
rim
ents
.W
e m
entio
ned
he m
ay h
ave
jum
ped
into
this
hea
d-lo
ng, a
nd I
thin
k w
e've
dec
ided
that
that
was
pro
b-ab
ly n
ot th
e ca
se, s
ince
he
set u
p th
ose
crite
ria
and
he r
aise
d th
e pl
ants
for
two
year
s be
fore
sta
rtin
gth
e ex
peri
men
tal c
ross
es.
Now
, did
you
pic
k up
any
ass
umpt
ions
that
per
-ha
ps h
e w
as w
orki
ng w
ith?
S.I
have
a q
uest
ion.
How
cou
ld h
e te
ll th
e pe
a pl
ants
have
the
nece
ssar
y ch
arac
teri
stic
s?
T.
How
do
you
supp
ose
he d
id th
is?
S.W
ell,
whe
n he
rai
sed
the
pure
-bre
edin
g pl
ants
for
two
year
s, h
e co
uld
have
cro
ssed
them
dur
ing
that
time,
or
befo
re, t
o se
e if
they
hav
e fe
rtile
off
spri
ng.
T.
Are
you
say
ing
that
he
may
hav
e do
ne s
ome
thin
gsw
ithou
t lis
ting
them
in h
is r
epor
t?
S.H
e m
ay h
ave
deci
ded
that
with
out t
ellin
g yo
u an
y-th
ing
abou
t it.
T.
All
righ
t, do
n't y
ou th
ink
that
at o
ne ti
me
oran
othe
r he
cro
ssed
som
e of
thes
e pe
a pl
ants
to s
eeif
they
wou
ld h
ave
fert
ile o
ffsp
ring
? Is
it li
kely
that
he w
ould
've
done
that
sor
t of
thin
g? B
ecau
se, i
f
M.3
.R
efoc
usin
g
M.3
.R
efoc
usin
gI.
2.d.
Ass
umpt
ions
re
desi
gnof
stu
dy
you
read
on
fart
her
here
, he
men
tione
d th
efa
ctth
at th
e pe
a pl
ants
do
mee
t the
req
uire
men
ts; o
npa
ge 3
, the
sec
ond
full
para
grap
hdo
wn,
"So
me
thor
ough
ly d
istin
ct f
orm
s of
this
gen
us p
osse
ssch
arac
ters
whi
ch a
re c
onst
ant,
and
easi
ly a
nd c
er-
tain
ly r
ecog
niza
ble,
and
whe
n th
eir
hybr
ids
are
mut
ually
cro
ssed
they
yie
ld p
erfe
ctly
fer
tile
prog
-en
y."
Wha
t ass
umpt
ions
can
we
mak
e fr
om th
at?
S.T
hat h
e ex
peri
men
ted
with
them
.
S.O
r th
e w
ork
of o
ther
pla
nt b
reed
ers
had
show
nth
at th
ese
wer
e ch
arac
teri
stic
s of
pea
pla
nts.
T-.
Bac
k on
our
line
of
thin
king
then
, can
you
thin
k of
som
e as
sum
ptio
ns th
at h
e w
asm
akin
g w
hen
hest
ated
the
prob
lem
, and
whe
n he
set
abo
ut to
fin
dpl
ants
that
fill
the
crite
ria?
It s
eem
s to
me
that
he'
ssa
ying
mor
e th
an, "
Wel
l, I'm
goi
ng to
sel
ect o
utce
rtai
n pl
ants
whi
ch m
eet a
ny r
equi
rem
ents
that
Iw
ant t
o pu
t dow
n on
pap
er."
Wha
t ass
umpt
ions
did
he m
ake
that
gui
ded
the
fact
that
he
had
to h
ave
plan
ts th
at m
et c
erta
in r
equi
rem
ents
?
(Not
e: I
n th
is c
ase
the
refo
cusi
ng is
nec
essa
ry b
ecau
se th
e in
itial
foc
usin
g qu
estio
n di
d no
tmak
e cl
ear
the
type
of
assu
mp-
tions
to b
e id
entif
ied.
)
M.1
.Su
ppor
t
S.O
ne o
f hi
s as
sum
ptio
ns w
as th
at th
ese
thre
e qu
ali-
ties
in p
lant
s w
ere
nece
ssar
y to
fol
low
a c
erta
inch
arac
teri
stic
fro
m p
aren
ts to
off
spri
ng. H
e al
soas
sum
ed th
at th
ere
mus
t be
som
e ki
nd o
f pl
ant
whi
ch w
ould
mee
t the
thre
e co
nditi
ons.
T.
Let
's g
o ba
ck a
nd lo
ok a
t the
pro
blem
aga
in. T
heob
ject
of
the
expe
rim
ent w
as to
obs
erve
thes
e va
ri-
atio
ns in
the
case
of
each
pai
r of
dif
fere
ntia
ting
char
acte
rist
ics
and
dedu
ce th
e la
w a
ccor
ding
to
G.1
.Fo
cusi
ngI.
1.c.
Des
ign
of s
tudy
G.2
.E
xten
ding
whi
ch th
ey a
ppea
red
in s
ucce
ssiv
e ge
nera
tions
. So
you'
re s
ayin
g th
at th
e as
sum
ptio
ns, t
hen,
for
the
type
of
plan
ts th
at h
e ha
d to
hav
e, r
elat
ed b
ack
toth
e pr
oble
m.
T.
Now
, how
is h
e go
ing
abou
t sol
ving
the
prob
lem
?L
et m
e as
k yo
u th
is. W
hat w
as M
ende
l goi
ng to
do
that
was
not
don
e be
fore
his
tim
e? W
hat w
as h
ego
ing
to d
o th
at w
as d
iffe
rent
? N
ow h
e gi
ves
you
som
e id
ea o
f w
hat's
bee
n do
ne b
efor
e, in
the
intr
o-du
ctio
n, a
nd s
ort o
f lo
oks
at th
is a
nd s
ays,
"A
h,th
ey'v
e do
ne th
at, n
ow I
'm g
oing
to d
o so
met
hing
else
." D
id y
ou p
ick
up w
hat h
e w
as g
oing
to d
odi
ffer
ently
?
S.H
e is
goi
ng to
dif
fer
in th
at h
e is
goi
ng to
try
tofi
gure
out
som
e ki
nd o
f re
latio
nshi
p, s
ort o
f a
ratio
,to
cor
resp
ond
to w
hat o
ther
peo
ple;
had
des
crib
edve
rbal
ly.
T.
How
is h
e go
ing
to f
ind
a ra
tio?
Wha
t kin
d of
dat
ais
he
goin
g to
get
? W
hat k
ind
of d
ata
is h
e lo
okin
gfo
r in
rel
atio
n to
the
prob
lem
that
ref
lect
s w
hat
he's
goi
ng to
do
diff
eren
tly?
S.B
efor
e w
hen
they
exp
erim
ente
d th
ey u
sed
all d
if-
fere
nt k
inds
they
wer
e di
ffer
ent w
ith a
who
le lo
tof
dif
fere
nt c
hara
cter
istic
s. H
e w
as g
oing
to u
se o
neth
at w
as d
iffe
rent
fro
m a
noth
er in
onl
y on
e ch
ar-
acte
rist
ic, t
hen
he w
as g
oing
to s
how
how
it w
orke
dou
t.A
min
ute
ago
you
used
the
term
"ra
tio;"
how
is h
ego
ing
to f
ind
the
ratio
? W
hat's
he
goin
g to
do?
Inte
rpre
t his
dat
a m
athe
mat
ical
ly.
Goo
d. A
nd w
hat m
ust h
e do
in o
rder
to in
terp
ret
his
data
mat
hem
atic
ally
?(l
ong
paus
e)
M.3
.R
efoc
usin
gT
.
S.
M.1
.Su
ppor
tT
.G
.2.
Ext
endi
ng
I'd li
ke to
dir
ect y
our
atte
ntio
n to
the
top
of p
age
2, "
..
.to
mak
e it
poss
ible
to d
ew; l
ine
the
num
ber
of d
iffe
rent
for
ms
unde
r w
hich
the
offs
prin
g of
hybr
ids
appe
ar, o
r to
arr
ange
thes
e fo
rms
with
cer
-ta
inty
acc
ordi
ng to
thei
r se
para
te g
ener
atio
ns, o
rde
fini
tely
to a
scer
tain
thei
r st
atis
tical
rel
atio
ns."
Wha
t doe
s he
pla
n to
do?
Wha
t mus
t he
do in
ord
erto
car
ry th
is o
ut?
S.H
e ha
s to
kee
p tr
ack
of th
e ch
arac
teri
stic
s in
eac
hge
nera
tion.
S.B
efor
e th
at h
e sa
ys h
e's
goin
g to
mak
e su
re h
e ca
nte
ll th
e di
ffer
ent f
orm
s of
the
offs
prin
g of
the
hybr
ids.
S.If
he'
s go
ing
to d
eter
min
e st
atis
tical
rel
atio
ns, h
e's
goin
g to
hav
e to
cou
nt th
e di
ffer
ent t
ypes
.
T.
Ver
y go
od. I
n ot
her
wor
ds, h
e's
goin
g to
hav
e to
coun
t the
type
s he
get
s in
eac
h ge
nera
tion
and
he's
goin
g to
inte
rpre
t his
dat
a m
athe
mat
ical
ly, s
tatis
-tic
ally
. He'
s go
ing
to c
olle
ct q
uant
itativ
e da
ta a
ndm
ake
his
infe
renc
es f
rom
that
. As
far
as w
e kn
ow,
he w
as th
e fi
rst o
ne to
do
this
.
T.
All
righ
t, w
hat p
lan
did
he u
se?
How
did
he
goab
out i
t? W
hat d
id h
e do
?
(lon
g pa
use)
Wel
l, w
e've
had
som
e tim
e to
thin
k ab
out t
his.
S.H
e pi
cked
pea
s w
ith s
even
dif
fere
nt c
hara
cter
istic
s.
T.
Let
's e
nlar
ge o
n th
is; h
e pi
cked
pea
s w
ith s
even
diff
eren
t cha
ract
eris
tics.
May
be w
e ca
n di
agra
mth
is o
n th
e bo
ard.
Can
you
hel
p m
e yo
ung
lady
?W
hat d
o yo
u th
ink
is th
e fi
rst t
hing
I s
houl
d pu
tup
her
e?
S.Se
lect
ion
of p
lant
s.
7o
M.1
.Su
ppor
tM
.2.
Invi
te m
ore
thin
king
M.2
.In
vite
mor
e th
inki
ng
M.1
.Su
ppor
t
T.
Can
you
add
som
ethi
ng to
wha
t we'
ve a
lrea
dy s
aid
on s
elec
tion
of p
lant
s? T
his
was
his
fir
st s
tep
Igu
ess,
was
n't i
t?S.
He
used
true
hyb
rids
.T
.I'm
a li
ttle
conf
used
bec
ause
usu
ally
whe
n yo
ubr
eed
a hy
brid
pla
nt y
ou g
et d
iffe
rent
kin
ds o
f of
f-sp
ring
fro
m it
. Now
, wha
t do
you
mea
n by
true
hybr
ids?
S.H
e us
ed p
ure
bree
ding
pla
nts.
T.
Ver
y go
od.
S.W
ell,
how
com
e th
e pl
ants
that
he
chos
e, w
ere
peas
?W
ere
they
bes
t sui
ted
for
the
expe
rim
ents
, or,
say
,w
hy d
idn'
t he
use
bean
s, o
r to
mat
o pl
ants
?(N
ote:
Eve
n th
ough
stu
dent
her
e as
ks a
que
stio
n w
hich
take
s th
e di
scus
sion
off
the
trac
kse
t by
the
teac
her,
and
bac
k to
an a
spec
t of
the
repo
rt a
lrea
dy d
ealt
with
, the
teac
her
cont
inue
s on
the
line
set b
y th
is s
tude
nt o
n th
roug
h th
ene
xt p
age
until
it is
cle
ared
up
and
they
can
ret
urn
to th
e de
sign
and
exe
cutio
n of
the
stud
y.)
M.1
.Su
ppor
t
M.1
.Su
ppor
tG
.2.
Ext
endi
ng
M.Z
.Su
ppor
t
T.
All
righ
t, do
you
hav
e an
y id
eas?
Tha
t is
an e
xcel
-le
nt q
uest
ion,
I'v
e w
onde
red
abou
t tha
t sev
eral
times
mys
elf.
Why
in th
e w
orld
wou
ld h
e ch
oose
pea
plan
ts?
S.W
ell,
one
big
reas
on w
as th
at th
ey c
ould
n't b
efe
rtili
zed
by in
sect
s.
T.
All
righ
t, th
is is
one
thin
g. W
hat e
lse?
S.Si
ze, r
ate
of g
row
th, a
pea
pla
nt w
ill g
row
str
aigh
tup
a to
mat
o pl
ant w
ill g
et a
ll dr
awn
out a
ndev
eryt
hing
whe
re a
pea
pla
nt f
orm
s a
nice
vin
e.S.
Wel
l, in
the
pape
r it
said
that
art
ific
ial f
ertil
izat
ion
was
one
of
the
reas
ons.
T.
All
righ
t, an
d th
is g
oes
back
to c
lose
d fl
ower
s; if
you'
re g
oing
to a
rtif
icia
lly f
ertil
ize
the
plan
ts, y
ou'v
ego
t to
prot
ect t
he to
p of
the
ovar
y an
d th
e st
igm
afr
om f
orei
gn p
olle
n.
S.
M.1
.Su
ppor
tT
.
G.2
.E
xten
ding
S.
M.1
.Su
ppor
tT
.
G.1
.Fo
cusi
ng1.
1.d.
Exe
cutio
n of
the
plan
S.
M.1
.Su
ppor
tT
.
M.2
.In
vite
mor
e th
inki
ng
S.
(End
of
firs
t ses
sion
)
G.1
.Fo
cusi
ng (
revi
ew)
1.1.
a.Id
entif
icat
ion
of p
robl
em
It s
ays
in th
e pa
per
that
they
als
oha
ve a
sho
rt li
fe
time.
The
ava
ilabi
lity
of d
iffe
rent
var
ietie
s is
anot
her
fact
or. 1
)o y
ou h
ave
som
e ot
her
idea
s?
Wel
l, yo
u ca
n ge
t a lo
t of
peas
fro
m o
nege
nera
tion.
All
righ
t, in
oth
er w
ords
pea
pla
nts
typi
cally
hav
em
any
flow
ers,
form
man
y po
ds, a
nd a
ll th
e ot
her
thin
gs y
ou'v
e m
entio
ned.
The
re's
one
othe
r th
ing
I m
ight
add
, tha
t I th
ink
som
eone
touc
hed
upon
earl
ier,
is ju
st th
e fa
ct th
at th
ey w
ere
avai
labl
e. R
e-m
embe
r, in
the
pape
r, w
hen
he ta
lks
abou
t get
ting
the
seed
s. T
hey
wer
e av
aila
ble;
it w
asso
met
hing
he
coul
d w
ork
with
that
see
med
to f
it al
lth
e cr
iteri
a,an
d ha
d th
e ot
her
adva
ntag
es y
ou'v
em
entio
ned
asw
ell.
Now
, wha
t's th
e ne
xt it
em I
sho
uld
put u
phe
re?
Or
may
be y
ou w
ant t
o ch
ange
som
ethi
ng th
at's
up
here
? W
e're
tryi
ng to
look
now
at h
owhe
wen
tab
out s
olvi
ng h
is p
robl
em, h
ow h
eca
rrie
d ou
t his
expe
rim
ents
.H
e fo
und
a nu
mbe
r of
wea
k pl
ants
and
sele
cted
only
vig
orou
s pl
ants
.O
kay.
He
sele
cted
onl
y th
e vi
goro
us p
lant
s.W
onde
r w
hy h
e di
d th
at?
isn'
t thi
s ki
ndof
goi
ngag
ains
t bei
ng s
cien
tific
?
Wel
l, he
wan
ted
to f
ind
diff
eren
ces
betw
een
plan
ts.
If h
e di
dn't
choo
se th
e m
ost v
igor
ous
plan
t,it
wou
ld c
ause
him
dif
ficu
lty in
det
erm
inin
gki
nds
ofpl
ants
or
kind
s of
off
spri
ng.
T.
Yes
terd
ay w
e ta
lked
abo
ut th
e pr
oble
m, a
ssum
p-tio
ns, a
nd s
ome
abou
t the
exp
erim
enta
lde
sign
. By
M.1
.Su
ppor
t
G.1
.Fo
cusi
ngI.
1.c.
Des
ign
of s
tudy
M.2
.In
vite
mor
e th
inki
ng
G.2
.E
xten
ding
M.1
.Su
ppor
tG
.2.
Ext
endi
ng
G.2
.E
xten
ding
M.1
.Su
ppor
tG
.2.
Ext
endi
ng
7 3
expe
rim
enta
l des
ign
we
mea
n w
hat p
lan
was
use
dto
ans
wer
the
ques
tion.
Do
you
reca
ll th
z qu
estio
nhe
's w
orki
ng w
ith?
May
be w
e ca
n re
stat
e it
and
goon
. Wha
t que
stio
n w
as h
e w
orki
ngw
ith?
Can
som
e-on
e re
stat
e it
for
us to
day?
S.Sh
all I
rea
d th
e pa
per?
T.
If y
ou w
ould
, ple
ase.
S."T
he o
bjec
t of
the
expe
rim
ent w
as to
obs
erve
thes
e va
riat
ions
in th
e ca
se o
f ea
ch p
air
of d
iffe
r-en
tiatin
g ch
arac
teri
stic
s an
d to
ded
uce
the
law
inw
hich
they
app
ear
in s
ucce
ssiv
e ge
nera
tions
."
T.
Now
how
did
he
go a
bout
to a
nsw
er th
at p
artic
ular
ques
tion?
S.H
e se
lect
ed p
lant
s.
T.
All
righ
t, se
lect
ed p
lant
s. J
ust a
ny p
lant
s?
S.V
igor
ous.
T.
Vig
orou
s pl
ants
. Wha
t oth
er c
rite
ria
did
he u
se?
S.T
rue-
bree
ding
pla
nts.
T.
All
righ
t, tr
ue-b
reed
ing
plan
ts. W
hat o
ther
o.r
iteri
adi
d he
use
? Is
this
all
he d
id w
as f
ind
true
-bre
ed;n
gpl
ants
? Y
es?
S.H
e ch
ose
plan
ts th
at w
ere
pelf
- po
llina
ting.
T.
All
righ
t, se
lf-p
ollin
atin
g. A
ny o
ther
cha
met
i.vis
ties?
Yes
?
S.lie
use
d pl
ants
that
wer
e po
llina
ted
by th
emse
lves
.
T.
Wel
l, th
at's
kin
d of
sel
f-po
llina
tion.
We'
re r
eally
talk
ing
abou
t the
cha
ract
eris
tics
of th
e fl
ower
of
the
plan
t, ar
en't.
we?
Wha
t cha
ract
eris
tics
did
here
quir
e th
at th
e pl
ants
hav
e? I
f yo
u'll
thin
k ba
ck to
the
pape
r, 1
. thi
nk y
ou'll
rec
all t
wo
or th
ree
crite
ria
of w
hat t
he p
lant
s m
ust h
ave.
Yes
?
M.1
.Su
ppor
tG
.2.
Ext
endi
ng
M.1
.Su
ppor
t
G.1
.Fo
cusi
ngI.
1.d.
Exe
cutio
n of
pla
n
M.2
.In
vite
mor
e th
inki
ng
M.1
.Su
ppor
tM
.3.
Ref
ocus
ing
M.1
.Su
ppor
tG
.2.
Ext
endi
ng
M.1
.Su
ppor
t
- 7
4 -
S.T
hat p
lant
s po
sses
s co
nsta
nt d
iffe
rent
iatin
g ch
arac
-te
rist
ics.
T.
All
righ
t, co
nsta
nt d
iffe
rent
iatin
g ch
arac
teri
stic
s. I
thin
k w
e ta
lked
som
e ab
out w
hy, a
nd w
hat t
hat i
sye
ster
day.
Wha
t els
e?
S.1-
k w
ante
d th
e fl
ower
s to
be
clos
ed, s
o fo
reig
n po
l-le
n co
uld
not g
et in
.
T.
And
thir
dly
..
.
T.
Wia
you
spe
ak u
p. p
leas
e., I
can
't, q
uite
hea
r yo
u.
S.H
e w
ante
d th
e of
fspr
ing
to s
uffe
r no
mar
ked
dis-
turb
ance
in th
eir
fert
ility
.
IF.
Let
's g
o on
. Wha
t did
he
do n
ext a
s fa
r as
the
plan
he f
ollo
wed
to a
nsw
er th
e pr
oble
m?
lle s
elec
ted
the
plan
ts a
ccor
ding
to c
erta
in c
rite
ria.
Wha
t did
he
do th
en?
S.H
e se
lect
ed a
n ar
ea in
whi
ch to
gro
w th
em.
T.
Whe
re d
id h
e gr
ow th
em, d
id h
e te
ll yo
u?
S.In
the
gard
en.
'F.
In th
e ga
rden
and
., as
we'
. als
o sa
id y
este
rday
, som
eof
them
in th
e gr
eenh
ouse
. Let
's g
o on
; wha
t did
he
do n
ext?
Is
this
all
he d
id, s
elec
t the
pla
nts
and
the
area
whe
re th
ey s
houl
d be
gro
wn?
S.H
e ha
d to
cho
ose
the
trai
ts o
n th
eplants.
T.
Fine
,, he
cho
se th
etraits didn't he? Maybe we can
have
a c
oupl
e of
exa
mpl
es o
f th
ose.
Cou
ld s
ome-
one
read
us
the
firs
t exa
mpl
ehe
giv
es?
S.T
he d
iffe
renc
e in
the.
for
m -
of r
ipe
seed
s.
T.
The
dif
fere
nce
in th
e fo
rm o
f ri
pe s
eeds
. Ano
ther
one,
the
next
one
list
ed, i
sth
e co
lor
of th
e se
edal
bum
en o
r th
e en
dosp
erm
. It s
tore
s fo
od. S
o he
chose the traits.
G.2
.E
xten
ding
M.2
.In
vite
mor
e th
inki
ng
M.1
.Su
ppor
t
G.3
.R
efoc
usin
g
M.1
.Su
ppor
tM
.2.
Invi
te m
ore
thin
king
(Not
e: D
irec
ting
the
an a
udio
tape
M.1
.Su
ppor
t
M.3
.R
efoc
usin
g
M.1
.Su
ppor
tM
.2.
Invi
te m
ore
thin
king
M.1
.Su
ppor
t
T.
How
man
y tr
aits
did
he
have
for
eac
h ch
arac
ter?
S.W
ell f
or e
ach
plan
t he
had
just
one
, but
he
had
seve
n ch
arac
ters
.
T.
Cou
ld y
ou g
ive
us a
n ex
ampl
e. o
f a
trai
t and
a ch
ar.
acte
r?S.
A tr
ait w
ould
be
like
roun
d or
wri
nkle
d, a
nd th
ech
arac
ter
wou
ld b
e th
e sh
ape.
T.
So e
ach
plan
t had
one
trai
t, an
d he
had
pla
nts
with
oppo
sing
trai
ts f
or e
ach
char
acte
r.N
ow, w
hat w
as th
e ne
xt s
tep?
S.H
e se
t up
his
cont
rol.
T.
Set u
p hi
s co
ntro
l. W
hat d
o th
e re
st o
fyo
tr th
ink
abou
t thi
s? D
id h
e se
t up
cont
rols
at t
his
stag
e?qu
estio
n to
oth
er s
tude
nts
impl
ies
a ne
gativ
e co
mm
ent,
MA
.,on
the
part
of
the
teac
her,
but
fro
mit
is d
iffi
cult
to d
eter
min
e if
the
stud
ent p
erce
ived
. it t
hat w
ay.)
S.H
e ha
d ta
ken
two
year
s of
tria
l wor
king
with
pea
plan
ts, s
o he
had
a c
ontr
ol e
arlie
r be
fore
he
star
ted
cros
sing
.T
.I
thin
k w
hat w
e're
say
ing
is th
at h
e co
ntro
lled
it. a
llri
ght,
but b
efor
e he
sta
rted
the
expe
rim
enta
lcr
osse
s.T
.Y
ou're
goi
ng to
hav
e to
hel
pm
e al
ong
here
. I'm
sure
you
've
wor
ked
thro
ugh
expe
rim
enta
l des
igns
befo
re, w
ays
that
inve
stig
ator
s ha
vego
ne a
bout
solv
ing
prob
lem
s. W
hat's
the
next
ste
p? W
hat w
illhe
do?
How
did
he
go a
bout
sol
ving
the
prob
lem
?S.
Wel
l, th
en h
e br
ed p
lant
s w
ith th
esa
me,
trai
ts.
T.
All
righ
t, br
ed p
lant
s w
ith th
esa
me
trai
ts.
Cou
ld y
ou g
ive
us a
n ex
ampl
e, o
f th
is f
rom
the,
pap
er?
S.H
e cr
osse
d tw
o pl
ants
that
had
rou
nd s
eeds
.T
.H
e cr
osse
d tw
o pl
ants
that
had
rou
nd s
eeds
.S.
No,
I m
ean
plan
ts w
ith r
ound
and
wri
nkle
d se
eds.
M.1
.Su
ppor
tT
.G
.2.
Ext
end
S.
M.4
.N
egat
ive
(ver
y m
ildly
so)
T.
S.
M.1
.Su
ppor
tT
.
S.
M.3
.R
efoc
usin
gT
. S.
M.1
.Su
ppor
tT
.G
.2.
Ext
endi
ng
S. T.
S.
M.1
.Su
ppor
tT
.
Oka
y, p
lant
s w
ith r
ound
see
ds a
nd p
lant
s w
ithw
rink
led
seed
s. A
ny c
omm
ent o
n th
is?
Yes
?
Wel
l, di
dn't
he c
ross
pla
nts
with
rou
nd s
eeds
?
Did
he
cros
s ro
und
with
rou
nd?
Let
me
see.
We'
resa
ying
that
rou
nd w
as c
ross
ed w
ith w
rink
led.
Now
are
you
ques
tioni
ng th
is?
Wel
l, I
thou
ght y
este
rday
we
said
he
was
goi
ng to
cros
s .
..O
h, w
ell,
neve
r m
ind.
Thi
s I
thin
k w
as th
e po
int w
e tr
ied
to m
ake
awhi
leag
o w
hen
we
wer
e ta
lkin
g ab
out t
wo
diff
eren
ttr
aits
that
hav
e to
do
with
the
sam
e th
ing
the
shap
e of
the
seed
as
bein
g on
e pa
rtic
ular
cha
ract
er-
istic
. Now
, the
re's
two
shap
es th
at w
e're
dea
ling
with
roun
d an
d w
rink
led.
Bec
ause
the
one
char
-ac
ter
here
is th
e sh
ape
of th
e se
ed. A
re y
ou c
lear
?U
h-hu
h.
All
righ
t, th
e ne
xt s
tep
he u
sed
in s
olvi
ng th
e pr
ob-
lem
Wha
t was
the
proc
edur
e th
at h
e fo
llow
ed?
In e
very
one
of
his
cros
ses,
he
used
rec
ipro
cal
cros
ses.
Goo
d. W
hy d
o yo
u su
ppos
e he
did
this
?W
hy w
ould
he
use
reci
proc
al c
ross
ing?
He
wou
ld b
e ab
le to
get
dat
a to
sec
if th
e eg
g an
dsp
erm
con
trib
ute
equa
lly to
the
uhch
arac
ter.
All
righ
t.
Wel
l, I
thin
k he
mig
ht h
ave
done
it to
fin
d ou
t if
they
do
cont
ribu
te e
qual
ly.
He
mig
ht'v
e do
ne it
to f
ind
out i
f th
ey d
o co
ntri
-bu
te e
qual
ly to
the
char
acte
r. D
o yo
u su
ppos
eM
ende
l kne
w a
bout
chr
omos
omes
? H
e w
as r
eally
wor
king
und
er a
kin
d of
dif
ficu
lty b
ecau
se th
e
G.1
.Fo
cusi
ngI.
1.e.
Inte
rpre
tatio
n of
dat
a
M.2
.In
vite
mor
e th
inki
ng
thin
gs th
at y
ou k
now
wer
e co
mpl
etel
y un
know
n to
him
.W
hat d
id h
e fi
nd?
Do
they
or
don'
t the
y co
ntri
bute
equa
lly?
S.T
hey
do.
T.
Can
you
exp
lain
that
for
us?
How
did
Men
del d
e-te
rmin
e th
at?
Wha
t was
the
basi
s fo
r th
at in
terp
re-
tatio
n?(N
ote:
Ask
ing
thre
e qu
estio
ns th
at c
all f
or d
iffe
rent
thin
gs m
ight
con
fuse
the
stud
ent.)
S.B
ecau
se h
e co
uldn
't fi
nd a
ny d
iffe
renc
es b
etw
een
the
resu
lts o
f th
e tw
o (r
ecip
roca
l) c
ross
ings
.M
.1.
Supp
ort
T.
Ver
y go
od. N
ow, w
hat w
as th
e ne
xt s
tep?
M.3
.R
efoc
usin
gW
hat d
id h
e do
the
next
ste
p in
the
proc
edur
e?S.
He
star
ted
cros
sing
with
all
the
diff
eren
t cha
ract
ers
that
wer
e gi
ven,
and
he
wou
ld f
orm
ulat
e hi
s da
taaf
ter
he d
id th
at.
M.2
.In
vite
mor
e th
inki
ngT
.G
ood.
Let
's s
ee if
we'
re a
ll cl
ear
on w
hat y
ou s
aid
you
incl
uded
a lo
t in
that
sta
tem
ent.
Wha
t cro
sses
did
he m
ake
with
all
the
diff
eren
t cha
ract
ers?
S.H
e cr
osse
d ea
ch p
air
of tr
aits
for
eac
h ch
arac
ter
like
yello
w a
nd g
reen
end
ospe
rm.
M.2
.In
vite
mor
e th
inki
ngT
.A
nd w
hat d
ata
did
he g
et?
Wha
t wer
e th
e re
sults
whe
n he
did
the
cros
sing
?
G.1
.Fo
cusi
ngI.
1.e.
Inte
rpre
tatio
n of
dat
a
- 7
7 -
S.Ju
st o
ne o
f th
e tr
aits
of
the
pare
nt p
lant
s sh
owed
in th
e of
fspr
ing
the
dom
inan
t one
.T
.L
et's
dia
gram
som
e of
this
as
we
go a
long
.L
et's
con
cent
rate
on
the
roun
d an
d w
rink
led.
Eve
n th
ough
he
used
sev
en c
hara
cter
s, le
t's f
ollo
wju
st o
ne. A
ll ri
ght,
we
thin
k of
this
as
his
firs
tcr
oss.
Now
we
can
labe
l eac
h ge
nera
tion
as f
ollo
ws:
Thi
sis
the
pare
ntal
gen
erat
ion,
som
etim
es c
alle
d P;
this
is th
e fi
rst g
ener
atio
n, th
e on
e M
ende
l cal
led
the
S.
M.2
.In
vite
mor
e th
inki
ngT
.
S.
M.1
.Su
ppor
tT
.M
.3.
Ref
ocus
ing
S.
G.2
.E
xten
ding
T. S.
M.1
.Su
ppor
tT
.M
.2.
Invi
te m
ore
thin
king
S.
M.3
.R
efoc
usin
gT
.
S.
M.2
.In
vite
mor
e th
inki
ngT
.
hybr
ids,
or
F1. H
ow a
bout
rat
ios?
Doe
s he
giv
e yo
uso
me
num
bers
on
this
? So
meo
ne s
aid
earl
ier
that
hew
as g
oing
to c
ount
them
can
you
find
any
num
-be
rs th
at h
e w
orke
d w
ith?
Oh
wel
l, on
the
F2 h
e go
t, w
ell w
hen
he u
sed
565,
192
wer
e ro
und
and
372
wer
e bo
th w
rink
led
and
roun
d.A
ll ri
ght,
now
wha
t pag
e is
that
on?
I do
n't k
now
wha
t pag
e it
is o
n; it
's in
my
note
s .
..
It's
on
page
12.
Oka
y, th
at g
ives
us
part
of
the
data
on
the
F3 g
en-
erat
ion.
Let
's g
o ba
ck to
the
F1 g
ener
atio
n. W
hat
did
he g
et in
the
firs
t gen
erat
ion?
All
one
kind
of
trai
t for
eac
h ch
arac
ter.
All
righ
t, w
hat d
id h
e do
nex
t?
He
cros
sed
the
F1 g
ener
atio
n.A
ll ri
ght,
he c
ross
ed th
e F1
gen
erat
ion.
Wha
t did
he c
ross
them
with
?
Cro
ssed
them
with
them
selv
es.
All
righ
t, th
en th
is w
ould
giv
e hi
m th
e F2
. Wha
tki
nd o
f re
sults
did
he
get?
Som
e w
ere
roun
d an
d so
me
wer
e w
rink
led.
All
righ
t, so
me
wer
e ro
und
and
som
e w
ere
wri
nkle
d.I
thin
k w
e've
got
som
e da
ta to
wor
k w
ith h
ere,
have
n't w
e? T
here
are
som
e sp
ecif
ic n
umbe
rs.
Wou
ld s
omeb
ody
be k
ind
enou
gh to
giv
e th
ose
tous
?
S."F
rom
253
hyb
rids
, 7,3
24 s
eeds
wer
e ob
tain
ed in
the
seco
nd tr
ial y
ear.
Am
ong
them
wer
e 5,
474
roun
d or
rou
ndis
h on
es a
nd 1
,850
ang
ular
wri
nkle
don
es."
M.2
.In
vite
mor
e th
inki
ngT
.
S.
M.3
.R
efoc
usin
gT
.
S.
M.1
.Su
ppor
tT
.
M.3
.R
efoc
usin
g
M.2
.In
vite
mor
e th
inki
ng
Wha
t abo
ut h
is r
atio
her
e? I
t's 2
.96
to 1
. Is
the
ratio
clo
se e
noug
h to
3 to
1 to
cal
l it t
hat?
Wel
l, ho
w c
ome
he h
as a
rat
io o
f 2.
96 to
1?
Shou
ldn'
t it b
e 2.
96 to
1.0
4? S
houl
dn't
it ad
d up
to o
ne?
I re
ally
can
't an
swer
that
bec
ause
all
I ha
ve is
the
reco
rd. I
t goe
s on
in th
e pa
per
and
sum
s up
the
F2ge
nera
tion.
Is
ther
e an
ythi
ng y
ou w
ould
like
toqu
estio
n ab
out t
hing
s fo
und
on p
ages
10
and
11?
Wha
t doe
s he
mea
n by
a c
hara
cter
hav
ing
doub
lesi
gnif
icat
ion?
All
righ
t. "T
he d
omin
ant c
hara
cter
can
hav
e a
doub
le s
igni
fica
tion
that
of
a pa
rent
al c
hara
cter
or a
hyb
rid-
char
acte
r. I
n w
hich
of th
e tw
o si
gnif
i-ca
tions
it a
ppea
rs in
eac
h se
para
te c
ase
can
only
be
dete
rmin
ed b
y th
e fo
llow
ing
gene
ratio
n."
Wha
tdo
cs h
e m
ean
here
? D
o yo
u ha
ve s
ome
idea
of
wha
t he'
s ta
lkin
g ab
out?
He'
s ta
lkin
g ab
out t
hedo
min
ant c
hara
cter
now
, in
our
exam
ple
thos
ese
eds
whi
ch a
re r
ound
. Rem
embe
r w
e sa
id h
e go
t a2.
96 to
1 r
atio
whi
ch h
e ro
unde
d of
f to
a 3
to 1
ratio
. Do
you
have
som
e id
ea w
hat t
he d
oubl
e si
g-ni
fica
tion
mea
ns?
S.T
he o
nes
that
com
e fr
om p
ure
hybr
id p
aren
ts c
anha
ve tw
o ch
arac
ters
one
like
the
firs
t par
ent o
ron
e lik
e th
e se
cond
par
ent.
T.
Sally
, I'm
not
sur
e I
know
wha
t you
mea
n. M
aybe
you
coul
d cl
arif
y th
at f
or u
s.
S.T
he s
eeds
that
com
e fr
om th
e hy
brid
will
be
som
ero
und
and
som
e w
rink
led
like
the
orig
inal
par
ents
.
S.I
thou
ght b
y hy
brid
-cha
ract
er it
wou
ld b
e th
e on
esth
at a
re h
eter
ozyg
ous.
M.1
.Su
ppor
t
M.2
.In
vite
mor
e th
inki
ng
M.1
.Su
ppor
t
M.2
.In
vite
mor
e th
inki
ng
T.
Goo
dbo
th o
f yo
u ar
e co
rrec
t. B
ut "
hete
ro-
zygo
us"
is a
mor
e re
cent
term
for
wha
t Men
del
mea
nt b
y "h
ybri
d-ch
arac
ter.
" H
e di
dn't
use
the
term
"he
tero
zygo
us."
Wha
t doe
s M
ende
l mea
n by
"par
enta
l cha
ract
er?"
(lon
g pa
use)
I gu
ess
a go
od q
uest
ion
here
is, i
f yo
u ar
c lo
okin
gat
the
roun
d se
ed, c
an y
ou d
eter
min
e by
look
ing
atit
wha
t its
gen
otyp
e is
? W
hat d
id h
e ha
ve to
do
inor
der
to d
eter
min
e th
e ge
noty
pe o
f th
ose
seed
s?
S.H
e ha
d to
cro
ss th
em.
T.
Wha
t did
he
cros
s th
em w
ith?
S.So
me
just
like
them
.
T.
All
righ
t, so
me
that
wer
e ju
st li
ke th
em, o
r le
t the
plan
ts s
elf-
polli
nate
.. W
hat k
inds
of
seed
s re
sulte
dfr
om th
is s
elf-
polli
natio
n? W
hat g
ener
atio
n do
we
have
to lo
ok a
t?
S.T
he F
3.
T.
Loo
k at
pag
e 12
, the
sec
ond
para
grap
h un
der
the
head
ing.
Wha
t doe
s th
at p
arag
raph
mea
n?
S.It
mea
ns s
ome
roun
d se
eds
prod
uce
both
rou
ndan
d w
rink
led.
The
refo
re, e
ven
thou
gh th
ey a
rcro
und
they
car
ry s
ome
kind
of
gene
tic m
ake-
upth
at a
llow
s th
em to
pro
duce
wri
nkle
d se
eds.
Oth
erro
und
seed
s pr
oduc
e on
ly r
ound
.S.
I do
n't u
nder
stan
dif
he
had
a pl
ant t
hat h
ad a
trai
t tha
t had
a g
enot
ype
that
was
het
eroz
ygou
s,w
hy w
ould
you
cro
ss it
with
one
that
was
the
sam
eth
ing?
You
'd s
till g
et h
omoz
ygou
s or
het
eroz
ygou
s.So
then
how
cou
ld y
ou te
ll if
it w
as h
omoz
ygou
sor
het
eroz
ygou
s in
the
firs
t pla
ce?
T.
Can
som
e of
the
rest
of
you
answ
er th
is?
M.3
.R
efoc
usin
g
G.1
.Fo
cusi
ngI.
1.e.
Inte
rpre
tatio
n
-81
-
S.If
they
wer
e he
tero
zygo
us a
nd c
ross
ed w
ith th
em-
selv
es, t
he o
ffsp
ring
wou
ld b
e of
dif
fere
nt k
inds
.If
hom
ozyg
ous,
they
wou
ld a
ll be
the
sam
e.
T.
Let
's s
ee h
ow M
ende
l sta
tes
it. L
ook
at th
e bo
ttom
of p
age
11 a
nd to
p of
pag
e 12
: "T
he d
omin
ant
char
acte
r ca
n ha
ve a
dou
ble
sign
ific
atio
nth
at o
fa
pare
ntal
cha
ract
er o
r a
hybr
id-c
hara
cter
. In
whi
chof
the
two
sign
ific
atio
ns it
app
ears
in e
ach
sepa
rate
case
can
onl
y be
det
erm
ined
by
the
follo
win
g ge
ner-
atio
n. A
s a
pare
ntal
cha
ract
er it
mus
t pas
s ov
er u
n-ch
ange
d to
the
who
le o
f th
e of
fspr
ing;
as
a hy
brid
-ch
arac
ter,
on
the
othe
r ha
nd, i
t mus
t mai
ntai
n th
esa
me
beha
vior
as
in th
e fi
rst g
ener
atio
n."
Now
is it
clea
r w
hat "
doub
le s
igni
fica
tion
of th
e do
min
ant
char
acte
r" m
eans
?
T.
Now
we
will
hav
e to
look
at t
his
next
par
t ver
y ca
re-
fully
bec
ause
we
will
be
talk
ing
abou
t rat
ios,
and
we
will
jum
p fr
om a
3 to
1 r
atio
to a
2 to
1 r
atio
.N
ow le
t's tr
y to
inte
rpre
t thi
s. W
hat k
ind
of r
esul
tsdi
d he
get
? L
et's
see
if w
e ca
n re
ally
ana
lyze
this
out.
Now
we
are
talk
ing
abou
t the
F3
gene
ratio
n.W
hat k
ind
of d
ata
did
he g
et?
S."E
xper
imen
t 1. A
mon
g 56
5 pl
ants
whi
ch w
ere
rais
ed f
rom
rou
nd s
eeds
of
the
firs
t gen
erat
ion,
193
yiel
ded
roun
d se
eds
only
, and
rem
aine
d th
eref
ore
cons
tant
in th
is c
hara
cter
; 372
, how
ever
, gav
e bo
thro
und
and
wri
nkle
d se
eds,
in th
e pr
opor
tion
of 3
to 1
. The
num
ber
of th
e hy
brid
s, th
eref
ore,
as
com
-pa
red
with
the
cons
tant
s is
1.9
3 to
1."
(Tea
cher
rep
eats
res
ults
of
Exp
erim
ent I
whi
lew
ritin
g it
on th
e ch
alk
boar
d.)
T.
Do
you
follo
w th
at?
Wel
l, le
t's g
o on
. How
doe
s he
org
aniz
e hi
s da
ta?
M.2
.In
vite
mor
e th
inki
ng
G.1
.Fo
cusi
ngI.
1.e.
Inte
rpre
tatio
n of
dat
a
G.1
.Fo
cusi
ngI.
2.b.
Rel
atio
n be
twee
n in
terp
reta
tion
and
data
M.2
.In
vite
mor
e th
inki
ng
-82
-
Wou
ld y
ou h
ave
done
it d
iffe
rent
ly if
you
wer
ew
ritin
g th
atot
her
than
usi
ng d
iffe
rent
wor
ds?
Do
you
thin
k th
at h
e pr
esen
ted
his
data
in a
wel
l-or
gani
zed
way
? T
he b
est w
ay, p
erha
ps, t
hat h
eco
uld?
S.It
see
ms
like
he d
idn'
t hav
e an
y se
para
te p
lace
for
his
data
. He
wou
ld ju
st th
row
it in
her
e an
d th
row
it in
ther
e.
..
I th
ink
that
he
shou
ld h
ave
mad
e a
spec
ial l
ittle
par
t for
his
dat
a an
d re
ferr
ed b
ack
toth
at.
T.
How
was
his
dat
a or
gani
zed?
We
touc
hed
on th
at,
I th
ink.
How
did
he
orga
nize
his
dat
a th
roug
hout
the
pape
r?S.
Som
etim
es h
e us
ed ta
bles
, but
mos
t of
the
time
itis
sca
ttere
d th
roug
hout
the
pape
r.T
.W
ell,
let's
look
at h
is c
oncl
usio
ns. W
hat c
oncl
usio
nsdi
d he
mak
e? W
ill y
ou r
ead
it fo
r us
, wha
t you
belie
ve to
be
the
conc
lusi
on?
S."S
ince
the
mem
bers
of
the
firs
t gen
erat
ion
(F2
)sp
ring
dir
ectly
fro
m th
e se
ed o
f th
e hy
brid
s (F
1 ),
it is
now
cle
ar th
at th
e hy
brid
s fo
rm s
eeds
hav
ing
one
Gr
othe
r of
the
two
diff
eren
tiatin
g ch
arac
ters
,an
d of
thes
e on
e-ha
lf d
evel
op a
gain
the
hybr
id f
orm
,w
hile
the
othe
r ha
lf y
ield
pla
nts
whi
ch r
emai
n co
n-st
ant a
nd r
ecei
ve th
e do
min
ant o
r th
e re
cess
ive
char
acte
rs (
resp
ectiv
ely)
in e
qual
num
bers
."
T.
Do
you
thin
k th
at h
is c
oncl
usio
n is
val
id, b
ased
upon
the
data
that
he
got?
Do
you
have
any
que
s-tio
n ab
out t
his?
S.H
is c
oncl
usio
n is
onl
y ap
plic
able
to p
ea p
lant
s, y
oukn
ow.
T.
Doe
s he
indi
cate
any
whe
re in
the
pape
r th
at it
wou
ld w
ork
for
som
ethi
ng o
ther
than
pea
s?
I
S.
G.2
.E
xten
ding
T.
S.
G.1
.Fo
cusi
ngT
.1.
1.3.
Eva
luat
ion
of r
epor
t
M.1
.Su
ppor
tM
.2.
Invi
te m
ore
thin
king
-83
--
Wel
l in
the
intr
oduc
tion
he s
tate
s so
far
no
gene
r-al
ly a
pplic
able
law
has
bee
n fo
rmul
ated
.
Do
you
thin
k th
at th
at is
the
case
? D
o yo
u th
ink
..
.
Kee
p qu
estio
ning
. I w
ould
like
to k
now
wha
t you
thin
k ab
out t
hat.
Wel
l, if
he
wou
ld h
ave
com
pare
d hi
s re
sults
with
othe
r ki
nds
of p
lant
suh
, he
wou
ld h
ave
mor
ene
arly
had
a g
ener
ally
app
licab
le la
wuh
, he
also
shou
ld h
ave
trie
d m
ore
cros
ses.
Are
ther
e so
me
gene
ral c
omm
ents
you
wou
ld li
keto
mak
e ab
out t
he p
aper
? I
have
bee
n so
rt o
f le
ad-
ing
you
alon
g an
d di
rect
ing
you.
I w
ould
like
togi
ve y
ou a
cha
nce
now
to m
ake
som
e ge
nera
l com
-m
ents
abo
ut th
e pa
per
and
how
you
fee
l abo
ut it
.
S.I
wou
ld li
ke to
go
back
to, w
ell,
just
bef
ore
Car
lsa
id th
at h
e th
ough
t tha
t dat
a sh
ould
be
plac
ed o
na
sepa
rate
she
et o
r se
para
te ta
ble.
I k
ind
of f
elt t
hat,
I m
ean,
in h
is ti
me
and
ever
ythi
ng, I
thin
k th
e da
taas
it w
as, w
as f
ine
beca
use
he s
ets
up w
hat h
e is
goin
g to
do,
and
eac
h tim
e he
inte
rpre
ts it
for
you
befo
re h
e do
es it
and
tells
you
exa
ctly
wha
t he
isgo
ing
to d
o, a
nd th
en h
e go
es r
ight
into
his
dat
a an
dfo
rmul
ates
his
dat
a an
d ev
eryt
hing
, and
it's
rig
htth
ere
for
you.
You
don
't ha
ve to
ref
er b
ack
and
fort
h. I
mea
n, m
aybe
now
it m
ight
be
bette
r to
do
it di
ffer
ently
, but
I ju
st th
ink
it is
the
way
it s
houl
dbe
don
e.
T.
In g
ener
al, h
ow w
ould
you
des
crib
e th
e w
ay h
eor
gani
zed
it?I
thin
k yo
u ar
e ge
tting
it h
ere,
Iw
ould
just
like
to h
ave
you
repe
at th
at. H
ow d
idhe
org
aniz
e it?
S. Well, he set up his interpretation first and told whatthe experiment was going to be and what he was
going to do . . . and he gave us everything he wasusing and then he went ahead and did the experi-ment, formulated his data, and put it right belowhis interpretation so you got exactly what he didout of it.
S. I think it's good that he wrote it out because peopleweren't exactly mathematically inclined, therefore,it would be easier for them to read and understand.
APP
EN
DIX
A
INT
ER
IM S
UM
MA
RIE
S O
F IN
VIT
AT
ION
S T
O E
NQ
UIR
YFR
OM
TH
E B
SCSBIOLOGY TEACHERS' HANDBOOK
AC
KN
OW
LE
DG
EM
EN
TS
The
wri
tiag
com
mitt
ee g
rate
fully
ack
now
ledg
es it
s re
lianc
e on
a c
once
pt o
f en
quir
ylde
velo
ped
by J
osep
h J.
Sch
wab
. One
ver
sion
of
this
con
cept
is p
rese
nted
in th
isA
ppen
dix.
See
als
o bi
blio
grap
hy n
umbe
rs 6
2, 1
12, a
nd 1
37 (
pp. 1
24, 1
32 a
nd 1
37re
spec
tivel
y).
The
Int
erim
Sum
mar
ies,
pre
sent
ed in
the
follo
win
g pa
ges,
are
inte
gral
par
ts o
fC
hapt
er F
our
of th
e B
SCS
Bio
logy
Teachers' Handbook
(in
both
the
1963
and
1970
edi
tions
) an
d ar
e be
st u
nder
stoo
d by
rea
ding
the
Invi
tatio
ns a
nd I
nter
imSu
mm
arie
s in
the
sequ
ence
as
pres
ente
d in
theHandbook.
We
are
listin
g th
eIn
vita
tions
her
e ra
ther
than
pre
sent
ing
them
in th
eir
entir
ety
sim
ply
beca
use
ofth
e to
tal n
umbe
r of
pag
es in
volv
ed. T
he m
ater
ial i
n th
is A
ppen
dix
is p
rese
nted
with
the
perm
issi
on o
f th
e B
iolo
gica
l Sci
ence
s C
urri
culu
m S
tudy
, P.O
. Box
930
,B
ould
er, C
olor
ado.
1 W
hile
muc
h of
wha
t is
incl
uded
in C
hapt
ers
Tw
o, T
hree
, and
Six
is e
ither
bas
ed o
n or
rel
ated
to S
chw
ab's
wor
k, th
e w
ritin
g co
mm
ittee
has
cho
sen
the
mor
e co
mm
on s
pelli
ng o
f "i
nqui
ry."
-85
-
TA
BL
E O
F C
ON
TE
NT
S
TH
E N
AT
UR
E A
ND
USE
OF
INV
ITA
TIO
NS
TO
EN
QU
IRY
87
INV
ITA
TIO
NS
TO
EN
QU
IRY
, GR
OU
P 1
UFA
of
Invi
tatio
ns (
1-4)
by
Subj
ect a
nd T
opic
88
Inte
rim
Sum
mar
y 1,
Kno
wle
dge
and
Dat
a89
Lis
t of
Invi
tatio
ns (
5-13
) by
Sub
ject
and
Top
icIn
teri
m S
umm
ary
2, R
ole
of th
e H
ypot
helis
91
Lis
t of
Invi
tatio
ns (
14-1
6A)
by S
ubje
ct a
nd T
opic
93
INV
ITA
TIO
NS
TO
EN
QU
IRY
, GR
OU
P II
.94
Lis
t. of
Inv
itatio
ns (
17-2
5) b
y Su
bjec
t and
Top
ic94
Inte
rim
Sum
mar
y 3,
The
Con
cept
of
Cau
sal L
ilies
r95
INV
ITA
TIO
NS
TO
EN
QU
IRY
, GR
OU
P II
I .
e.
97
Lis
t of
Invi
tAtio
ns (
26-3
1) b
y Su
bjec
t and
Top
ic97
INV
ITA
TIO
NS
TO
EN
QU
IRY
, GR
OU
P IV
98
Lis
t of
Imita
tions
(52
-37)
by
Subj
ect a
nd T
opic
Inte
rim
Siim
mar
y 4,
The
Con
cept
of
Func
tiona
l Par
t99
INV
ITA
TIO
NS
TO
EN
QU
IRY
, GR
OU
P V
103
Lis
t of
Invi
tatio
ns (
38-4
4) b
y -S
ubje
ct a
nd T
opic
.10
3
Inte
rim
Sum
mar
y 5,
The
Who
le a
s D
eter
min
er o
f It
; Par
is10
4
4
TH
E N
AT
UR
E A
ND
USE
OF
INV
ITA
TIO
NS
TO
EN
QU
IRY
2
The
Inv
itatio
ns to
Enq
uiry
are
teac
hing
uni
ts th
at p
rovi
de th
e st
uden
t with
sam
ples
of
the
oper
atio
n of
the
prbc
ess
of E
nqui
ry.
Om
issi
ons
may
incl
ude,
am
ong
othe
r th
ings
; the
pla
n of
an
expe
rim
ent o
r th
e: c
oncl
usio
ns to
be
draw
n fr
om g
iven
dat
a. T
he s
tude
ntis
invi
ted
to p
artic
ipat
e ac
tivel
y in
the
enqu
iry
and
thus
con
trib
ute
to h
is o
wn
unde
rsta
ndiN
of
how
sc.
ii:ce
ope
rate
s.T
he I
nvita
tions
incl
ude
sepa
rate
com
pone
nts
for
teac
hers
and
stu
dent
s. S
ugge
stio
ns a
nd e
xpla
natio
nsar
e pr
ovid
ed to
aid
the
teac
her
in m
appi
ng a
nd g
uidi
ng e
ach
enqu
iry
disc
ussi
on. T
he m
ater
ials
invi
te c
ontr
ibut
ions
fro
m s
tude
nts
as th
ey e
ngag
e in
a d
iscu
ssio
n w
ithth
e te
ache
r or
eac
h ot
her.
Man
y of
the
Invi
tatio
ns a
re s
eque
nced
so
that
they
tend
to b
uili
on o
ne a
noth
er a
nd d
eal w
itha
cont
inui
ngpr
oble
m, n
ot is
olat
ed p
arts
of
a pr
oble
m.
The
Inv
itatio
ns a
re g
roup
ed la
rgel
y on
the
basi
s of
fiv
e ge
nera
l pri
ncip
les
or c
once
pts
for
guid
ing
inqu
iry
(see
Cha
pker
Tw
o). T
hese
guid
ing
prin
cipl
es a
nd th
eir
unde
rlyi
ng a
ssum
ptio
ns a
re d
iscu
ssed
in th
e In
teri
m S
umm
arie
s an
d re
capi
tula
te th
e-.
Iune
epts
dev
elop
edin
the
Invi
tatio
ns.
2A m
ore
exte
nsiv
e st
atem
ent o
f th
e na
ture
and
use
of I
nvita
tions
to E
nqui
ry m
ay h
e fo
und
in S
chw
ab (
137)
, Cha
pter
Fou
r (1
963
and
1970
edi
tions
).
87
INV
ITA
TIO
NS
TO
EN
QU
IRY
, GR
OU
P I
Sim
ple
Enq
uiry
: The
Rol
e an
d N
atur
e of
Gen
eral
kno
wle
dge,
Dat
a, E
xper
imen
t, C
ontr
ol, H
ypot
hesi
s, a
nd P
robl
em in
Sci
entif
icIn
vest
igat
ion
LIS
T O
F IN
VIT
AT
ION
S (1
-4)
Invi
tatio
nSu
bjec
tT
opic
1T
he c
ell n
ucle
usIn
terp
reta
tion
of s
impl
e da
ta2
The
cel
l nuc
leus
Inte
rpre
tatio
n of
var
iabl
e da
ta3
Seed
ger
min
atio
nM
isin
terp
reta
tion
of d
ata
4Pl
ant p
hysi
olog
yIn
terp
reta
tion
of c
ompl
ex d
ata
1101
1...1
11.
Inte
rim S
umm
ary
1K
now
ledg
e an
d D
ata3
TH
E I
DE
A O
F G
EN
ER
AL
KN
OW
LE
DG
E
With
Inv
itatio
n 4
we
have
com
plet
ed o
ur in
trod
uctio
n to
the
stud
ent
of s
impl
e en
quir
y. I
n th
is in
trod
uctio
n, w
e ha
ve tr
ied
to s
how
him
the
oper
atio
n of
two
idea
s ba
sic
to th
e sc
ient
ific
ent
erpr
ise.
Let
us
re-
view
thes
e id
eas
brie
fly
and
at th
e sa
me
time
note
cer
tain
rel
atio
nsam
ong
them
.O
ne id
ea is
cen
tral
to a
ll ot
hers
in d
efin
ing
the
scie
ntif
ic e
nter
pris
e.It
is th
e id
ea o
f ge
nera
l kno
wle
dge,
kno
wle
dge
whi
ch is
not
abo
ut o
nepa
rtic
ular
thin
g in
one
par
ticul
ar ti
me
and
plac
e bu
t kno
wle
dge
whi
chem
brac
es w
hole
set
s of
par
ticul
ars.
Thi
s id
ea s
ets
scie
nce
apar
t fro
mal
mos
t all
the
othe
r fo
rms
of k
now
ledg
e an
d en
quir
y m
an h
as in
vent
ed.
His
tory
and
bio
grap
hy, f
or e
xam
ple,
are
ded
icat
ed to
the
part
icul
ar.
Gen
eral
ly, t
hey
try
to r
ecov
er a
rd r
ecou
nt s
peci
fic,
uni
que
even
ts,
each
occ
urri
ng a
t a s
peci
fied
tim
e an
d pl
acei
n a
cert
ain
city
on
ace
rtai
n da
y, o
r in
the
min
d of
a c
erta
in le
ader
or
thin
ker
in th
e m
idst
of a
spe
cifi
ed, s
ingl
e m
omen
t of
thou
ght o
r de
cisi
on.
Rar
ely,
inde
ed,
does
the
hist
oria
n tr
y to
dis
cove
r ge
nera
l law
s am
ong
his
part
icul
ars.
And
whe
n he
doe
s, h
e is
qui
te r
eady
, nay
, pro
ud to
say
that
wha
t he
is tr
ying
to w
rite
is s
cien
tific
his
tory
.T
he id
ea o
f ge
nera
l tru
ths
abou
t par
ticul
ars
also
set
s sc
ienc
e ap
art
from
mat
hem
atic
salth
ough
in a
n en
tirel
y di
ffer
ent w
ay f
rom
that
whi
ch d
istin
guis
hes
scie
nce
from
hfs
tory
.M
athe
mat
ics
is a
s ge
nera
l as
scie
nce;
per
haps
, ind
eed,
muc
h m
ore
gene
ral,
even
uni
vers
al.
Wha
tge
omet
ry h
as to
say
abo
ut "
tria
ngle
," f
or e
xam
ple,
hol
ds f
or a
ll tr
i-an
gles
and
has
bea
ring
on
all o
ther
fig
ures
as
wel
l.N
ever
thel
ess,
the
gene
ralit
y of
mat
hem
atic
s do
es n
ot m
ake
it th
esa
me
as s
cien
ce, f
or th
e ge
nera
l kno
wle
dge
char
acte
rist
ic o
f sc
ienc
e is
gene
ral k
now
ledg
e of
con
cret
e, e
xist
ing,
obs
erva
ble,
mea
sura
ble
par-
ticul
ars.
It is
abo
ut th
e w
orld
of
thin
gs a
nd e
vent
s. T
he k
now
ledg
e of
mat
hem
atic
s is
not
der
ived
fro
m th
e w
orld
of
thin
gs a
nd e
vent
s. T
hege
nera
l or
univ
ersa
l sta
tem
ents
of
,:he
mat
hem
atic
ian
have
thei
r or
igin
in s
omet
hing
els
eper
haps
in id
eas
in th
e m
ind
of th
e m
athe
mat
icia
n,id
eas
whi
ch h
e st
udie
s an
d w
hose
com
pone
nt id
eas
beco
me
the
con
-3l
nter
im s
umm
arie
s in
the
App
endi
x ar
c re
prod
uced
fro
m S
chw
ab, J
. J.
(Sup
ervi
sor)
BSC
S B
iolo
gy T
each
ers"
Han
dboo
k. N
ew Y
ork:
Joh
n W
iley,
1963
. 2nd
Edi
tion,
197
0. K
linek
tnan
n, E
. (Su
perv
isor
).
tent
of
his
theo
rem
s. M
en a
re d
ivid
ed, i
n fa
ct, a
bout
the
natu
re a
ndor
igin
of
mat
hem
atic
s, b
ut o
ne th
ing
is c
lear
; wha
teve
r th
e or
igin
of
mat
hem
atic
s m
ay b
e, it
is n
ot a
n or
igin
in c
oncr
ete,
exi
stin
g, o
bser
vabl
e,m
easu
rabl
e pa
rtic
ular
s.T
he P
ytha
gore
an th
eore
m, i
nits
mat
he-
mat
ical
for
m, d
id n
ot a
rise
fro
m m
easu
rem
ents
of
the
side
s of
man
ytr
iang
les.
The
ess
ence
of
scie
nce,
then
, is
that
it is
, par
adox
ical
ly, g
ener
alkn
owle
dge
from
par
ticul
ars,
fro
m e
xist
ing,
obs
erva
ble,
mea
sura
ble
par-
ticul
ars
belo
ngin
g to
the
wor
ld o
f th
ings
and
eve
nts.
TH
E I
DE
A O
F D
AT
A
Scie
nce,
then
, beg
ins
with
par
ticul
ars,
but
it d
oes
not r
est i
n th
em.
Part
icul
ars
are
indi
spen
sabl
e to
sci
ence
, but
onl
y as
raw
mat
eria
ls.
Furt
her,
they
are
indi
spen
sabl
e ra
w m
ater
ials
of
a ce
rtai
n lim
ited
kind
.T
hey
are
like
ore
to th
e re
fine
r of
met
als.
Som
e of
the
ore
is u
nwan
ted
mat
eria
l.O
nly
a pa
rt o
f it
is th
e de
sire
d go
ld.
So, t
oo, w
ith p
ar-
ticul
ars
as th
e or
e of
sci
ence
. Onl
y so
me
aspe
cts
and
item
s of
a g
roup
of p
artic
ular
s ar
e re
leva
nt a
nd u
sefu
l to
a sc
ient
ist i
n se
arch
of
a ge
n-er
al tr
uth.
The
rem
aind
er o
f th
e m
anif
old
aspe
cts
of th
e pa
rtic
ular
sar
e ir
rele
vant
to h
is s
earc
h.O
nly
som
e as
pect
s, th
en, o
f a
grou
p of
par
ticul
ars
serv
e as
raw
mat
e-ri
als
for
any
one
gene
ral t
ruth
.It
is th
is c
ondi
tion
that
def
ines
wha
tw
e m
ean
by s
cien
tific
dat
a. D
ata
are
the
gold
ext
ract
ed f
rom
the
ore.
The
y re
pres
ent t
he f
acts
abo
ut p
artic
ular
s th
at th
e sc
ient
ist s
elec
tsfr
om a
ll th
e av
aila
ble
fact
s be
caus
e he
thin
ks th
ey w
ill b
est s
erve
the
aim
of
scie
ncel
ead
him
to th
e m
ost r
evea
ling
trut
hs a
bout
the
part
icu-
lars
he
is s
tudy
ing.
Dat
a, th
en, a
re s
elec
ted
fact
s.O
ur I
nvita
tions
(1
and
2) b
egin
with
this
poi
nt. A
sci
entis
t wan
tsto
kno
w a
bout
the
role
of
nucl
ei in
cel
ls. H
e se
lect
s th
e fa
cts
whi
char
e re
leva
nt to
this
que
stio
n. H
e ex
amin
es th
ese
sele
cted
fac
ts, t
hese
data
, and
trie
s to
dra
w f
rom
them
(in
terp
rets
them
) a
gene
ral t
ruth
abou
t cel
ls a
nd n
ucle
i. N
ote
how
the
maj
or p
oint
s w
e ha
ve m
entio
ned
are
invo
lved
in th
ese
begi
nnin
g hi
nts
abou
t enq
uiry
.Fi
rst,
the
data
are
"rea
l"; t
hey
repr
esen
t the
fac
ts.
Seco
nd, t
he d
ata
repr
esen
t se-
lect
ed f
acts
; the
y ar
e on
ly th
ose
fact
s th
at w
ill a
nsw
er th
e qu
estio
nab
out t
he n
ucle
us w
hich
the
scie
ntis
t has
for
mul
ated
as
the
cent
ral
port
ion
of th
e pr
oble
m. T
hird
, the
dat
a ar
e on
ly r
aw m
ater
ials
, sta
rt-
ing
poin
ts. W
hat t
he s
cien
tist c
an m
ake
of h
is d
ata
is th
e cl
imax
of
his
ente
rpri
se.
Invi
tatio
n5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
LIS
T O
F IN
VIT
AT
ION
S (5
-13)
Subj
ect
Mea
sure
men
t in
gene
ral
Plan
t nut
ritio
nPl
ant n
utri
tion
Pred
ator
-pre
y; n
atur
alpo
pula
tions
Popu
latio
n gr
owth
Env
iron
men
t and
dis
ease
Lig
ht a
nd p
lant
gro
wth
Vita
min
def
icie
ncy
Nat
ural
sel
ectio
n
Top
ic
Syst
emat
ic a
nd r
ando
m e
rror
Plan
ning
of
expe
rim
ent
Con
trol
of
expe
rim
ent
"Sec
ond-
best
" da
ta
The
pro
blem
of
sam
plin
gT
he id
ea o
f hy
poth
esis
Con
stru
ctio
n of
hyp
othe
ses
"If
.. .,
then
.. ..
" an
alys
isPr
actic
e in
hyp
othe
sis
Ihte
rim
Sum
mar
y 2
The
Rol
e of
Hyp
othe
sis
EX
PER
IME
NT
AN
D C
ON
TR
OL
Invi
tatio
ns 1
to 4
em
phas
ized
onl
y th
e id
eas
of d
ata
and
gene
ral
know
ledg
e.T
heir
rel
atio
ns w
ere
sum
med
up
in I
nter
im S
umm
ary
1.D
ata
( se
lect
ed f
acts
) ar
e th
e ra
w m
ater
ials
of
scie
nce.
Wha
t the
scie
ntis
t can
mak
e of
his
dat
a is
the
clim
ax o
f th
e en
terp
rise
.In
Inv
itatio
n 2
we
bega
n to
hin
t at s
ome
of th
e di
ffic
ultie
s th
e sc
ien-
tist f
aces
in th
is e
nter
pris
e.It
was
poi
nted
out
ther
e th
at d
ata
rare
lyco
me
"cle
an";
they
alw
ays
invo
lve
vari
abili
ty, w
hich
the
scie
ntis
tm
ust s
omeh
ow c
ut th
roug
h in
ord
er to
arr
ive
at g
ener
al k
now
ledg
e.O
n th
e w
hole
, how
ever
, the
se e
arly
Inv
itatio
ns w
ere
conf
ined
to e
x-em
plif
ying
the
use
of d
ata
in a
rriv
ing
at g
ener
al k
now
ledg
e.T
he th
eme
of I
nvita
tions
5 th
roug
h 13
, on
the
othe
r ha
nd, i
s th
epr
oble
m o
f ob
tain
ing
wan
ted
data
.L
et u
s lo
ok b
ack
brie
fly
at th
eor
der
in w
hich
dif
fere
nt a
spec
ts o
f th
is p
robl
em w
ere
rais
ed.
Invi
ta-
tion
5 po
ints
out
the
exis
tenc
e of
err
or a
nd th
e fa
ct th
at it
can
be
redu
ced
but n
ot e
limin
ated
.In
vita
tion
6 th
en in
trod
uces
exp
erim
ent
as th
e m
eans
, par
exc
elle
nce,
for
obt
aini
ng o
ur c
hose
n da
ta.
Ex-
peri
men
t is
defi
ned
as a
situ
atio
n so
pla
nned
as
to y
ield
spe
cifi
ed,
wan
ted
data
.H
owev
er, t
he d
iffi
culti
es in
the
way
of
carr
ying
out
the
plan
of
an e
xper
imen
t are
not
dea
lt w
ith h
ere
but c
arri
ed o
ver
toIn
vita
tion
7.H
ere
agai
n th
e em
phas
is is
on
the
diff
icul
ty o
f ob
-ta
inin
g w
ante
d da
ta, t
he p
artic
ular
dif
ficu
lty b
eing
that
of
ensu
ring
adeq
uate
con
trol
.
OPE
RA
TIO
NA
L U
NC
ER
TA
INT
Y I
N S
CIE
NC
E
Invi
tatio
n 8
rais
es a
qui
te d
iffe
rent
asp
ect o
f th
e pr
oble
m o
f ob
-ta
inin
g w
ante
d da
ta.
In a
n ec
olog
ical
set
ting
we
see
the
poss
ibili
tyth
at th
e op
erat
ions
req
uire
d to
obt
ain
one
set o
f w
ante
d da
ta m
ayso
war
p th
e si
tuat
ion
unde
r in
vest
igat
ion
that
littl
e fu
rthe
r us
eful
data
can
be
obta
ined
.T
his
kind
of
hand
icap
to th
e pr
ogre
ss o
f en
-qu
iry
is o
f co
nsid
erab
le im
port
ance
.It
ari
ses
whe
neve
r w
e ar
e in
-ve
stig
atin
g a
sequ
ence
of
even
ts in
tim
e.In
suc
h a
case
, we
usua
llyre
quir
e da
ta a
bout
the
prog
ress
of
the
sequ
ence
wha
t it i
s lik
e fr
omm
omen
t to
mom
ent.
Thi
s re
quir
emen
t oft
en le
ads,
in tu
rn, t
o th
ene
ed f
or in
trud
ing
ours
elve
s or
our
inst
rum
ents
into
the
proc
ess
unde
rin
vest
igat
ion.
By
this
act
we
may
so
alte
r th
e pr
oces
s th
at it
s fu
rthe
rbe
havi
or is
no
long
er a
ppro
pria
te to
our
inve
stig
atio
n.O
ne o
f th
e m
ost e
xtre
me
exam
ples
of
this
pro
blem
occ
urs
in th
ose
inve
stig
atio
ns in
the
phys
ical
sci
ence
s w
here
the
obje
cts
unde
r in
vest
i-ga
tion
are
very
sm
all.
In s
uch
case
s, th
e m
ost r
efin
ed m
etho
ds o
fm
easu
rem
ent m
ust u
se d
evic
es o
f m
uch
the
sam
e si
ze a
s th
e ob
ject
sin
vest
igat
ed. H
ow a
re w
e, f
or e
xam
ple,
to m
easu
re th
e ve
loci
ty o
f an
elec
tron
with
out u
sing
som
ethi
ng o
n th
e el
ectr
on th
at is
as
big
orbi
gger
than
it is
, and
that
ther
efor
e al
ters
the
velo
city
to a
deg
ree
whi
ch m
ay m
ake
the
mea
sure
men
t wor
thle
ss f
or o
ur p
urpo
ses?
The
mos
t ext
rem
e ex
ampl
es o
f th
is h
andi
cap
may
occ
ur o
nly
insm
all-
part
icle
phy
sics
, but
it is
, nev
erth
eles
s, a
con
tinui
ng p
robl
em in
biol
ogy,
too.
It a
rise
s in
the
expe
rim
enta
l stu
dy o
f th
e de
velo
ping
embr
yo, i
n th
e ex
peri
men
tal s
tudy
of
grow
ing
and
wan
ing
popu
la-
tions
, in
the
expe
rim
enta
l stu
dy o
f po
pula
tion
gene
tics
and
evol
utio
n,an
d so
on.
It is
illu
stra
ted
once
aga
in a
mon
g ou
r en
quir
ies
in th
e ca
seof
Inv
itatio
n 9,
whe
re th
e pr
oble
m o
f sa
mpl
ing
a m
ouse
pop
ulat
ion
isno
t mer
ely
a pr
oble
m o
f ob
tain
ing
a fa
ir s
ampl
e bu
t als
o a
prob
lem
of m
inim
izin
g th
e ef
fect
of
sam
plin
g on
the
popu
latio
n its
elf.
TH
E R
OL
E O
F H
YPO
TH
ESE
S IN
SC
IEN
CE
Invi
tatio
ns 1
0 an
d 11
con
tinue
to tr
eat t
he p
robl
em o
f ob
tain
ing
wan
ted
data
. The
y in
trod
uce
the
idea
of
hypo
thes
is in
clo
se c
onne
c-tio
n w
ith th
e us
e of
"If
..
.,
then
..
." r
easo
ning
.In
thes
e In
vita
tions
the
hypo
thes
is is
trea
ted
in la
rge
part
as
if it
s
role in science was primarily to be established or disestablished,
"proved" or "disproved." In fact, however, hypotheses play another
important role. They serve as guides pointing the way to new dis-
coveries.We can make the significance of this role clearer by re-examining
the "If . . . , then . . ." logic associated with the use of hypotheses.When we look at such a logical chain from one point of view, it seemsto be purely and simply a major step toward "proving" the "If." "IfA, then B." We seek for B. If we find it, our hypothesis, A, is ren-dered possible. If we fail to find B, we are in doubt. If we showthat B does not exist, we have disproved the hypothesis, A.
Now let us look at an "If A, then B" from another point of view.The A, the hypothesis, is a new idea, or a familiar idea in an untriedand unfamiliar context. Therefore, the B is also something new orsomething familiar but located in a context as yet unsearched; sowe proceed to search for the new thing or in the new context. Inthis new search something new may be discovered. Whether thesomething new corresponds to our hypothesis or not, it sets off astream of fresh enquiries likely to lead to fresh and important knowl-edge. This is the point suggested in Invitation 11 and repeated inInvitations 12 and 13.
There are two important ways to emphasize this role of hypotheses.One way is to point out that science is not one process but two. It isa process of discovery as well as a process of "proof."
A second important way to present the role of hypotheses in theprocess of discovery is as follows. The problem of obtaining wanteddata is twofold. First, it is the problem of obtaining the data whenwe know what data we want. The planned and controlled experi-ment is the best solution to this problem.
In addition, the problem of obtaining wanted data is the problem ofknowing what data to want. The conceiving of fresh hypotheses isthe way we solve this problem.
The two problems are, of course, connected. Hence the devicesthat solve them are connected too. Although it is the experiment thatleads us to our data, it is the hypothesis that leads us to our experi-ment. And the fresh hypothesis leads us also to fresh problems.
9 2 -
Invi
tatio
n
14 15 16 16A
LIS
T O
F IN
VIT
AT
ION
S(1
4-16
A)
Subj
ect
Aux
ins
and
plan
t mov
emen
tN
euro
horm
ones
of
the
hear
tD
isco
very
of
peni
cilli
nD
icov
ery
of a
naph
ylax
is
Top
ic
Hyp
othe
sis;
inte
rpre
tatio
n of
abn
orm
ality
Ori
gin
of s
cien
tific
pro
blem
sA
ccid
ent i
n en
quir
yA
ccid
ent i
n en
quir
y
INV
ITA
TIO
NS
TO
EN
QU
IRY
, GR
OU
P II
The
Con
cept
ion
of C
ause
in B
iolo
gica
l Enq
uiry
: Cau
sal F
acto
rs, M
ultip
le C
ause
s, T
ime
Sequ
ence
s, N
egat
ive
Cau
satio
n, F
eedb
ack
LIS
T O
F IN
VIT
AT
ION
S (1
7-25
)
Invi
tatio
ns17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
t
Subj
ect
Thy
roid
act
ion
Dis
ease
and
trea
tmen
tPh
otos
ynth
esis
Seve
ral e
xam
ples
of
sequ
entia
l ana
lysi
sPa
rath
yroi
d ac
tion
Con
trol
of
panc
reas
Con
trol
of
panc
reas
, con
tinue
dC
ontr
ol o
f th
yroi
d se
cret
ion
Pitu
itary
-gon
ad m
echa
nism
Top
ic
Uni
t cau
ses
Uni
t cau
ses
Seri
al c
ausa
tion
Seri
al c
ausa
tion
Mul
tiple
cau
satio
nD
iver
se c
ausa
tion
Div
erse
eff
ects
of
dive
rse
caus
esIn
hibi
tory
cau
ses
Feed
back
mec
hani
sms
Inte
rim
Sum
mar
y 3
The
Con
cept
of C
ausa
l Lin
es
The
Inv
itatio
ns u
p to
this
poi
nt s
eem
to p
rese
nt a
rea
sona
bly
com
-pl
ete
conc
eptio
n of
sci
entif
ic r
esea
rch.
We
have
dea
lt w
ith th
e id
eas
of d
ata
and
thei
r in
terp
reta
tion,
the
plan
ning
of
expe
rim
ents
, the
con
-st
ruct
ion
of I
rc.ii
thes
es, t
he f
orm
atio
n of
pro
blem
s, a
nd th
e se
arch
for
caus
al f
acto
rs.
In f
act,
how
ever
, the
se I
nvita
tions
rep
rese
nt o
nly
one
patte
rn o
fen
quir
y us
ed in
bio
logi
cal r
esea
rch,
a p
atte
rn b
ased
on
the
conc
eptio
nof
inde
pend
ent c
ausa
l lin
es.
In la
ter
Invi
tatio
ns, w
e de
al w
ithot
her
patte
rnst
he p
atte
rn b
ased
on
the
idea
of
func
tion
and
the
pat-
tern
bas
ed o
n th
e id
ea o
f re
gula
tion.
Bef
ore
emba
rkin
g on
thes
e, a
ndin
ord
er to
beg
in to
cla
rify
the
diff
eren
ces
amon
g th
ese
lines
of
bio-
logi
cal e
nqui
ry, l
et u
s lo
ok b
ack
at th
e id
ea o
f se
para
te c
ausa
l lin
es.
The
idea
of
sepa
rate
cau
sal l
ines
is o
ne o
f th
e si
mpl
est b
ut a
lso
one
of th
e m
ost u
sefu
l pri
ncip
les
of e
nqui
ry u
sed
in s
cien
ce.
Bas
ical
ly,
the
idea
is th
at w
e tr
eat a
ny g
iven
who
le a
s if
it c
onsi
sts
of m
any
sepa
rate
par
ts, e
ach
of w
hich
ope
rate
s as
a s
epar
ate,
inde
pend
ent
entit
y.T
hat i
s, w
e pl
an e
xper
imen
ts a
nd in
terp
ret d
ata
as if
wha
tea
ch p
art i
s an
d do
es, i
t is
and
does
reg
ardl
ess
of th
e co
mpa
ny it
kee
psan
d re
gard
less
of
whe
ther
it k
eeps
com
pany
or
not.
Eac
h pa
rt is
cons
ider
ed in
depe
nden
t in
the
sens
e th
at w
e tr
eat i
t as
if it
s be
havi
oran
d ef
fect
are
alw
ays
the
sam
e w
heth
er th
e ot
her
part
s ac
t or
not.
The
adv
anta
ge o
f su
ch a
pri
ncip
le o
f en
quir
y is
that
it le
ts u
s st
udy
a gi
ven
subj
ect m
atte
r by
stu
dyin
g ea
ch o
f its
par
ts w
ithou
t wor
ryab
out c
onne
ctio
ns b
etw
een
the
stud
ied
part
and
oth
er p
arts
.If
we
assu
me
that
eac
h pa
rt o
pera
tes
as if
it is
inde
pend
ent,
we
can
igno
reth
e co
mpa
ny it
kee
ps o
r ev
en r
emov
e it
from
the
com
plic
ated
com
pany
it ke
eps
and
stud
y its
pro
pert
ies
and
beha
vior
whe
n al
onew
hich
ism
uch
sim
pler
and
less
con
fusi
ng th
an s
tudy
ing
it w
hen
it is
wor
king
as a
par
t in
the
larg
er w
hole
.C
onve
rsel
y, th
e as
sum
ptio
n of
inde
pend
ent p
arts
and
sep
arat
eca
usal
line
s le
ts u
s re
mov
e a
part
fro
m th
e w
hole
and
trea
t the
re-
mai
nder
of
the
who
le a
s if
non
e of
the
rem
aini
ng p
arts
had
bee
n af
-fe
cted
by
the
rem
oval
of
the
one
part
in q
uest
ion.
As
so m
any
of o
urpr
evio
us I
nvita
tions
hav
e in
dica
ted,
the
assu
mpt
ion
perm
its u
s to
inte
rpre
t dif
fere
nces
bet
wee
n an
ani
mal
with
out a
par
t and
a c
ompl
ete
anim
al a
s if
thes
e di
ffer
ence
s w
ere
due
entir
ely
to th
e ab
senc
#1 o
f th
epa
rt r
emov
ed.
The
mos
t use
ful b
iolo
gica
l ver
sion
of
the
conc
eptio
n of
sep
arat
e an
din
depe
nden
t par
ts is
that
of
a ch
ain
of a
ntec
eden
ts a
nd e
onse
quen
tsca
uses
and
eff
ects
. A le
ads
to B
lead
s to
C. M
eanw
hile
L le
ads
to K
lead
s to
I, a
nd X
lead
s to
Y le
ads
to Z
.B
ut A
B-4
C is
inde
-pe
nden
t of,
una
ffec
ted
by, L
-4
K-4
I, a
nd e
ach
of th
ese,
in tu
rn, i
sin
depe
nden
t of
XY
Z.
The
use
fuln
ess
and
sim
plic
ity o
f re
sear
ch b
ased
on
such
a p
rinc
iple
are
seen
with
spe
cial
cla
rity
in s
impl
e ve
rsio
ns o
f ge
netic
s an
d eq
ually
sim
ple
vers
ions
of
phys
iolo
gy.
In s
impl
e ge
netic
s ba
sed
on th
e id
eaof
sep
arat
e pa
rts
and
inde
pend
ent c
ausa
l lin
es, w
e ta
lk o
f ge
ne A
as
the
dete
rmin
er, l
et u
s sa
y, o
f br
own
eye
colo
r; o
f a
the
dete
rmin
er o
f bl
ue.
In s
imila
r fa
shio
n w
e m
ay s
peak
of
B a
s a
dete
rmin
er o
f he
ight
, C o
fcu
rly
hair
, and
so
on, a
ssum
ing
as w
e sp
eak
that
no
one
of th
ese
will
mod
ify
the
effe
ct o
f th
e ot
her.
Tha
t is
we
spea
k as
if a
n an
imal
who
se g
enet
ic c
ompo
sitio
n is
AA
BB
CC
will
hav
e pr
ecis
ely
the
sam
eey
e pi
gmen
t as
one
who
se c
ompo
sitio
n is
AA
bbcc
.A
s lo
ng a
s A
isth
ough
t of
as th
e ge
ne f
or b
row
n ey
e pi
gmen
t, th
en w
heth
er it
is in
the
com
pany
of
B o
r b,
C o
r c,
ther
e w
ill b
e no
infl
uenc
e on
the
effe
ctA
has
on
eye
pigm
ent.
In s
impl
e ph
ysio
logy
, sim
ilarl
y, w
e ha
ve e
xper
imen
ts a
nd c
oncl
usio
nsba
sed
on th
e as
sum
ptio
n of
sep
arat
e ca
usal
line
s. W
e sp
eak
of o
rgan
or ti
ssue
A a
s ha
ving
eff
ect a
; we
spea
k of
org
an B
as
havi
ng e
ffec
t b,
and
so o
n.H
ere,
as
in th
e ca
se o
f ge
netic
s, th
ere
is th
e un
derl
ying
basi
c as
sum
ptio
n th
at o
rgan
A w
ill p
rodu
ce e
ffec
t a w
heth
er o
rgan
Bor
C o
r D
is p
rese
nt o
r ab
sent
. Aga
in, e
ach
chai
n of
cau
ses
and
effe
cts,
each
cau
sal l
ine
goes
its
way
inde
pend
ent o
f ot
her
caus
al li
nes.
It is
this
con
cept
ion
of in
depe
nden
t cau
sal l
ines
, ind
epen
dent
cha
ins
of a
ntec
eden
t-co
nseq
uent
con
nect
ion,
that
lead
s to
the
patte
rn o
f en
-qu
iry
illus
trat
ed in
our
Inv
itatio
ns s
o fa
r.L
et u
s ta
ke a
pro
blem
inth
e ar
ea o
f ph
ysio
logy
to e
xem
plif
y th
e m
ajor
ste
ps in
this
pat
tern
.T
he b
asic
ste
ps a
re a
s fo
llow
s.Fi
rst,
we
mus
t ide
ntif
y th
e m
embe
rsof
a s
et o
f an
tece
dent
s.Se
cond
, we
mus
t ide
ntif
y th
e m
ass
of c
nn-
sequ
ents
mad
e up
of
the
man
y di
ffer
ent c
onse
qucn
ts f
low
ing
sep-
arat
ely
from
eac
h an
tece
dent
. With
our
iden
tifie
d se
t of
ante
cede
nts
in h
and,
toge
ther
with
the
mas
s of
con
sequ
ents
, the
nex
t tas
k is
tope
rfor
m a
n ex
peri
men
t whi
ch w
ill id
entif
y th
e co
nseq
uent
of
each
give
n an
tece
dent
.L
et u
s se
e ho
w th
is w
orks
out
in th
e ca
se o
fph
ysio
logy
.L
et u
s ta
ke th
e ca
t as
our
case
in p
oint
. We
take
all
the
sepa
rate
orga
ns id
entif
ied
by a
nato
mic
al s
tudy
of
the
cat a
s ou
r se
t of
iden
tifie
dan
tece
dent
s. W
e th
en tr
eat t
he w
hole
phy
siol
ogic
al c
ondi
tion
of th
eno
rmal
cat
as
mad
e up
of
the
man
y co
nseq
uent
s of
all
thes
e an
te-
cede
nts.
The
n ou
r ex
peri
men
tal i
dent
ific
atio
n or
link
ing
up o
f co
n-se
quen
t to
ante
cede
nt p
roce
eds
as f
ollo
ws.
In a
num
ber
of c
ats
we
rem
ove
one
part
icul
ar o
rgan
. Whe
n th
e an
imal
s ha
ve p
resu
mab
lyre
cove
red
from
the
effe
cts
of th
e su
rger
y, w
e sc
rutin
ize
the
phys
iolo
gyof
thes
e ex
peri
men
tal a
nim
als
in s
earc
h of
dif
fere
nces
fro
m in
tact
anim
als.
Whe
n th
ese
diff
eren
ces
are
note
d w
e th
en tr
eat t
hem
as
sign
s or
evid
ence
of
the
abse
nce
of th
at p
hysi
olog
ical
con
sequ
ent w
hich
nor
-m
ally
fol
low
s fr
om th
e re
mov
ed o
rgan
whe
n th
at o
rgan
is p
rese
nt.
We
then
try
to in
terp
ret t
hese
sig
ns o
f ab
senc
e so
as
to b
e ab
le to
say
wha
t the
"pr
esen
ce"
is; t
hat i
s, w
hat t
he o
rgan
doe
s w
hen
it is
pres
ent.
Thu
s, if
we
find
that
rem
oval
of
the
thyr
oid
glan
d le
ads
to lo
wer
tem
pera
ture
, pla
cidi
ty, o
besi
ty, l
ower
res
pira
tory
rat
e, r
educ
ed c
on-
sum
ptio
n of
oxy
gen,
and
so
on, w
e in
terp
ret t
hese
as
abse
nces
, as
in-
dica
tors
of
som
ethi
ng c
alle
d th
e "b
asal
met
abol
ism
" w
hich
is n
or-
mal
ly m
aint
aine
d by
the
thyr
oid
glan
d.T
his
mai
nten
ance
of
basa
lm
etab
olis
m is
then
the
disc
over
ed c
onse
quen
t of
thyr
oid
activ
ityta
ken
as a
ntec
eden
t.T
he v
ast q
uant
ity o
f bi
olog
ical
kno
wle
dge
that
take
s th
e fo
rm o
fan
tece
dent
-con
sequ
ent c
onne
ctio
ns b
ears
am
ple
witn
ess
to th
e st
reng
than
d us
eful
ness
of
the
conc
eptio
n of
sep
arat
e ca
usal
line
s.It
has
ace
ntra
l wea
knes
s, h
owev
er, w
hich
is, i
n fa
ct, t
he b
asic
idea
beh
ind
the
caus
al li
neth
e id
ea o
f its
inde
pend
ence
fro
m e
very
oth
er li
ne.
Bio
l-og
ists
kno
w th
at "
caus
es"
or "
ante
cede
nts"
in li
ving
org
anis
ms
may
not b
e in
depe
nden
t. T
hey
do n
ot n
eces
sari
ly a
ct th
e sa
me
way
re-
gard
less
of
the
com
pany
they
kee
p. O
n th
e co
ntra
ry, a
livi
ng o
rgan
-is
m is
so
muc
h an
inte
grat
ed w
hole
that
the
oppo
site
is a
lmos
t the
rule
: Eve
ry "
caus
e" is
like
ly to
hav
e a
diff
eren
t eff
ect,
depe
ndin
g on
wha
t oth
er c
ause
s ar
e op
erat
ing
at th
e sa
me
time.
Thi
s m
assi
ve in
tera
ctio
n of
cau
ses
can
aris
e fr
om e
ither
of
two
diff
eren
t beh
avio
rs. O
n th
e on
e ha
nd, i
f ca
use
A is
the
caus
e w
e
are
inte
rest
ed in
, we
may
thin
k of
cau
se B
as
affe
ctin
g ca
use
A in
ace
rtai
n w
ay.
The
n, o
f co
urse
, the
eff
ect o
f ca
use
A w
ill d
iffe
r de
-pe
ndin
g on
whe
ther
cau
se 1
3 is
act
ing
or n
ot, s
ince
A in
thes
e tw
oca
ses
will
, in
effe
ct, b
e tw
o di
ffer
ent c
ause
s.O
n th
e ot
her
hand
,ca
use
B m
ay h
ave
an e
ffec
t on
the
sam
e en
d or
gan
as d
oes.
cau
se A
.In
that
cas
e, a
gain
, the
app
aren
t eff
ect o
f ca
use
A w
ill d
iffe
r de
pend
-in
g on
whe
ther
cau
se B
is a
ctin
g or
not
.Ph
ysio
logy
off
ers
us a
n ex
celle
nt e
xam
ple
of th
is k
ind
of in
tera
c-tio
n.If
we
rem
ove
isle
t tis
sue
of th
e pa
ncre
as f
rom
a n
umbe
r of
expe
rim
enta
l ani
mal
s, w
e fi
nd th
at a
bsen
ce o
f th
is ti
ssue
lead
s to
viol
ent u
pset
in th
e ut
iliza
tion
of s
ugar
and
fat
s.If
in a
noth
er g
roup
of e
xper
imen
tal a
nim
als
we
rem
oved
the
pitu
itary
gla
nd (
ante
rior
lobe
), w
e ki
nd c
essa
tion
of b
one
grow
th a
nd o
f se
xual
mat
urat
ion
and
func
tion.
If w
e no
w r
emov
e bo
th o
rgan
s fr
om th
e sa
nte
anim
als
we
disc
over
con
sequ
ence
s ve
ry d
iffe
rent
fro
m th
e ex
pect
atio
n ba
sed
onth
e no
tion
of s
epar
ate
caus
al li
nes.
Ani
mal
s w
ith b
oth
thes
e tis
sues
rem
oved
do
not e
xhib
it m
erel
y th
e sa
me
failu
re o
f su
gar
and
fat
met
abol
ism
toge
ther
with
the
sam
e fa
ilure
of
bone
gro
wth
and
sex
ual
mat
urat
ion
seen
in th
e ca
ses
of s
epar
ate
rem
oval
. On
the
cont
rary
,fa
ilure
of
regu
latio
n of
sug
ar m
etab
olis
m is
muc
h le
ss s
ever
e w
hen
both
org
ans
are
rem
oved
than
it is
whe
n th
e is
let t
issu
e al
one
is r
e-m
oved
.In
sho
rt, t
he c
once
pt o
f an
org
anis
m a
s co
nsis
ting
of s
ep-
arat
e an
d in
depe
nden
t cau
sal l
ines
is a
hig
hly
sim
plif
ied
mod
el o
fth
e or
gani
sm.
The
fac
t tha
t the
con
cept
is a
hig
hly
sim
plif
ied
mod
el d
oes
not
mea
n, h
owev
er, t
hat i
t is
one
to b
e di
scar
ded.
On
the
cont
rary
, it
has
give
n us
and
will
con
tinue
to g
ive
us a
vas
t qua
ntity
of
know
l-ed
ge a
bout
the
orga
nism
. The
fac
t tha
t the
mod
el is
sim
pler
than
the
real
ity m
eans
onl
y th
at w
e ne
ed o
ther
mod
els
lead
ing
to o
ther
kind
s of
exp
erim
ents
, oth
er k
inds
of
data
, and
, the
refo
re, o
ther
kin
dsof
kno
wle
dge
of th
e or
gani
sm.
Spec
ific
ally
, we
need
a c
once
pt w
hich
bri
ngs
back
into
the
pict
ure
wha
t the
idea
of
sepa
rate
cau
sal l
ines
so c
onsp
icuo
usly
leav
es o
utth
e or
gani
sm a
s a
who
le. T
he id
ea o
f se
para
te c
ausa
l lin
essa
ys, i
nef
fect
, tha
t the
re is
no
who
le in
any
fun
ctio
nal
sens
e.In
stea
d, th
eco
ncep
t tre
ats
the
orga
nism
sim
ply
as a
col
lect
ion,
not
un
orga
niza
-tio
n, o
f ca
uses
.E
ach
caus
al li
ne, t
aken
sep
arat
ely,
is th
e ob
ject
of
inve
stig
atio
n. T
he w
eb f
orm
ed b
y th
ese
lines
is n
ot in
vest
igat
ed.
The
con
cept
of
func
tion
is o
ne o
f th
e pr
inci
ples
of
enqu
iry
that
does
bri
ng b
ack
the
orga
nism
as a
who
le.
Thi
s co
ncep
t and
the
sim
ple
way
it o
pera
tes
are
illus
trat
ed in
the
Invi
tatio
ns o
f G
roup
IV
.
INV
ITA
TIO
NS
TO
EN
QU
IRY
, GR
OU
P II
I
Qua
ntita
:3ve
Rel
atio
ns in
Bio
logy
: Lin
ear
Rel
atio
ns, E
xpon
entia
l Rel
atio
ns, R
ate,
Cha
nge
of R
ate,
Uni
ts a
ndC
onst
ants
L1S
T O
F 1N
MA
TIO
NS
(26-
31)
Subj
ect
Oxy
gen
and
carb
on d
ioxi
de in
resp
irat
ion
27L
ight
inte
nsity
and
pho
tosy
nthe
sis
28R
ate
of f
erm
enta
tion
29G
row
th r
egul
atio
n in
leaf
30L
ight
and
aux
in f
orm
atio
n31
Popu
latio
n gr
owth
in b
acte
ria
Invi
tatio
n26
Top
ic
Lin
ear
rela
tion
Lin
eari
ty; l
imiti
ng f
aato
rsC
hang
e of
rat
e; c
ompl
icat
ed, v
aria
bles
Non
linea
r po
lyno
mia
l of
degr
ee '>
1N
onlin
ear
poly
nom
ial o
f de
gree
<I
Exp
onen
tial f
unct
ions
; exp
onen
ts I
1.
INV
ITA
TIO
NS
TO
EN
QU
IRY
,GR
OU
P IV
The
Con
cept
of
Func
tion:
Evi
denc
es f
or I
nfer
ring
Fun
ctio
n,th
e D
oubt
fuln
ess
ofFu
nctio
nal I
nfer
ence
s, A
rgum
ent
from
Des
ign
vers
us
Arg
umen
t fro
m A
dapt
atio
n
Invi
tatio
n32 33 34 35 36 37
LIS
T O
F IN
VIT
AT
ION
S(3
2-37
)
Subj
ect
Mus
cle
stru
ctur
e an
d fu
nctio
nSi
mpl
e ex
ampl
es o
f ev
iden
ceof
fun
ctio
nM
uscl
e sy
nerg
ism
and
fun
ctio
nM
uscl
e an
d bo
neT
he v
alve
s of
the
vein
sE
mbr
yoni
c ci
rcul
atio
n
Top
ic
Six
evid
ence
s of
fun
ctio
nSe
ven
evid
ence
s of
fun
ctio
nFu
nctio
n in
a s
yste
mFu
nctio
n in
a s
yste
mE
xper
imen
tal e
vide
nce
of f
unct
ion
Pers
iste
nce
as e
vide
nce
of f
unct
ion
Inte
rim S
umm
ary
4 The
Con
cept
of F
unct
iona
l Par
t
PAR
T A
ND
WH
OL
E
In I
nvita
tions
32
to 3
7 w
e ha
ve s
een
the
oper
atio
n of
apr
inci
ple
ofen
quir
y w
hich
giv
es s
peci
al w
eigh
t to
the
who
le, o
new
hich
trea
ts p
arts
as s
ubse
rvie
nt to
the
who
le a
nd to
be in
vest
igat
ed b
y as
king
wha
tro
le th
ey s
erve
in th
e ec
onom
y of
the
who
le.
In th
is c
once
ptio
n th
e "w
hole
" ha
s fi
rst p
lace
.It
is a
"go
ing
conc
ern"
with
a c
erta
in c
hara
cter
or
natu
re.
Tha
t cha
ract
er o
r na
ture
is e
x-pr
esse
d th
roug
h a
num
ber
of c
apac
ities
and
act
iviti
es c
hara
cter
istic
of it
.T
hus
the
char
acte
r or
nat
ure
we
call
"ani
mal
" is
exp
ress
edth
roug
h a
cata
logu
e of
cap
aciti
es a
nd a
ctiv
ities
as
fam
iliar
as
it is
vene
rabl
e, th
at is
, ing
estio
n, d
iges
tion,
dis
trib
utio
n an
d as
sim
ilatio
n,ex
cret
ion,
loco
mot
ion,
inte
grat
ion,
rep
rodu
ctio
n, a
nd s
o on
.T
hech
arac
ter
or n
atur
e of
a s
peci
fic
anim
al w
ould
be
expr
esse
dth
roug
hsp
ecif
ic v
ersi
ons
of th
ese
gene
ric
trai
ts p
lus
cert
ain
othe
rs w
hich
set
that
spe
cies
apa
rt f
rom
oth
er s
peci
es.
The
se c
apac
ities
and
act
iviti
es, i
n tu
rn, m
ake
cert
ain
dem
ands
.T
here
are
con
ditio
ns th
at m
ust b
e he
ld w
ithin
bou
nds
and
need
sth
atm
ust b
e su
pplie
d if
they
are
to b
e m
aint
aine
d.It
is h
ere
that
the
"par
ts"
play
thei
r ro
le.
The
y ar
e th
e se
rvan
ts o
f th
e w
hole
, sup
ply-
ing
its n
eeds
as
wel
l as
cons
titut
ing
its v
isib
le e
xist
ence
.In
this
con
cept
ion
the
notio
n of
"pa
rts"
is v
ery
flex
ible
.Fo
r th
epu
rpos
es o
f on
e st
age
of in
vest
igat
ion,
they
may
be
take
n to
be
such
gros
s pa
rts
as th
e en
tire
circ
ulat
ory
syst
em,
the
dige
stiv
e tr
act,
the
nerv
ous
syst
em, a
nd s
o on
. At
anot
her
stag
e, w
e m
ay f
ocus
dow
n, tr
eat
each
sys
tem
, for
the
time
bein
g, a
s a
"who
le,"
and
inve
stig
ate
its p
arts
,th
e or
gans
.O
rgan
s, in
turn
, may
be
trea
ted
as w
hole
s w
hile
we
in-
vest
igat
e, a
s th
eir
part
s, th
e tis
sues
, the
var
iety
of
cells
, eve
nth
em
icro
stru
ctur
es, w
hich
com
pose
and
mai
ntai
n th
em.
The
pat
tern
of
enqu
iry
whi
ch f
low
s fr
om th
is c
once
ptio
nof
par
tan
d w
hole
is tw
o-pr
onge
d.Fi
rst,
ther
e m
ust b
e so
me
prel
imin
ary
gene
ral k
now
ledg
e of
the
who
le: a
gra
sp o
f its
cha
ract
eran
d na
ture
,an
d a
deta
iling
of
this
cha
ract
er a
nd n
atur
e as
we
have
not
ed. W
eha
ve a
lrea
dy s
een
exam
ples
of
this
pro
cedu
re: d
etai
ling
of a
nim
alch
arac
ter
in te
rms
of in
gest
ion,
dig
estio
n, a
nd s
o on
; spe
cifi
catio
nof
hum
an c
hara
cter
in te
rms
of a
mod
ifie
d an
imal
cha
ract
er p
lus
thos
efu
rthe
r be
havi
ors
whi
ch s
et m
en a
part
fro
m o
ther
ani
mal
s.T
his
gene
ral c
hara
cter
of
the
who
le is
dis
cove
red
thro
ugh
the
clas
si-
cal p
roce
ss c
alle
d in
duct
ion.
In th
is p
roce
ss n
umer
ous
inst
ance
s of
each
kin
d of
thin
g ar
e sc
rutin
ized
in th
eir
norm
al s
tate
and
con
ditio
n.Fr
om th
is r
epea
ted
obse
rvat
ion
of th
em c
omes
the
stat
e of
min
dca
lled
"exp
erie
nce"
; fro
m e
xper
ienc
e, in
turn
, com
es th
e in
duct
ive
leap
that
dis
card
s in
divi
dual
var
iabi
lity
and
the
inci
dent
al a
nd ta
kes
hold
of w
hat i
s ce
ntra
l and
cha
ract
eris
tic.
Thi
s pr
oces
s is
not
a g
uara
ntee
d on
e. O
ur s
ampl
e of
inst
ance
s m
aybe
bia
sed
( at
ypic
al).
The
sel
ectiv
e ob
serv
atio
ns o
f di
ffer
ent i
nves
ti-ga
tors
will
sel
ect i
n di
ffer
ent w
ays,
dep
endi
ng o
n th
eir
past
hist
orie
san
d in
tere
sts.
Hen
ce, d
isag
reem
ent a
s to
the
esse
ntia
l cha
ract
er o
fth
e "k
ind"
und
er in
vest
igat
ion
will
ari
se.
(Thi
s is
the
prin
cipa
l sou
rce
of th
e sh
ades
of
opin
ion
and
the
dive
rsiti
es o
f or
gani
zatio
n w
hich
arc
foun
d w
here
ver
men
dev
elop
cla
ssif
icat
ory
sche
mes
in w
hich
"ki
nds"
are
dist
ingu
ishe
d an
d de
fine
d.)
As
we
shal
l see
, how
ever
, the
pat
tern
of e
nqui
ry u
sed
to in
vest
igat
e pa
rts
not o
nly
requ
ires
this
pri
or, i
nduc
-tiv
e in
vest
igat
ion
of th
e w
hole
but
pro
gres
sive
ly c
orre
cts
it.
TH
E P
AT
TE
RN
OF
EN
QU
IRY
! PA
RT
RE
LA
TIV
E T
O W
HO
LE
Whe
n w
e ha
ve o
ur p
relim
inar
y, in
duct
ive
gras
p of
the
who
le r
ea-
sona
bly
wel
l est
ablis
hed,
we
are
read
y to
turn
to in
vest
igat
ion
of th
epa
rts.
The
lead
ing
ques
tion
we
are
to a
sk in
eac
h su
ch in
vest
igat
ion
is c
lear
eno
ugh:
Wha
t is
the
role
of
each
par
t in
the
who
le e
cono
my?
Wha
t doe
s it
do f
or th
e w
hole
?W
hat i
s no
t at a
ll cl
ear,
how
ever
, is
wha
t dat
a w
e ne
ed to
ans
wer
such
a q
uest
ion
and
how
thes
e da
ta a
re to
be
inte
rpre
ted.
It is
at t
his
poin
t tha
t the
con
cept
ion
mak
es it
s cr
ucia
l com
mitm
ent,
sets
for
thth
e no
tion
whi
ch is
at o
nce
its g
reat
est s
tren
gth
and
its s
ores
t poi
nt.
Tha
t not
ion
is b
rief
ly a
nd s
impl
y th
is: T
he s
truc
ture
of
ever
y pa
rt, t
helo
catio
n of
eve
ry p
art,
and
the
obse
rvab
le a
ctio
ns o
f or
in e
very
par
t
are
all a
ppro
pria
te to
, nea
tly f
ittin
g fo
r, th
e ro
le it
pla
ys in
the
who
le(s
ee a
lso
page
s 19
3-19
4).
Thi
s cr
ucia
l not
ion
brin
gs th
e fu
nctio
nal c
once
ptio
n to
life
, mak
esit
an o
pera
tive
prin
cipl
e of
enq
uiry
, by
telli
ng u
s w
hat d
ata
to s
eek
and
wha
t que
stio
ns to
ask
in o
ur la
bora
tory
.If
the
stru
ctur
e, lo
catio
n,an
d ac
tion
of e
ach
part
is a
ppro
pria
te to
its
role
, the
n, f
rom
kno
wl-
edge
of
stru
ctur
e, lo
catio
n, a
nd a
ctio
n, w
e sh
ould
be
able
to in
fer
that
role
.T
hese
mat
ters
, the
n, a
re w
hat w
e sh
ould
see
k to
dis
cove
r as
our
data
: Wha
t is
the
shap
e, th
e ar
chite
ctur
e, th
e de
taile
d st
ruct
ure
of th
e pa
rt w
e ar
e in
vest
igat
ing?
Sec
ond,
we
ask,
Wha
t are
its
neig
h-bo
rs a
nd h
ow is
it c
onne
cted
with
them
; wha
t doe
s it
pass
on
to th
em,
or d
o to
them
?T
hird
, Wha
t are
its
activ
ities
?T
hat i
s, w
hat p
er-
cept
ible
mot
ions
are
ther
e (
as in
the
hear
t)?
Wha
t do
we
see
ente
r-in
g th
em?
Lea
ving
them
? H
appe
ning
with
in th
em?
Wha
t che
mic
alch
ange
s? P
hysi
cal c
hang
es?
We
now
als
o kn
ow w
hat t
o do
with
thes
e da
ta w
hen
we
have
them
.W
e ar
e to
trea
t the
m a
s in
dica
tors
, evi
denc
e of
wha
t the
par
t doe
s fo
rth
e w
hole
. We
are
to in
terp
ret t
he s
truc
ture
of
the
part
as
bein
gw
hat i
t is
beca
use
that
is th
e st
ruct
ure
whi
ch w
ill b
est (
or
effe
ctiv
ely
)en
able
the
part
to s
erve
its
func
tion.
The
con
nect
ions
of
this
par
t to
othe
r pa
rts
sim
iliar
ly e
xist
as
the
conn
ectio
ns w
hich
bes
t ena
ble
it to
play
its
role
.So
too,
the
mot
ions
and
cha
nges
whi
ch ta
ke p
lace
in th
epa
rt.
One
fin
e ex
ampl
e of
the
use
of th
is p
rinc
iple
of
enqu
iry
is H
arve
y's
inve
stig
atio
n of
the
role
of
the
hear
t.Fi
rst,
he e
xam
ined
its
stru
ctur
e:th
e ch
ambe
rs in
to w
hich
it w
as d
ivid
ed, t
he m
ovab
le f
laps
whi
chgu
ard
the
entr
y in
to e
ach
cham
ber,
the
arra
ngem
ent o
f th
e fi
bers
whi
ch c
ompo
se it
s w
alls
.B
y a
clos
er s
tudy
he
iden
tifie
d th
ese
fibe
rsas
mus
cula
r. H
e th
en a
sked
him
self
wha
t suc
h a
stru
ctur
e an
d ar
-ra
ngem
ent w
ould
do.
He
trac
ed th
e co
nseq
uenc
es o
f co
ntra
ctio
n of
the
mus
cle
fibe
rs: T
hey
wer
e so
arr
ange
d th
at th
eir
cont
ract
ion
wou
ldre
sult
in a
n ov
eral
l red
uctio
n in
the
volu
me
of th
e ch
ambe
rs o
f th
ehe
art.
He
then
took
not
e of
the
cons
eque
nces
of
such
a c
onst
rict
ion
onth
e bl
ood
the
hear
t con
tain
ed. H
e sa
w th
at, i
n vi
ew o
f th
e co
nnec
tions
of c
ham
bers
to o
ne a
noth
er, a
nd in
con
sequ
ence
of
the
arra
ngem
ents
of
the
flap
s at
ent
ry a
nd e
xit,
the
bloo
d w
ould
be
impe
lled
thro
ugh
cer-
tain
pat
hway
s fr
om c
ham
ber
to c
ham
ber
and
then
ce o
ut.
Hav
ing
thus
infe
rred
wha
t he
coul
d fr
om s
truc
ture
, Har
vey
turn
edto
the
ques
tion
of c
onne
ctio
n of
the
hear
t with
its
neig
hbor
s, s
aw th
eem
erge
nce
of v
esse
ls le
adin
g to
and
fro
m th
e lu
ngs,
and
oth
ers
lead
ing
to a
nd f
rom
the
rem
aind
er o
f th
e bo
dy. B
y fu
rthe
r st
udy
of th
e st
ruc-
ture
of
thes
e ve
ssel
s (
whe
ther
thei
r w
alls
wer
e m
uscu
lar;
if s
o, w
heth
eras
str
ong
as o
r w
eake
r th
an th
ose
of th
e he
art;
whe
ther
they
too
had
valv
es; a
nd if
so,
per
mitt
ing
flow
in w
hat d
irec
tion)
he
soug
ht d
ata
that
wou
ld c
heck
his
infe
renc
es f
rom
the
stru
ctur
e of
the
hear
t and
lead
to in
depe
nden
t inf
eren
ces
whi
ch w
ould
eith
er b
e co
nsis
tent
with
or o
ppos
ed to
the
infe
renc
es m
ade
from
the
stru
ctur
e of
the
hear
t.Fi
nally
, alth
ough
ther
e is
no
sign
ific
ance
to th
e or
der
in w
hich
str
uc-
ture
, act
ion,
and
loca
tion
are
exam
ined
and
inte
rpre
ted,
he
turn
ed to
the
visi
ble
actio
ns o
f he
art a
nd b
lood
ves
sels
, not
ed th
e or
der
and
sequ
ence
of
cont
ract
ions
and
exp
ansi
ons,
the
alte
rnat
e pa
ling
and
red-
deni
ng o
f he
art w
all a
nd b
lood
ves
sels
, and
so
on.
Her
e he
had
stil
la
thir
d bo
dy o
f da
ta f
rom
whi
ch to
infe
r fu
nctio
n an
d w
ith w
hich
toch
eck
his
othe
r in
fere
nces
.T
hus,
he
cam
e to
the
conc
lusi
on th
at th
e ro
le o
f th
e he
art i
s to
pum
pbl
ood
in a
con
stan
t cir
cula
tion
from
lung
s to
hea
rt to
bod
y, th
ence
bac
kto
the
lung
s.T
his,
of
cour
se, i
s no
t the
end
of
the
wor
k, f
or h
e ha
d no
t yet
con
-ne
cted
this
mov
emen
t of
the
bloo
d to
the
who
le e
cono
my,
the
need
or
need
s of
the
body
whi
ch, u
ltim
atel
y, th
is c
ircu
latio
n se
rves
.T
his
mat
ter
rem
ains
to b
e fi
rmly
est
ablis
hed,
but
ther
e is
alr
eady
a c
lue
the
clea
r, g
reat
em
phas
is in
the
body
on
flow
thro
ugh
the
lung
s.A
llth
e bl
ood
pass
es th
roug
h th
e lu
ngs
at e
ach
com
plet
e ci
rcui
t, w
here
ason
ly a
fra
ctio
n go
es to
any
oth
er s
ingl
e pa
rt (
note
her
e th
e fu
rthe
rus
e of
dat
a ab
out c
onne
ctio
ns a
nd n
eigh
bors
).So
, the
nex
t pro
blem
for
enqu
iry
is in
dica
ted.
Wha
t hap
pens
to th
e bl
ood
in it
s pa
ssag
eth
roug
h th
e lu
ngs?
If a
nd w
hen
that
que
stio
n is
ans
wer
ed, w
e sh
all n
ote
othe
r or
gans
whi
ch a
re m
ore
rich
ly s
uppl
ied
with
blo
od v
esse
ls th
an th
e or
dina
ryan
d se
ek to
dis
cove
r w
hat s
peci
al e
vent
s ta
ke p
lace
ther
e.Fi
nally
,w
e sh
all t
ry to
trac
e th
e co
nnec
tion
betw
een
wha
t hap
pens
to th
e bl
ood
in lu
ngs
and
othe
r m
ajor
pla
ces
and
the
need
s of
the
body
in g
ener
al.
KN
OW
LE
DG
E O
F PA
RT
AN
D W
HO
LE
Whe
n en
quir
y co
ntro
lled
by th
e fu
nctio
nal p
rinc
iple
is w
ell d
one,
aki
nd o
f kn
owle
dge
emer
ges
whi
ch is
qui
te d
iffe
rent
fro
m th
at b
roug
htto
bei
ng th
roug
h th
e pr
inci
ple
of c
ausa
l lin
es.
From
the
latte
r co
me
item
s of
kno
wle
dge
such
as
the
follo
win
g, e
ach
of th
em f
rom
a d
iffe
rent
rese
arch
, rep
orte
d in
dif
fere
nt s
cien
tific
pap
ers
and
reco
rded
in d
iffe
r-en
t sec
tions
of
a te
xtbo
ok:
- lo
o
jr.11
1111
11M
PE
IMP
IFF
MN
IMM
INW
IMP
INF
IRP
OP
PIIM
MIII
IMM
IWIF
1. C
hem
ical
s pr
oduc
ed b
y so
me
bact
eria
stim
ulat
ean
d di
rect
the
mov
emen
t of
whi
te b
lood
cel
ls.
2. I
n ca
ses
of lo
cal i
nfec
tion
by m
any
bact
eria
, the
phy
sica
l sta
teof
the
neig
hbor
ing
bloo
d ve
ssel
wal
ls is
alte
red.
In c
onse
quen
ce, m
a-te
rial
s fl
ow o
ut w
hich
do
not d
o so
ord
inar
ily. F
or e
xam
ple,
fib
rino
gen,
the
prec
urso
r of
fib
rin
stra
nds,
may
flo
w o
ut in
con
side
rabl
e qu
antit
y.3.
Var
ious
bac
teri
al p
rodu
cts
are
know
n to
incr
ease
the
phag
ocyt
ic(
engu
lfin
g) a
ctiv
ity o
f w
hite
blo
od c
ells
.Fr
om e
nqui
ry d
irec
ted
by th
e fu
nctio
nal c
once
ptio
n, o
n th
eot
her
hand
, wou
ld c
ome
som
ethi
ng li
ke th
e fo
llow
ing:
Whe
n ba
cter
ia in
vade
a lo
cal a
rea,
as
by a
scr
atch
or
punc
ture
wou
nd, a
num
ber
of p
roce
sses
are
set
in m
otio
n w
hich
ser
ve e
vent
ually
to w
all o
ff th
e in
fect
ed a
rea,
pre
vent
the
spre
ad o
fth
e in
vadi
ng o
rgan
-is
ms,
and
des
troy
the
deve
lopi
ng c
olon
y of
inva
ders
.T
he s
tate
men
t wou
ld th
en g
o on
to r
epor
t the
det
aile
d st
eps
by w
hich
thes
e en
ds a
re a
chie
ved.
In s
o do
ing,
it w
ould
incl
ude
all t
he it
ems
whi
ch e
mer
ged
as f
ruits
of
caus
al-l
ine
enqu
irie
s, b
ut th
ese
deta
ilsw
ould
be
rela
ted
to o
ne a
noth
er a
nd to
the
who
le o
rgan
ism
by
exhi
bit-
ing
the
role
s th
ey p
laye
d in
pro
tect
ing
the
body
aga
inst
inva
ding
bac-
teri
a. Not
e th
at th
e tw
o fa
mili
ar w
ords
"or
gan"
and
"fu
nctio
n" h
ave
thei
ror
igin
in th
is c
once
pt o
f pa
rt a
nd w
hole
. "O
rgan
" m
eans
muc
h m
ore
than
mer
ely
a di
stin
guis
habl
e pa
rt; i
t mea
ns a
n ag
ent,
a su
bord
inat
e,a
som
ethi
ng in
the
serv
ice
of th
ew
hole
. "Fu
nctio
n" m
eans
muc
h m
ore
than
a m
ere
doin
g; it
mea
ns a
doi
ng w
hich
is s
een
and
unde
rsto
od a
ndph
rase
d in
term
s of
the
serv
ice
it re
nder
s to
the
who
le.
It is
in th
is c
once
pt o
f th
e or
gani
sm th
at th
e ce
ntra
l pla
ce o
f an
atom
yan
d ph
ysio
logy
as
scie
nces
of
grea
t dig
nity
has
its
orig
in. A
nato
my
isre
spon
sibl
e fo
r di
scov
ery
and
desc
ript
ion
of th
e st
ruct
ure,
topo
grap
hy,
and
arch
itect
ure
of p
arts
.Ph
ysio
logy
is r
espo
nsib
le f
or d
isco
very
of m
otio
ns a
nd a
ctio
ns a
nd f
or in
terp
reta
tions
of
all t
he d
ata
on s
truc
-tu
re, l
ocat
ion,
act
ion,
to a
con
clus
ion
abou
t fun
ctio
n.
STR
EN
GT
HS
AN
D W
EA
KN
ESS
ES
The
re a
re s
hort
com
ings
and
obj
ectio
ns to
this
cla
ssic
al (
goi
ng b
ack
to A
rist
otle
and
Gal
en)
conc
ept o
f th
e or
gani
sm, j
ust a
s th
ere
are
wea
k-ne
sses
in th
e co
ncep
t of
inde
pend
ent c
ausa
l str
ands
.T
here
are
als
om
ajor
adv
anta
ges.
Let
us
exam
ine
som
e of
eac
h.It
s pr
inci
pal v
irtu
e co
nsis
ts in
the
fact
that
it b
ring
s "t
he o
rgan
ism
,"th
e w
hole
, bac
k in
to th
e fi
eld
of e
nqui
ry. T
he w
hole
is lo
st in
the
con-
cept
of
inde
pend
ent c
ausa
l str
ands
and
this
loss
has
con
sequ
ence
sfo
ren
quir
y.A
sec
ond
and
less
obv
ious
adv
anta
ge o
f th
e cl
assi
cal c
once
ptio
n ov
erth
at o
f in
depe
nden
t cau
sal l
ines
is th
is: I
t per
mits
an
inte
grat
ion
ofm
any
biol
ogic
al s
cien
ces,
the
inte
rcon
nect
ing
of m
any
diff
eren
t lin
esof
enq
uiry
. We
have
alr
eady
see
n th
at it
req
uire
s an
inte
grat
ion
ofan
atom
y an
d ph
ysio
logy
, the
two
bein
g jo
ined
to g
ive
usth
e da
ta a
ndth
e co
nclu
sion
s ab
out f
unct
ions
.It
als
o se
rves
to r
elat
e ps
ycho
logy
and
ecol
ogy
on th
e on
e ha
nd a
nd p
hysi
cs a
nd c
hem
istr
y on
the
othe
rto
the
scie
nces
of
anat
omy
and
phys
iolo
gy.
It th
us b
ring
s in
to e
xist
-en
ce a
n or
gani
zed
"who
le"
of b
iolo
gica
lkn
owle
dge
whi
ch m
irro
rs th
eve
ry "
who
le,"
the
livin
g or
gani
sm, w
ithw
hich
it d
eals
.K
now
ledg
e of
the
phys
ics
and
chem
istr
y of
livi
ng th
ings
is jo
ined
very
sim
ply
to o
ur k
now
ledg
e of
thei
r an
atom
yan
d ph
ysio
logy
.Ju
stas
we
inve
stig
ate
orga
ns a
s co
mpo
sing
and
serv
ing
func
tions
in th
ew
hole
, so
we
inve
stig
ate
phys
ical
com
pone
nts
and
proc
esse
s an
dch
emic
al c
ompo
nent
s an
d pr
oces
ses
as c
ompo
sing
and
ser
ving
fun
c-tio
ns w
ithin
the
orga
niza
tion
of th
e tis
sues
, cel
ls, a
nd o
rgan
s w
hich
com
pris
e th
em.
At t
he o
ther
end
of
the
line,
eco
logy
and
psy
chol
ogy
are
sim
ilarl
yor
gani
zed
into
the
stru
ctur
e of
bio
logi
cal k
now
ledg
e. O
nce
we
have
,fo
r ex
ampl
e, s
tudi
ed th
e ne
stin
g, m
igra
ting,
and
nur
turi
ng b
ehav
ior
ofbi
rds,
we
can
turn
bac
k an
d as
k ho
w a
ll th
ese
com
plex
beh
avio
rs a
reac
hiev
ed. W
hat o
rgan
s se
rve
to in
itiat
e th
e fl
ight
nor
thw
ard?
Wha
tis
it th
at tu
rns
the
ener
gy o
f th
e bi
rd to
the
build
ing
of a
nes
t?W
hen
the
invo
lved
org
ans
are
loca
ted,
we
can
ask
still
fur
ther
que
s-tio
ns w
hich
rel
ate
the
phys
ics
and
chem
istr
y of
the
bird
's c
ells
, as
wel
las
its
orga
ns, t
o its
beh
avio
r as
a b
ird.
How
do
chan
ges
in th
e pr
o-po
rtio
n of
dar
k to
day
light
, or
seas
onal
cha
nges
in te
mpe
ratu
re, l
ead
to f
urth
er c
hem
ical
and
phy
sica
l cha
nges
with
in th
e or
gan
whi
ch, i
ntu
rn, l
ead
to s
till f
urth
er c
hem
ico-
phys
ical
cha
nges
trig
geri
ng f
light
,or
nes
ting,
or
mat
ing,
or
broo
ding
?W
ith s
o m
uch
to b
e sa
id in
fav
or o
f th
e cl
assi
cal c
once
pt o
f th
eor
gani
sm, i
t is
hard
, at f
irst
, to
see
wha
t wea
knes
ses
it m
ay h
ave
and
wha
t obj
ectio
ns to
it c
an b
e ra
ised
.B
ut w
eakn
esse
s th
ere
are
and
obje
ctio
ns, i
ndee
d vi
olen
t one
s, h
ave
been
rai
sed.
One
of
the
mos
t ser
ious
obj
ectio
ns to
the
conc
ept o
f fu
nctio
n as
apr
inci
ple
of e
nqui
ry is
that
it tr
eats
org
anis
ms
as if
they
wer
e w
orks
of
fine
art
.T
hey
have
fin
ish,
com
plet
enes
s.E
very
thin
g ab
out e
ach
orga
nism
is a
s it
shou
ld b
e.It
cou
ld n
ot h
ave
been
oth
erw
ise;
itw
ould
, pre
sum
ably
, hav
e gr
eat d
iffi
culty
in s
urvi
ving
a tr
ansi
tion
toso
met
hing
oth
er th
an it
now
is.
The
re a
re tw
o w
ays
we
can
take
this
cri
ticis
m; o
ne is
impo
rtan
t to
our
unde
rsta
ndin
g of
it a
s a
prin
cipl
e of
enq
uiry
,th
e ot
her
is n
ot.
We
can
take
it a
s a
stat
emen
t of
fact
: The
org
anis
m is
not
fin
ishe
d an
dpe
rfec
t; it
is n
ot in
flex
ibly
wha
t it i
s.C
erta
inly
thes
e cr
itica
l ass
er-
tions
are
true
. The
org
anis
m h
as h
ad a
his
tory
of
chan
ge. T
here
are
rem
nant
s in
its
body
of
past
org
aniz
atio
ns, n
ow p
oint
less
and
irre
leva
nt,
"fun
ctio
nles
s."
Mor
eove
r, w
e kn
ow th
at th
ere
are
mec
hani
sms
built
into
the
livin
g or
gani
sm b
y w
hich
fur
ther
cha
nge
is a
t lea
st p
rom
ised
if n
ot m
ade
inev
itabl
e.T
hese
cha
nges
will
oft
en o
ccur
pie
cem
eal.
Con
sequ
ently
, som
e or
gani
sms,
eve
n la
rge
popu
latio
ns o
f th
em, m
aypo
sses
s ch
arac
teri
stic
s(p
arts
) w
hich
are
mer
ely
tole
rabl
e in
the
pres
ent w
orki
ng s
chem
e ra
ther
than
eff
ectiv
e, n
eces
sary
ele
men
ts o
fits
org
aniz
atio
n.A
lthou
gh th
ese
asse
rtio
ns a
re s
ound
, the
y do
not
, for
this
rea
son,
cons
titut
e a
criti
cism
of
the
clas
sica
l con
cept
as
a pr
inci
ple
of e
nqui
ry.
Let
us
gran
t tha
t man
y or
gans
of
the
body
are
less
than
per
fect
lyad
apte
d to
thei
r ro
les.
Gra
nt f
urth
er th
at s
ome
orga
ns, w
hate
ver
thei
rso
urce
in p
ast o
r pr
ojec
ted
cond
ition
s of
the
orga
nism
, are
pre
sent
lyw
ithou
t a f
unct
ion.
It is
stil
l the
cas
e th
at f
ruitf
ul k
now
ledg
e w
ill b
edi
sclo
sed
by a
skin
g th
e qu
estio
ns a
nd s
eeki
ng th
e da
ta p
resc
ribe
d by
the
prin
cipl
e.If
the
part
whi
ch c
once
rns
our
rese
arch
is w
ell a
dapt
ed in
str
uctu
re,
actio
n, a
nd lo
catio
n to
its
role
, the
n ou
r re
sear
ch w
ill d
iscl
ose
that
rol
e.If
the
orga
n is
less
than
per
fect
, if
it in
clud
es r
emna
nts
of p
ast r
oles
and
aspe
cts
that
pre
sent
ly h
ave
no r
ole,
our
res
earc
h w
ill h
ave
loos
een
ds. S
ome
data
col
lect
ed w
ill f
ind
no p
lace
in o
ur f
inal
for
mul
atio
nof
the
role
pla
yed
by th
e pa
rt.
Mor
eove
r, w
e m
ay n
eed
to v
erif
y ou
rfi
rst c
oncl
usio
ns b
y st
udyi
ng m
any
mor
e ne
ighb
orin
g an
d co
nnec
ted
part
s th
an w
ould
oth
erw
ise
be r
equi
red.
It m
ay e
ven
be th
e ca
se th
at o
ur in
tere
st w
ill h
ave
light
ed o
n a
stru
ctur
e th
at h
as n
o fu
nctio
n, th
at is
not
, in
the
sens
e of
the
clas
sica
lpr
inci
ple,
an
orga
n at
all.
In th
at c
ase
the
data
we
requ
ire
will
not
be
fort
hcom
ing.
The
thin
g un
der
inve
stig
atio
n w
ill r
efus
e to
ans
wer
the
ques
tion
we
put b
ecau
se, i
n th
is c
ase,
it h
as n
o an
swer
.T
his
very
sile
nce,
thou
gh, i
s ev
iden
ce w
e ca
n us
e.It
poi
nts
to th
e po
ssib
ility
that
in th
is c
ase
we
are
deal
ing
with
a p
art w
hich
doe
s no
t "be
long
," a
ndth
is, t
oo, i
s pr
oper
kno
wle
dge
of th
e or
gani
sm w
ith w
hich
we
are
deal
-in
g. In s
hort
, if
we
adm
it th
e de
sira
bilit
y of
fin
ding
ans
wer
s w
hich
are
only
pro
babl
e, in
whi
ch w
e ca
n ha
vea
degr
ee o
f co
nfid
ence
rat
her
than
abs
olut
e su
rene
ss, t
he c
lass
ical
con
cept
ion
rem
ains
a f
ruitf
ul p
rin-
cipl
e of
enq
uiry
des
pite
its
limita
tions
.
INV
ITA
TIO
NS
TO
EN
QU
IRY
, GR
OU
P V
The
Sel
f-R
egul
ator
y O
rgan
ism
: Hom
eost
asis
; Dyn
amic
Equ
ilibr
ium
s; O
rgan
ism
ic B
ehav
ior;
Ada
ptiv
e C
hang
e of
Equ
ilibr
ium
s;In
terc
onne
ctio
ns o
f H
omco
stas
cs
Invi
tatio
n
38 39 40 41 42 43 44
LIS
T O
F IN
VIT
AT
ION
S (3
8-44
)
Subj
ect
A th
erm
osta
tic m
odel
Con
trol
of
bloo
d su
gar
Blo
od s
ugar
and
the
inte
rnal
env
iron
men
tB
lood
sug
ar a
nd in
sulin
Blo
od s
ugar
and
hun
ger
Bas
al m
etab
olic
rat
eT
he s
tres
s re
actio
n: a
dren
alin
e
Top
ic
The
con
cept
of
hom
eost
asis
Mai
nten
ance
of
dyna
mic
equ
ilibr
ium
Fitn
ess
of m
odel
sSe
nsin
g m
echa
nism
s of
hom
eost
asis
Org
anis
mic
beh
avio
r as
hom
eost
atic
Ada
ptiv
e ch
ange
of
equi
libri
ums
Inte
rrel
atio
ns o
f ho
rneo
stas
es: t
he s
elf-
regu
latin
g or
gani
sm.
Inte
rim S
umm
ary
5
The
Who
le a
s D
eter
min
er o
f Its
Par
ts
EX
AM
PLE
S O
F SE
LF-
RE
GU
LA
TIO
N
Whe
n bl
ood
suga
r dr
ops
to a
n "u
ncom
fort
able
" le
vel,
even
ts a
retr
igge
red
whi
ch te
nd to
rem
edy
the
situ
atio
n. O
ne m
echa
nism
lead
sto
rel
ease
of
stor
ed s
ugar
by
the
liver
. We
are
impe
lled
by a
noth
erto
sto
p w
hat w
e ar
e do
ing
and
seek
out
food
.(T
here
is e
vide
nce,
inde
ed, t
hat s
ome
anim
als
seek
out
the
part
icul
ar k
ind
of f
ood
they
need
.)St
ill a
thir
d m
echa
nism
sto
ps d
own
the
rate
at w
hich
our
mus
cles
con
sum
e th
e su
gar
that
is a
vaila
ble.
Con
vers
ely,
whe
n to
o m
uch
cand
y ha
s ra
ised
the
bloo
d su
gar
leve
l,si
mila
r bu
t con
trar
y pr
oces
ses
are
evok
ed. T
he k
idne
y ex
trac
ts s
ugar
for
excr
etio
n.T
he li
ver
stor
es a
s m
uch
as it
can
; so
do m
uscl
es.
Hun
ger
pang
s ce
ase.
Our
app
etite
is "
spoi
led.
"T
his
hom
eost
atic
reg
ulat
ion,
how
ever
, is
not t
he w
hole
sto
ry.
A
mor
e pr
ofou
nd c
hang
e ca
n oc
cur.
The
bod
y ca
n "r
eset
its
ther
mo-
stat
."If
whi
m o
r ci
rcum
stan
ce p
uts
us o
n sh
ort r
atio
ns f
or a
tim
e,th
e th
erm
osta
t beh
aves
, at f
irst
, as
it di
d be
fore
.It
irks
us
by w
ayof
hun
ger
pang
s an
d la
ssitu
de a
nd c
alls
for
sto
red
suga
rfr
om th
eliv
er.
If w
e st
ay o
n th
e sh
ort r
atio
ns lo
ng e
noug
h, h
owev
er, t
he im
-pu
lsio
n ca
lled
hung
er c
ease
s; th
e m
uscl
es r
eadj
ust t
he w
ays
inw
hich
they
take
ene
rgy
from
ava
ilabl
e m
ater
ials
; the
live
r re
leas
es it
s st
ore
only
whe
n bl
ood
suga
r dr
ops
to a
leve
l mea
sura
bly
low
erth
an th
ele
vel w
hich
for
mer
ly e
voke
d re
leas
e.A
nd th
is n
ew s
tate
of
affa
irs
pers
ists
eve
n if
we
retu
rn to
a "
fulle
r lif
e"un
til w
eha
ve s
taye
d on
it fo
r aw
hile
.E
nqui
ry h
as d
iscl
osed
man
y in
stan
ces
of th
is k
ind
of r
eset
of a
ther
mos
tat o
r se
cond
-ord
er c
ontr
ol w
hich
legi
slat
es a
new
"no
rmal
-ity
." W
hen
a m
uscl
e is
cal
led
into
act
ivity
, man
y ca
pilla
ry b
eds
open
whi
ch n
orm
ally
are
clo
sed.
Whe
n ex
erci
se c
ease
s, th
e be
ds c
lose
dow
n ag
ain.
If th
e m
uscl
e is
use
d re
peat
edly
ove
r a
suff
icie
nt le
ngth
of ti
me,
how
ever
, the
num
ber
of b
eds
whi
ch s
uppl
y it,
eve
n in
its
rest
ing
stat
e, is
gen
eral
ly in
crea
sed,
and
an
exer
cise
call
for
extr
asu
pply
is a
nsw
ered
by
a pr
opor
tiona
te in
crea
se.
A s
imila
r sh
ift o
f no
rm o
ccur
s fo
r th
e ba
sal r
ate
atw
hich
our
bod
yre
leas
es e
nerg
y fo
r m
aint
enan
ce.
It r
ises
if w
e st
ay lo
ng e
noug
h in
a co
oler
clim
ate
and
drop
s if
we
spen
d su
ffic
ient
tim
e in
a w
arm
eron
e.It
occ
urs,
too,
in th
e ca
se o
f w
ater
util
izat
ion
by th
e ki
dney
san
d, a
gain
, in
the
case
of
body
tem
pera
ture
.In
bri
ef, t
he b
ody
can
shif
t its
nor
ms
as w
ell a
s co
rrec
t dep
artu
res
from
them
.T
hese
inst
ance
s se
em c
omm
onpl
ace.
In th
e fi
rst p
lace
, the
y ar
eon
ly s
econ
d-or
der
inst
ance
s of
a h
ost o
f ep
hem
eral
adju
stm
ents
to n
eed
and
circ
umst
ance
s w
hich
are
of
the
esse
nce
of b
eing
aliv
e.In
the
seco
nd p
lace
, the
y ar
e ch
ange
s in
rat
e, in
deg
ree,
whi
ch w
ete
nd to
take
for
gra
nted
.B
ut le
t us
look
fur
ther
.A
t fir
st g
lanc
e, m
ount
ain
sick
ness
app
ears
to b
e bu
tan
othe
r in
-st
ance
of
seco
nd-o
rder
cha
nge
inde
gree
. Whe
n w
e m
ove
to a
hig
hal
titud
e, d
istr
esss
hort
ness
of
brea
th, f
atig
ue, n
ause
a, a
nd s
o on
usu-
ally
ens
ues.
The
am
ount
of
oxyg
en in
the
volu
me
of a
ir w
e br
eath
e is
so m
uch
less
than
that
at s
eale
vel t
hat o
ur d
eman
d, e
ven
unde
r th
equ
iete
st c
ircu
mst
ance
s, e
xcee
ds th
e av
aila
ble
supp
ly.
In tw
o w
eeks
or th
ree
or f
our,
how
ever
,th
is is
cha
nged
.T
he th
in a
ir o
f th
ehe
ight
s is
now
ade
quat
e: W
e ex
trac
t fro
m it
as
muc
h ox
ygen
as
we
requ
ire.
Man
y of
the
chan
ges
whi
ch b
ring
abo
ut th
is m
ore
satis
fact
ory
stat
eof
thin
gs a
re o
nly
chan
ges
in d
egre
e: in
crea
se in
the
amou
ntof
oxyg
en-c
arry
ing
pigm
ent i
n th
e bl
ood,
incr
ease
d bl
ood
pres
sure
and
circ
ulat
ory
rate
.B
ut a
t lea
st o
ne e
xten
sive
stu
dy p
rovi
des
evid
ence
of c
hang
e of
a d
iffe
rent
kin
d, a
cha
nge
in th
e ve
ry a
rchi
tect
ure
and
chem
istr
y of
an
orga
n.T
he o
rgan
is th
e lu
ng. U
nder
sea
-lev
el c
ondi
tions
its
cells
are
onl
yep
ithel
ial:
The
y co
nstit
ute
a m
embr
ane.
The
oxy
gen
of in
spir
ed a
iran
d th
e ca
rbon
dio
xide
bro
ught
by
the
bloo
d ar
e th
ough
t to
mov
eac
ross
it b
y ub
iqui
tous
phy
sica
l mea
ns:
solu
tion
in w
ater
, the
n di
ffu-
sion
fro
m r
egio
ns o
f hi
gher
to r
egio
ns o
f lo
wer
con
cent
ratio
n.T
hein
spir
ed a
ir h
as a
hig
her
oxyg
en "
tens
ion"
than
has
the
bloo
d w
hich
flow
s th
roug
h th
e m
embr
anes
of
the
lung
spa
ces;
the
bloo
d ha
s m
uch
mor
e ca
rbon
dio
xide
than
doe
s th
ein
spir
ed a
ir.
In c
onse
quen
ce, e
x-ch
ange
occ
urs
sim
ply
as a
res
ult o
f th
e re
lativ
e fr
eque
ncie
s of
mol
ec-
ular
col
lisio
ns.
Aft
er a
djus
tmen
t to
high
alti
tude
, all
this
is c
hang
edif
we
acce
pt
the
rese
arch
of
J. S
. Hal
dane
. He
unde
rtoo
k m
easu
rem
ent o
f ox
ygen
tens
ioni
n th
e am
bien
t air
, in
the
lung
spa
ces,
in th
e bl
ood
flow
ing
to a
nd a
way
fro
m th
e lu
ngsa
mon
g m
embe
rs o
f an
exp
editi
on to
Pike
s Pe
ak.
Whe
n m
embe
rs o
f th
e ex
pedi
tion
reac
hed
adju
stm
ent
to a
ltitu
deno
long
er s
how
ed s
ympt
oms
of m
ount
ain
sick
ness
Hal
-da
ne's
dat
a sh
owed
oxy
gen
tens
ions
low
er in
the
alve
olar
air
of
thei
rlu
ngs
than
in th
e pa
ssin
g bl
ood.
In s
hort
, oxy
gen
was
mov
ing
agai
nst
the
conc
entr
atio
n gr
adie
nt. T
he in
dica
ted
conc
lusi
on w
as th
at u
nder
the
cond
ition
of
oxyg
en w
ant,
suff
icie
ntly
long
mai
ntai
ned,
the
very
stru
ctur
e an
d ac
tion
of lu
ng m
embr
ane
was
tran
sfor
med
.It
was
no
long
er a
n ep
ithel
ium
acr
oss
whi
ch o
xyge
n "m
oved
itse
lf"
but a
sec
re-
tory
org
an w
hich
mov
ed o
xyge
n "f
orci
bly,
" by
the
expe
nditu
re o
fen
ergy
( a
ctiv
e tr
ansp
ort)
.T
houg
h H
alda
ne's
dat
a ha
ve b
een
chal
leng
ed (
beca
use
of th
edo
ubtf
ul a
ccur
acy
of th
e as
says
of
alve
olar
air
) hi
s co
nclu
sion
re-
mai
ns a
tena
ble
poss
ibili
ty.
The
re a
re s
imila
r ca
ses
whi
ch h
ave
not b
een
chal
leng
ed. T
here
isco
mpe
nsat
ory
over
-gro
wth
of
one
kidn
ey if
the
othe
r is
dam
aged
or
rem
oved
.Si
mila
r co
mpe
nsat
ion
occu
rs in
test
es.
The
re a
re w
ell-
docu
men
ted
inst
ance
s of
incr
ease
in a
udito
ry a
cuity
aft
er lo
ss o
f vi
sion
.(I
n th
is c
ase
it is
not
cle
ar, h
owev
er, w
heth
er w
e ar
e de
alin
g w
ithth
e st
ruct
ural
cha
nge
of e
ar o
r ne
rve,
or
with
"le
arni
ng."
)K
arl L
ashl
ey r
epor
ts s
imila
r fl
exib
ility
in lo
cal f
unct
ioni
ng o
f th
ebr
ain.
Ani
mal
s ar
e ta
ught
a c
erta
in b
ehav
ior.
The
n, b
y tr
ial,
the
brai
n ar
ea w
hich
is th
e lo
cus
of th
is le
arni
ng is
loca
ted
and
dest
roye
d.W
hen
the
anim
als
reco
ver
from
the
mic
rosu
rger
y th
ey a
re r
etra
ined
on th
e sa
me
prob
lem
. The
y le
arn
itin
anot
her
area
of
the
brai
n.N
ow, t
hree
mor
e ca
sesf
rom
exp
erim
enta
l em
bryo
logy
.1.
Bef
ore
the
outg
row
th o
f ne
rves
, the
for
elim
bs o
f am
phib
ian
em-
bryo
s ar
e tr
ansp
lant
ed to
a s
ite f
orw
ard
or to
the
rear
of_
thei
r no
rmal
posi
tion.
Dev
elop
men
t pro
ceed
s. E
ach
tran
spla
nted
lim
b re
ceiv
es a
full
com
plem
ent o
f ne
rves
fro
m th
e sp
inal
cor
d.B
ut th
ey a
re n
ot th
ene
rves
they
wou
ld o
rdin
arily
hav
e re
ceiv
ed.
Inst
ead,
they
are
ner
ves
from
a d
iffe
rent
seg
men
t of
the
spin
al c
ord,
ner
ves
whi
ch w
ould
, in
"nor
mal
" ci
rcum
stan
ces,
hav
e go
ne e
lsew
here
to p
erfo
rm a
noth
erse
rvic
e.2.
Rem
ove
one
deve
lopi
ng e
ye f
rom
an
amph
ibia
n; tr
ansp
lant
it to
anot
her,
in li
ne w
ith o
ne o
f its
eye
s an
d im
med
iate
ly a
djac
ent t
o it.
The
two
rudi
men
ts g
row
, mak
e co
ntac
t, an
d re
asso
rt th
eir
cons
titue
ntce
lls. F
rom
the
two
rudi
men
ts c
ome
not t
wo
eyes
, but
one
, its
par
tsin
har
mon
ious
rel
atio
n w
ith o
ne a
noth
er.
3. T
he m
iddl
e ki
dney
is r
emov
ed f
rom
a c
hick
em
bryo
. By
trea
t-m
ent w
ith a
lkal
i and
a m
ater
ial w
hich
dig
ests
pro
tein
it is
dis
inte
-gr
ated
into
a m
ere
susp
ensi
on o
f se
para
ted
cells
.T
he s
uspe
nsio
n of
sepa
rate
d ce
lls is
then
pla
ced
in a
cul
ture
med
ium
. The
cel
ls g
row
,m
ultip
ly, m
igra
te, c
ling
to o
ne a
noth
er, a
nd in
thre
e da
ys o
r th
ere,
abou
ts th
e cu
lture
dis
h co
ntai
ns id
entif
iabl
e un
its o
f a
kidn
ey. "
The
disc
rete
cel
ls,"
say
the
auth
ors
of th
is w
ork,
"ar
e th
us c
apab
le o
f re
-es
tabl
ishi
ng th
e st
ruct
ural
pat
tern
of
thei
r tis
sue
of o
rigi
n."
(A. a
ndH
. Mos
cona
, J. A
nat.,
86,
195
2, 2
87-3
01.)
Says
ano
ther
sci
entis
t of
asi
mila
r ca
pabi
lity
in th
e ce
lls o
f an
Am
blys
tom
a em
bryo
: The
re w
asdi
rect
ed c
ell m
igra
tion,
sel
ectiv
e ce
llula
r ad
hesi
ons,
mut
ual a
ssim
ila-
tive
indu
ctio
ns.
(Joh
anne
s H
oltf
rete
r, f
rom
"G
row
th in
Rel
atio
n to
Dif
fere
ntia
tion
and
Mor
phog
enes
is,"
Sym
posi
a So
c. E
xptl
Bio
l., N
o, 2
,19
48.)
Her
e, th
en, a
re a
num
ber
of in
stan
ces
of th
e fl
exib
ility
of
the
orga
n-is
m.
The
re,is
not
one
con
cent
ratio
n of
sug
ar w
hich
is "
righ
t" f
or th
eor
gani
sm b
ut s
ever
al, d
epen
ding
on
the
cond
ition
and
act
ivity
of
man
y (o
r al
l?)
othe
r ch
emic
als,
phy
sica
l fac
tors
, and
str
uctu
res
of th
ebo
dy. T
here
may
be
not o
ne a
nato
my
of th
e lu
ng, b
ut tw
oper
haps
thre
e or
mor
edep
endi
ng, a
gain
, on
the
cond
ition
of
the
com
pany
itke
eps,
the
stat
e of
oth
er o
rgan
s, th
e co
nditi
on o
f th
e ou
twar
d w
orld
with
whi
ch th
e or
gani
sm in
tera
cts.
The
re is
not
one
nor
mal
siz
e fo
r a
kidn
ey, n
ot e
ven
a no
rmal
ave
rage
, but
sev
eral
siz
es, d
epen
ding
onth
e de
man
d its
bro
ther
par
ts m
ake.
The
sam
e ho
lds
for
the
bloo
dsu
pply
to m
uscl
es, t
he s
ize
of m
uscl
es, e
ven
the
size
of
that
pri
ncip
alm
uscl
e, th
e he
art.
The
org
aniz
atio
n of
the
brai
n is
fle
xibl
e, it
s pa
rts
mul
tival
ent,
plur
ipot
ent.
Whe
n a
part
is lo
st o
r da
mag
ed, i
ts r
ole
may
be
take
n ov
er b
y an
othe
r pa
rt.
In th
e em
bryo
, the
"no
rmal
" fa
te o
f a
give
n ce
ll or
gro
up o
f ce
llsis
sub
ject
to c
hang
e. I
nste
ad o
f be
com
ing
wha
t it u
sual
ly b
ecom
es, i
tco
nfor
ms
to th
e or
gani
zatio
n in
whi
ch it
may
be
put b
y ch
ange
of
circ
umst
ance
even
rad
ical
ly a
ltere
d ci
rcum
stan
cean
d pl
ays
the
part
that
fits
that
org
aniz
atio
n.Pa
ul W
eiss
say
s, w
ith m
ovin
g im
ager
y,.
.. n
ewt
belly
ski
n gr
afte
d to
an
axol
otl h
ead
has
..
.co
mpl
ied
with
the
loca
lity
( of
the
host
) bu
t has
don
e so
ina
man
ner
char
ac-
teri
stic
of
the
dono
r..
..
The
cel
ls h
ave
reac
ted
to th
e la
tera
l hea
dfi
eld
of th
e ax
olot
l to
the
best
of
thei
r ne
wt k
now
ledg
e."
(Pri
ncip
les
of D
evel
opm
ent,
Hen
ry H
olt,
New
Yor
k, 1
939.
)
CC
THE NEED FOR A THIRD PRINCIPLE OF ENQUIRY
Such events as these point to the usefulness of a principle of enquiryin biology, one that will open doors to which the classical conceptionhas no key. The classical conception in its pristine form depends ona fixed structure, a fixed function, and a fixed relation between thetwo. A fixed function is the knowledge object at which the enquiryaims. A definite structure .( and action) is required in order to yieldthe data which this pattern of enquiry must use. A fixed relationbetween the two is the ground on which the data of structure, locus,and action are interpreted to yield knowledge of function,
By contrast, such flexibilities and varipotencies as we have just de-scribed point to a new knowledge-object which requires a new kindof data and a new pattern for its interpretation. Instead of knowl-edge about one collection of regular, recurrent parts, we will wantknowledge about changeable parts within the set; even, possibly, ofchangeable sets. For example, we would no longer ask, "What is thecellular structure of the lung?" Rather, we would ask (by analogyto Haldane's report), "What is the repertory possessed by this organ,the several cellular arrangements and architectures of which it iscapable?"
This new question would bring in its wake two related ones: (1)What conditions evoke this, that, or the other item in the repertory?(2) What are the complex, subtle processes by which one item ofthe repertory, one cellular architecture, is replaced by another?
By questions such as these we could seek out the flexibilities of our"parts." We also want to seek out the flexibilities of our "whole."This can be done by an analogous shift of the problem we pose. Wewould no longer ask, "What is the function or role of this organ?"Instead, we would ask, "When parts X, Y, and Z do thus and so,what role does part A play?" We would then ask, "When X, Y, orZ is changed in such-and-such a way, what correlative change takesplace in Awhat new roles does it play to make of A, X, Y, and Z anintegrated whole?"
Such a pattern of research reflects the conception of the self-regula-tory organism.
-106 -
APPENDIX B
COPY (' "EXPERIMENTS IN PLANT HYBRIDISATION" (Pp. 1-13),
BY GREGOR MENDE!.
This paper was used in Shawnee Mission West high school biology
classes as a basis for "Inquiry into Inquiry" discussion in Chapter
Seven. It is reprinted from "Experiments in Plant Hybridisation" by
Gregor Mendel, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, 1958, with
permission of the publisher.
EX
PER
IME
NT
S IN
PL
AN
T-H
YB
RID
ISA
TIO
N I
`B
Y G
RE
GO
R M
EN
DE
L
(Rea
d at
the
Mee
tings
of
the
4th
Febr
uary
and
81/
8 M
arch
, 180
.)
INT
RO
DU
CT
OR
YR
EM
AR
KS
EX
PER
IEN
CE
of
artif
icia
l fer
tilis
atio
n, s
uch
as is
eff
ecte
d w
ith o
rna-
men
tal p
lant
s in
ord
er to
obt
ain
new
var
iatio
ns in
col
our,
has
led
to th
e ex
peri
men
ts w
hich
will
her
e be
dis
cuss
ed.
The
str
ikin
gre
gula
rity
with
whi
ch th
e sa
me
hybr
id f
orm
s al
way
s re
appe
ared
whe
neve
r fe
rtili
satio
n to
ok p
lace
bet
wee
n th
e sa
me
spec
ies
indu
ced
furt
her
expe
rim
ents
to b
e un
dert
aken
, the
obj
ect o
f w
hich
was
tofo
llow
up
the
deve
lopm
ents
of
the
hybr
ids
in th
eir
prog
eny.
To
this
obj
ect n
umer
ous
care
ful o
bser
vers
, suc
h as
Kol
reut
er,
Gar
tner
, Her
bert
, Lec
oq, W
ichu
ra a
nd o
ther
s, h
ave
devo
ted
a pa
rtof
thei
r liv
es w
ith in
exha
ustib
le p
erse
vera
nce.
Gar
tner
esp
ecia
lly,
in h
is w
ork
"Die
Bas
tard
erze
ugun
g im
Pfl
anze
nrei
che"
(T
he P
ro-
duct
ion
of H
ybri
ds in
the
Veg
etab
le K
ingd
om),
has
rec
orde
d ve
ryva
luab
le o
bser
vatio
ns;
and
quite
rec
ently
Wic
hura
pub
lishe
dth
e re
sults
of
som
e pr
ofou
nd in
vest
igat
ions
into
the
hybr
ids
of th
eW
illow
.T
hat,
so f
ar, n
o ge
nera
lly a
pplic
able
law
gov
erni
ng th
efo
rmat
ion
and
deve
lopm
ent o
f hy
brid
s ha
s be
en s
ucce
ssfu
lly f
orum
-ta
tted
can
hard
ly b
e w
onde
red
at b
y an
yone
who
is a
cqua
inte
d w
ithth
e ex
tent
of
the
task
, and
can
app
reci
ate
the
diff
icul
ties
with
whi
ch e
xper
imen
ts o
f th
is c
lass
hav
e to
con
tend
. A f
inal
dec
isio
nca
n on
ly b
e ar
rive
d at
whe
n w
e sh
all h
ave
befo
re u
s th
e re
sults
of
deta
iled
expe
rim
ents
mad
e on
pla
nts
belo
ngin
g to
the
mos
t div
erse
orde
rs.
Tho
se w
ho s
urve
y th
e w
ork
done
in th
is d
epar
tmen
t will
arr
ive
at th
e co
nvic
tion
that
am
ong
all t
he n
umer
ous
expe
rim
ents
mad
e,no
t one
has
bee
n ca
rrie
d ou
t to
such
an
exte
nt a
nd in
suc
h a
way
as
Thi
s tr
ansl
atio
n w
as m
ade
by th
e R
oyal
Hor
ticul
tura
l Soc
iety
of L
ondo
n, a
ndis
rep
rinte
d, b
ype
rmis
sion
of
the
Cou
ncil
of th
e So
ciet
y, w
ith f
ootn
otes
add
ed a
ndm
inor
cha
nges
sug
gest
edby
Pro
fess
orW
. 13a
teso
n, e
nclo
sed
with
in[
The
orig
inal
pape
rw
as p
ublis
hed
in th
e V
crh.
nat
urf.
Vcr
. in
Bru
nn, A
bhan
dlun
gen,
iv. 1
865,
whi
ch a
ppea
red
in 1
866.
2
to m
ake
it po
ssib
le to
det
erm
ine
the
num
ber
of d
iffe
rent
for
ms
unde
r w
hich
the
offs
prin
g of
hyb
rids
appe
ar, o
r to
arr
ange
thes
efo
rms
with
cer
tain
ty a
ccor
ding
to th
eir
sepa
rate
gen
erat
ions
,or
defi
nite
ly to
asc
erta
in th
eir
stat
istic
al r
elat
ions
.'It
req
uire
s in
deed
som
e co
urag
e to
und
erta
kea
labo
ur o
f su
chfa
r-re
achi
ng e
xten
t; th
is a
ppea
rs, h
owev
er, t
o be
ti%
onl
y ri
ght
way
by w
hich
we
can
fina
lly r
each
the
solu
tion
of a
que
stio
n th
e im
por-
tanc
e of
whi
ch c
anno
t be
over
estim
ated
in c
onne
ctio
n w
ith th
ehi
stor
y of
the
evol
utio
n of
org
anic
for
ms.
The
pap
er n
ow p
rese
nted
rec
ords
the
resu
lts o
f su
cha
deta
iled
expe
rim
ent.
Thi
s ex
pori
men
t was
pra
ctic
ally
con
fine
d to
a sm
all
plan
t gro
up, a
nd is
now
, aft
er e
ight
yea
rs' p
ursu
it, c
oncl
uded
in a
lles
sent
ials
. Whe
ther
the
plan
upo
n w
hich
the
sepa
rate
exp
erim
ents
wer
e co
nduc
ted
and
carr
ied
out w
as th
e be
st s
uite
d to
atta
in th
ede
sire
d en
d is
left
to th
e fr
iend
ly d
ecis
ion
of th
e re
ader
.
SEL
EC
TIO
N O
F T
HE
EX
PER
IME
NT
AL
PL
AN
TS
The
val
ue a
nd u
tility
of
any
expe
rim
ent
are
dete
rmin
ed b
y th
efi
tnes
s of
the
mat
eria
l to
the
purp
ose
for
whi
ch it
is u
sed,
and
thus
in th
e ca
se b
efor
e us
it c
anno
t be
imm
ater
ial w
hat p
lant
sar
esu
bjec
ted
to e
xper
imen
t and
in w
hat
man
ner
such
exp
erim
ents
are
cond
ucte
d.T
he s
elec
tion
of th
e pl
ant g
roup
whi
ch s
hall
serv
e fo
r ex
peri
men
tsof
this
kin
d m
ust b
e m
ade
with
all
poss
ible
care
if it
. be
desi
red
toav
oid
from
the
outs
et e
very
ris
k of
que
stio
nabl
e re
sults
.T
he e
xper
imen
tal p
lant
s m
ust n
eces
sari
ly.1
.Po
sses
s co
nsta
nt d
iffe
rent
iatin
g ch
arac
ters
,2.
The
hyb
rids
of
such
pla
nts
mus
t, du
ring
the
flow
erin
g pe
riod
,be
pro
tect
ed f
rom
the
infl
uenc
e of
all
fore
ign
polle
n,or
be
easi
lyca
pabl
e of
suc
h pr
otec
tion.
The
hyb
rids
and
thei
r of
fspr
ing
shou
ld s
uffe
rno
, mar
ked
dist
urb-
ance
in th
eir
fert
ility
in th
e su
cces
sive
gen
erat
ions
.A
ccid
enta
l im
preg
natio
n by
for
eign
pol
len,
if it
occ
urre
ddu
ring
the
expe
rim
ents
and
wer
e no
t rec
ogni
zed,
wou
ld le
ad to
ent
irel
yer
rone
ous
conc
lusi
ons.
Red
uced
fer
tility
or
entir
e st
erili
ty o
fce
r-ta
in f
orm
s, s
uch
as o
ccur
s in
the
offs
prin
g of
man
y hy
brid
s, w
ould
rend
er th
e ex
peri
men
ts v
ery
diff
icul
t or
entir
ely
frus
trat
e th
em.
In(I
tis
to th
e cl
ear
conc
eptio
n of
thes
e th
ree
prim
ary
nece
ssiti
es th
at th
e w
hole
succ
ess
of M
ende
rs w
ork
is d
ue. S
o fu
r as
I kn
ow th
is c
once
ptio
n w
as a
bsol
utel
yne
w in
his
day
.]
orde
r to
dis
cove
r th
e re
latio
ns in
whi
ch th
ehy
brid
for
ms
stan
dto
war
ds e
ach
othe
r an
d al
so to
war
ds th
eir
prog
enito
rsit
appe
ars
to b
e ne
cess
ary
that
all
mem
bers
of
the
seri
es d
evel
oped
in e
ach
succ
essi
ve g
ener
atio
n sh
ould
be,
with
out e
xcep
tion,
subj
ecte
d to
obse
rvat
ion.
At t
he v
ery
outs
et s
peci
al a
ttent
ion
was
devo
ted
to th
e L
egu-
vem
osac
on
acco
unt
of th
eir
pecu
liar
flor
al s
truc
ture
. Exp
erim
ents
whi
ch w
ere
mad
e w
ith s
ever
al m
embe
rs o
f th
isfa
mily
led
to th
ere
sult
that
the
genu
s Pi
sum
was
fou
nd to
pos
sess
the
nece
ssar
yqu
alif
icat
ions
.So
me
thor
ough
ly d
istin
ct f
orm
s of
this
gen
us p
osse
ssch
arac
ters
whi
ch a
re c
onst
ant,
and
easi
ly a
nd c
erta
inly
rec
ogni
zabl
e, a
ndw
hen
thei
r hy
brid
s ar
e m
utua
lly c
ross
ed th
ey y
ield
per
fect
lyfe
rtile
prog
eny.
Furt
herm
ore,
a d
istu
rban
ce th
roug
h fo
reig
n po
llen
cann
ot e
asily
occ
ur, s
ince
the
fert
ilisi
ng o
rgan
s ar
ecl
osel
y pa
cked
insi
de th
e ke
el a
nd th
e an
ther
bur
sts
with
in th
e bu
d, s
o th
at th
est
igm
a be
com
es c
over
ed w
ith p
olle
n ev
en b
efor
e th
e ,lo
wer
ope
ns.
Thi
s ci
rcum
stan
ce is
of
espe
cial
impo
rtan
ce. A
s ad
ditio
nala
dvan
-ta
ges
wor
th m
entio
ning
, the
re m
ay b
e ci
ted
the
easy
cul
ture
of
thes
epl
ants
in th
e op
en g
roun
d an
d in
pot
s, a
nd a
lso
thei
r re
lativ
ely
shor
tpe
riod
of
grow
th.
Art
ific
ial f
ertil
isat
ion
is c
erta
inly
a s
omew
hat
elab
orat
e pr
oces
s, b
ut n
earl
y al
way
s su
ccee
ds,
For
this
pur
pose
the
bud
is o
pene
d be
fore
it is
per
fect
ly d
evel
oped
, the
kee
l is
rem
oved
, and
eac
h st
amen
car
eful
ly e
xtra
cted
by
mea
ns o
f fo
rcep
s,af
ter
whi
ch th
e st
igm
a ca
n at
onc
e be
dus
ted
over
with
the
fore
ign
polle
n.In
all,
thir
ty-f
our
mor
e or
less
dis
tinct
var
ietie
s of
Pea
s w
ere
obta
ined
fro
m s
ever
al s
eeds
men
and
sub
ject
ed to
a tw
o ye
ars'
tria
l.In
the
case
of
one
vari
ety
ther
e w
ere
notic
ed, a
mon
g a
larg
er n
um-
ber
of p
lant
s al
l alik
e, a
few
for
ms
whi
ch w
ere
mar
kedl
y di
ffer
ent.
The
se, h
owev
er, d
id n
ot v
ary
in th
e fo
llow
ing
year
, and
agr
eed
entir
ely
with
ano
ther
var
iety
obt
aine
d fr
om th
e sa
me
seed
sman
; the
seed
s w
ere
ther
efor
e do
ubtle
ss m
erel
y ac
cide
ntal
ly m
ixed
. All
the
othe
r va
riet
ies
yiel
ded
perf
ectly
con
stan
t and
sim
ilar
offs
prin
g; a
tan
y ra
te, n
o es
sent
ial d
iffe
renc
e w
as o
bser
ved
duri
ng tw
o tr
ial y
ears
.Fo
r fe
rtili
satio
n tw
enty
-tw
o of
thes
e w
ere
sele
cted
and
cul
tivat
eddu
ring
the
who
le p
erio
d of
the
expe
rim
ents
.T
hey
rem
aine
dco
nsta
nt w
ithou
t any
exc
eptio
n.T
heir
sys
tem
atic
cla
ssif
icat
ion
is d
iffi
cult
and
unce
rtai
n.If
we
adop
t the
str
icte
st d
efin
ition
of
a sp
ecie
s, a
ccor
ding
to w
hich
onl
y
4
thos
e in
divi
dual
s be
long
to a
spe
cies
ivhi
ch u
nder
pre
e'is
ely
the
sam
e ci
rcum
stan
ces
disp
lay
prec
isel
ysi
mila
r ch
arac
ters
, no
two
ofth
ese
vari
etie
s co
uld
be r
efer
red
to o
ne s
peci
es.
Acc
ordi
ng to
the
opin
ion
of e
xper
ts, h
owev
er, t
he m
ajor
ity b
elon
g to
the
spec
ies
Pisu
m s
atir
mn;
whi
le th
e re
st a
re r
egar
ded
and
clas
sed,
som
e as
sill
-spe
cies
of
P. s
atir
um, a
nd s
onic
as
inde
pend
ent s
peci
es, s
uch
asP.
qua
drat
um, P
. sac
char
atum
, and
P. u
mbe
llatu
m. T
he p
ositi
ons,
blIW
CV
er. w
hiel
l may
be
assi
gned
to th
em in
a c
lass
ific
ator
y sy
stem
are
quite
imm
a fe
ria'
for
the
purp
oses
of
the
expe
rim
ents
in q
ues-
tion.
It h
as s
o fa
r be
en f
ound
to b
e ju
st a
s im
poss
ible
to d
raw
ash
arp
line
betw
een
the
hybr
ids
of s
peck
s an
d va
riet
ies
as b
etw
een
spec
ies
and
vari
etie
s th
emse
lves
.
-109
-
DIV
ISIO
N A
ND
AR
RA
NG
EM
EN
T O
F T
IM E
XPE
RIM
EN
TS
If tw
o pl
ants
whi
ch d
iffe
r co
nsta
ntly
in o
ne o
r se
vera
l cha
ract
ers
be c
ross
ed, n
umer
ous
expe
rim
ents
hav
e de
mon
stra
ted
that
the
com
mon
cha
ract
ers
are
tran
smitt
ed u
ncha
nged
toth
e hy
brid
s an
dth
eir
prog
eny;
but
eac
h pa
ir o
f di
ffer
entia
ting
char
acte
rs, o
n th
eot
her
hand
, uni
te in
the
hybr
id to
for
m a
new
cha
ract
er, w
hich
inth
e pr
ogen
y of
the
hybr
id is
usu
ally
var
iabl
e. T
he o
bjec
t of
the
expe
rim
ent w
as to
obs
erve
thes
e va
riat
ions
in th
e ca
se o
f ea
ch p
air
of d
iffe
rent
iatin
g ch
arac
ters
, and
to d
educ
e th
e la
w a
ccor
ding
tow
hich
they
app
ear
in th
e su
cces
sive
gen
erat
ions
. The
exp
erim
ent
reso
lves
iise
lf th
eref
ore
into
just
as
man
y se
para
te e
xper
imen
ts a
sth
ere
are
cons
tant
ly d
iffe
rent
iatin
g ch
arac
ters
pre
sent
ed in
the
expe
rim
enta
l pla
nts.
The
var
ious
for
ms
of P
eas
sele
cted
for
cro
ssin
g sh
owed
dif
fere
nces
in th
e le
ngth
and
col
our
of th
e st
ein;
in th
e si
ze a
nd f
orm
of
the
leav
es; i
n th
e po
sitio
n, c
olou
r, a
nd s
ize
of th
e fl
ower
s; in
the
leng
thof
the
flow
er s
talk
; in
the
colo
ur, f
orm
, and
siz
e of
the
pods
; in
the
form
and
siz
e of
the
seed
s; a
nd in
the
colo
ur o
f th
e se
ed-c
oats
and
of th
e al
bum
en (
coty
ledo
ns).
Som
e of
the
char
acte
rs n
oted
do
not
perm
it of
a s
harp
and
cer
tain
sep
arat
ion,
sin
ce th
e di
ffer
ence
is o
f a
" m
ore
or le
ss "
nat
ure,
whi
ch is
oft
en d
iffi
cult
to d
efin
e.Su
chch
aritt
i:rs
coul
d no
t he
utili
sed
for
the
sepa
rate
exp
erim
ents
; the
se.
coul
d on
ly b
e ap
plie
d to
cha
ract
ers
whi
ch s
tand
out
cle
arly
and
defi
nite
ly in
the
plan
ts. L
astly
, the
res
ult m
ust s
how
whe
ther
they
,in
thei
r en
tiret
y, o
bser
ve a
reg
ular
beh
avio
ur in
thei
r hy
brid
uni
ons,
and
whe
ther
fro
m th
ese
fact
s an
y co
nclu
sion
can
be
com
e to
re-
gard
ing
thos
e ch
arac
ters
whi
ch p
osse
ss a
sub
ordi
nate
sig
nifi
canc
ehi
the
type
.
5
The
cha
ract
ers
whi
ch w
ere
sele
cted
for
exp
erim
ent r
elat
e:1.
To
the
diff
eren
ce in
the
form
of
the
ripe
see
ds. T
hese
are
eith
erro
und
or r
ound
ish,
the
depr
essi
ons,
if a
ny, o
ccur
on
the
surf
ace,
bein
g al
way
s on
ly s
hallo
w; o
r th
ey a
re ir
regu
larl
y an
gula
r an
dde
eply
wri
nkle
d (P
. cru
adra
tum
).2.
To
the
diff
eren
ce in
the
colo
ur o
f th
e se
ed a
lbum
en (
endo
sper
m).
'T
he a
lbum
en o
f th
e ri
pe s
eeds
is e
ither
pal
e ye
llow
, bri
ght y
ello
wan
d or
ange
col
oure
d, o
r it
poss
esse
s a
mor
e or
less
inte
nse
gree
ntin
t.T
his
diff
eren
ce o
f co
lour
is e
asily
see
n in
the
seed
s as
[ =
ifj
thei
r co
ats
are
tran
spar
ent.
3. T
o th
e di
ffer
ence
in th
e co
lour
of
the
seed
-coa
t.T
his
is e
ither
whi
te, w
ith w
hich
cha
ract
er w
hite
flo
wer
s ar
e co
nsta
ntly
cor
re-
late
d; o
r it
is g
rey,
gre
y-br
own,
leat
her-
brow
n, w
ith o
r w
ithou
tvi
olet
spo
tting
, in
whi
ch c
ase
the
colo
ur o
f th
e st
anda
rds
is v
iole
t,th
at o
f th
e w
ings
pur
ple,
and
the
ster
n in
the
axils
of
the
leav
es is
of
a re
ddis
h tin
t. T
he g
rey
seed
-coa
ts b
ecom
e da
rk b
row
nin
boi
ling
wat
er.
4. T
o th
e di
ffer
ence
in th
e fo
rm o
f th
e ri
pe p
ods.
The
se a
reei
ther
sim
ply
infl
ated
, not
con
trac
ted
in p
lace
s; o
r th
ey a
re d
eepl
yco
nstr
icte
d be
twee
n th
e se
eds
and
mor
e or
less
wri
nkle
d (P
.sa
ccha
ratu
m).
5. T
o th
e di
ffer
ence
in th
e co
lour
of
the
unri
pe p
ods.
The
y ar
eei
ther
ligh
t to
dark
gre
en, o
r vi
vidl
y ye
llow
, in
whi
ch c
olou
ring
the
stal
ks, l
eaf-
vein
s, a
nd c
alyx
par
ticip
ate.
26.
To
the
diff
eren
ce in
the
posi
tion
of th
e fl
ower
s. T
hey
are
eith
erax
ial,
that
is, d
istr
ibut
ed a
long
the
mai
n st
em; o
r th
ey a
re te
r-m
inal
, tha
t is,
bun
ched
at t
he to
p of
the
stem
and
arr
ange
d al
mos
tin
a f
alse
um
bel;
in th
is c
ase
the
uppe
r pa
rt o
f th
e st
ern
is m
ore
orle
ss w
iden
ed in
sec
tion
(P. u
mbe
llatu
m).
37.
To
the
diff
eren
ce in
the
leng
th o
f th
e -t
em. T
he le
ngth
of
the
stem
' is
very
var
ious
in s
ome
form
s;it
is, h
owev
er, a
con
stan
t
[Men
del u
ses
the
term
s "
albu
men
" a
nd "
end
ospe
rm "
som
ewha
t loo
sely
tode
note
the
coty
ledo
ns, c
onta
inin
g fo
od-m
ater
ial,
with
in th
e se
ed.)
2 O
ne s
peci
es p
osse
sses
a b
eaut
iful
ly b
row
nish
-red
col
oure
d po
d, w
hich
whe
nri
peni
ng tu
rns
to v
iole
t and
blu
e.T
rial
s w
ith th
is c
hara
cter
wer
e on
ly b
egun
hes
tye
ar.
[Of
thes
e fu
rthe
r ex
peri
men
ts it
see
ms
no a
ccou
nt w
as p
ublis
hed.
Cor
rens
has
sinc
e w
orke
d w
ith s
uch
a va
riet
y.]
3 [T
his
is o
ften
cal
led
the
Mum
my
Pea.
It s
how
s sl
ight
fas
eiat
ion.
The
for
m!
know
has
whi
te s
tand
ard
and
salm
on-r
ed w
ings
.]4
[In
my
acco
unt o
f th
ese
expe
rim
ents
(R
.II.
S. J
ourn
al, v
ol. x
xv. p
. 54)
I m
is-
unde
rsto
od th
is p
arag
raph
and
took
" a
m "
to m
ean
the
flor
a/ a
xis,
inst
ead
of th
e
6
char
acte
r fo
r ea
ch, i
n so
far
that
hea
lthy
plan
ts, g
row
n in
the
sam
eso
il, a
re o
nly
subj
ect t
o un
impo
rtan
t var
iatim
is in
this
cha
ract
er,
In e
xper
imen
ts w
ith th
is c
hara
cter
, in
orde
r to
be
able
to d
is-
orim
inat
e w
ith c
erta
inty
, the
long
axi
s of
6 to
7 f
t. w
as a
lway
str
usse
d w
ith th
e sh
ort (
11W
of
Ii/-
ft. t
o 11
ft.
Eac
h tw
o of
the
diff
eren
tiatin
g ch
arac
ters
enu
mer
ated
abo
vew
ere
unite
d by
cro
ss-f
ertil
isat
ion.
The
re w
ere
mad
e fo
r th
e1s
ttr
ial 8
0 fe
rtili
satio
ns o
n 13
pla
nts.
2nd
"38
.."
ID..
3rd
"95
I."
10I.
4th
"40
11"
10It
5th
"29
ftII
5o
tit h
"9
iII
H10
II
76"
97I.
"10
o
From
a la
rger
num
ber
of p
lant
s of
the
sam
e va
riet
y on
ly th
e m
ost
vigo
rous
wer
e ch
osen
for
fer
tilis
atio
n. W
eakl
y pl
ants
alw
ays
affo
rdun
cert
ain
resu
lts, b
ecau
se e
ven
in th
e fi
rst g
ener
atio
n of
hyb
rids
,an
d st
ill m
ore
so in
the
subs
eque
nt o
nes,
man
y of
the
offs
prin
gei
ther
ent
irel
y fa
il to
flo
wer
or
only
for
m a
few
and
infe
rior
see
ds.
Furt
herm
ore,
in a
ll th
e ex
peri
men
ts r
ecip
roca
l cro
ssin
gs w
ere
effe
cted
in s
uch
a w
ay th
at e
ach
of th
e tw
o 'v
arie
ties
whi
ch in
one
set o
f fe
rtili
satio
n se
rved
as
seed
-bea
rer
in th
e ot
her
set.
was
use
das
the
polle
n pl
ant.
The
pla
nts
wer
e gr
own
in g
arde
n be
ds, a
few
als
o in
pot
s, a
ndw
ere
mai
ntai
ned
in th
eir
natu
rally
upr
ight
pos
ition
by
mea
ns o
fst
icks
, bra
nche
s of
tree
s, a
nd s
trin
gs s
tret
ched
bet
wee
n. F
or e
ach
expe
rim
ent a
num
ber
of p
ot p
lant
s w
ere
plac
ed d
urin
g th
e bl
oom
ing
peri
od in
a g
reen
hous
e, to
ser
ve a
s co
ntro
l pla
nts
for
the
mai
nex
peri
men
t in
the
open
as
rega
rds
poss
ible
dis
turb
ance
by
inse
rts.
Am
ong
the
inse
cts
1 w
hich
vis
it Pc
as,th
e be
etle
Bru
chns
pis
i mig
htbe
det
rim
enta
l to
the
expe
rim
ents
sho
uld
it ap
pear
in n
umbe
rs.
The
fem
ale
of th
is s
peci
es is
kno
wn
to la
y th
e eg
gs in
the
flow
er,
and
in s
o do
ing
open
s th
e ke
el; u
pon
the
tars
i of
one
spec
imen
,w
hich
was
cau
ght i
n a
flow
er, s
ome
polle
n gr
ains
cou
ld c
lear
ly b
ese
en u
nder
a le
ns.
Men
tion
mus
t als
o be
mad
e of
a c
ircu
mst
ance
mai
n ax
is o
f th
e pl
ant.
The
uni
t of
mea
sure
men
t, be
ing
indi
cate
d in
the
orig
inal
by a
das
h (')
, I c
arel
essl
y to
ok to
hav
e be
en a
n in
ch, b
ut th
e tr
ansl
atio
n he
re g
iven
is e
vide
ntly
cor
rect
.)1
[It i
s so
mew
hat s
urpr
isin
g th
at n
o m
entio
n is
mad
e of
Thr
ips,
whi
ch A
IWIr
ill in
Pea
flow
ers.
I ha
d co
me
to th
e co
nclu
sion
that
this
is a
rea
l sou
rce
of e
rror
and
I s
eeL
axto
n he
ld th
e sa
me
opin
iou.
1
7 whi
ch p
ossi
bly
mig
ht le
ad to
the
intr
oduc
tion
of f
orei
gn p
olle
n.It
occ
urs,
for
inst
ance
, in
som
e ra
re c
ases
that
cer
tain
par
tsof
an
othe
rwis
e qu
ite n
orm
ally
dev
elop
ed f
low
er w
ither
, res
ultin
g in
apa
rtia
l exp
osur
e of
the
fert
ilisi
ng o
rgan
s. A
def
ectiv
e de
velo
pmen
tof
the
keel
has
als
o be
en o
bser
ved,
ow
ing
to w
hich
the
stig
ma
and
anth
ers
rem
aine
d pa
rtia
lly u
ncov
ered
.'It
als
o so
met
imes
hap
-pe
ns th
at th
e po
llen
does
not
rea
ch f
ull p
erfe
ctio
n.In
this
eve
ntth
ere
occu
rs a
gra
dual
leng
then
ing
of th
e pi
stil
duri
ng th
ebl
oom
-in
g pe
riod
, unt
il th
e st
igm
atic
tip
prot
rude
s at
the
poin
t of
the
keel
.T
his
rem
arka
ble
appe
aran
ce h
as a
lso
been
obs
erve
d in
hyb
rids
of
Phas
eolu
s an
d L
athy
rus.
The
ris
k of
fal
se im
preg
natio
n by
for
eign
pol
len
is, h
owev
er, e
,ve
ry s
light
one
with
Pis
um,
and
is q
uite
inca
pabl
e of
dis
turb
ing
the
gene
ral r
esul
t. A
mon
g m
ore
than
10,
000
plan
ts w
hich
wer
e ca
re-
fully
exa
min
ed th
ere
wer
e on
ly a
ver
y fe
w c
ases
whe
re a
n in
dub
ita
ble
fals
e im
preg
natio
n ha
d oc
curr
ed.
Sinc
e in
the
gree
nhou
sesu
ch a
cas
e w
as n
ever
rem
arke
d, it
may
wel
l be
supp
osed
that
Bru
chus
pis
i, an
d po
ssib
ly a
lso
the
desc
ribe
d ab
norm
aliti
es in
the
flor
al s
truc
ture
, wer
e to
bla
me.
[F1]
TH
E F
OR
MS
OF
TH
E H
YB
RID
S 2
Exp
erim
ents
whi
ch in
pre
viou
s ye
ars
wer
e m
ade
with
orn
amen
tal
plan
ts h
ave
alre
ady
affo
rded
evi
denc
e th
at th
e hy
brid
s, a
s a
rule
,ar
e no
t exa
ctly
inte
rmed
iate
betw
een
the
pare
ntal
spe
cies
.W
ithso
me
of th
e m
ore
stri
king
char
acte
rs, t
hose
, for
inst
ance
, whi
chre
late
to th
e fo
rm a
nd s
ize
of th
e le
aves
, the
pub
esce
nce
of th
ese
vera
l par
ts, &
c., t
he in
term
edia
te, i
ndee
d, is
nea
rly
alw
ays
to b
ese
en; i
n ot
her
case
s, h
owev
er, o
neof
the
two
pare
ntal
cha
ract
ers
is s
o pr
epon
dera
nt th
at it
is d
iffi
cult,
or
quite
impo
ssib
le, t
o de
tect
the
othe
r in
the
hybr
id.
Thi
s is
pre
cise
ly th
e ca
se w
ith th
e Pe
a hy
brid
s.In
the
case
of
each
of
the
seve
n cr
osse
s th
e hy
brid
-cha
ract
er r
esem
bles
3 th
at o
fon
e of
the
pare
ntal
for
ms
socl
osel
y th
at th
e ot
her
eith
er e
scap
es
I [T
his
also
hap
pens
in S
wee
t Pea
s.]
2 [M
ende
l thr
ough
out s
peak
s of
his
cro
ss-b
red
Peas
as
" hy
brid
s,"
a te
rm w
hich
man
y re
stri
ct to
the
offs
prin
g of
two
dist
inct
spe
cies
.lie
, as
he e
xpla
ins,
hel
d th
isto
be
only
a q
uest
ion
of d
egre
e.]
3 [N
ote
that
Men
del,
with
true
pen
etra
tion,
avo
ids
spea
king
of
the
hybr
id-
char
acte
r as
" tr
ansm
itted
" b
y ei
ther
par
ent,
thus
esc
apin
g th
e er
ror
perv
adin
g th
eol
der
view
s of
her
edity
.]
111
8
obse
rvat
ion
com
plet
ely
or c
anno
t be
dete
cted
with
cer
tain
ty. T
his
circ
umst
ance
is o
f gr
eat i
mpo
rtan
ce in
the
dete
rmin
atio
n an
dcl
assi
fica
tion
of th
e fo
rms
unde
r w
hich
the
offs
prin
g of
the
hybr
ids
appe
ar. H
ence
fort
h in
this
pap
er th
ose
char
acte
rs w
hich
are
tran
s-m
itted
ent
ire,
or
alm
ost u
ncha
nged
in th
e hy
brid
isat
ion,
and
ther
e-fo
re in
them
selv
es c
onst
itute
the
char
acte
rs o
f th
e hy
brid
, are
term
ed th
e do
min
ant,
and
thos
e w
hich
bec
ome
late
nt in
the
proc
ess
rece
ssiv
e. T
he e
xpre
ssio
n "
rece
ssiv
e "
has
been
cho
sen
beca
use
the
char
acte
rs th
ereb
y de
sign
ated
with
draw
or
entir
ely
disa
ppea
r in
the
hybr
ids,
but
nev
erth
eles
s re
appe
ar u
ncha
nged
in th
eir
prog
eny,
as w
ill b
e de
mon
stra
ted
late
r on
.It
was
fur
ther
mor
e sh
own
by th
e w
hole
of
the
expe
rim
ents
that
itis
per
fect
ly im
mat
eria
l whe
ther
the
dom
inan
t cha
ract
er b
elon
gs to
the
seed
-bea
rer
or to
the
polle
n-pa
rent
; the
for
m o
f th
e hy
brid
rem
ains
iden
tical
in b
oth
case
s.T
his
inte
rest
ing
fact
was
als
oem
phas
ised
by
Gar
tner
, with
the
rem
ark
that
eve
n th
e m
ost
prac
tised
exp
ert i
s no
t in
a po
sitio
n to
det
erm
ine
in a
hyb
rid
whi
chof
the
two
pare
ntal
spe
cies
was
the
seed
or
the
polle
n pl
ant.'
Of
the
diff
eren
tiatin
g ch
arac
ters
whi
ch w
ere
used
in th
e ex
peri
-m
ents
the
follo
win
g ar
e do
min
ant:
1. T
he r
ound
or
roun
dish
for
tn o
f th
e se
ed w
ith o
r w
ithou
tsh
allo
w d
epre
ssio
ns,
R. T
he y
ello
w c
olou
ring
of
the
seed
alb
umen
[co
tyle
dons
).3.
The
gre
y, g
rey-
brow
n, o
r le
athe
r-br
own
colo
ur o
f th
e se
ed-
coat
, in
asso
ciat
ion
with
vio
let-
red
blos
som
s an
d re
ddis
h sp
ots
inth
e le
af a
xils
.4.
The
sim
ply
infl
ated
for
m o
f th
e po
d.5.
The
gre
en c
olou
ring
of
the
unri
pe p
od in
ass
ocia
tion
with
the
sam
e co
lour
in th
e st
ems,
the
leaf
-vei
ns a
nd th
e ca
lyx.
6. T
he d
istr
ibut
ion
of th
e fl
ower
s al
ong
the
stei
n.7.
The
gre
ater
leng
th o
f st
em.
With
reg
ard
to th
is la
st c
hara
cter
it m
ust b
e st
ated
that
the
long
er o
f th
e tw
o pa
rent
al s
tem
s is
usu
ally
exc
eede
d by
the
hybr
id,
a fa
ct w
hich
is p
ossi
bly
only
attr
ibut
able
to th
e gr
eate
r lu
xuri
ance
app
oars
in a
ll pa
rts
of p
lant
s w
hen
stem
s O
f ve
ry d
iffe
rent
leng
th a
re c
ross
ed. '
thus
, for
inst
ance
, in
repe
ated
exp
erim
ents
,st
erns
of
1 ft
. and
6 f
t. in
leng
th y
ield
ed w
ithou
t exc
eptio
n hy
brid
sw
hich
var
ied
in le
ngth
bet
wee
n 6
ft..
and
71 f
t.
(Glir
tmtr
, p. 2
134
910
The
hyb
rid
seed
s in
the
expe
rim
ents
with
see
d-co
at a
re ,
'ten
mor
e sp
otte
d,an
d th
e sp
ots
som
etim
esco
ales
ce in
to s
mal
l blu
ish-
viol
et p
atch
es. T
he s
potti
ngal
so f
requ
ently
app
ears
eve
nw
hen
it
is a
bsen
t as
a pa
rent
alch
arac
ter.
'T
he h
ybri
d fo
rms
of th
ese
ed-s
hape
and
of
the
albu
men
[col
our]
are
deve
lope
dim
med
iate
ly a
fter
the
artif
icia
lfe
rtili
satio
n by
the
mer
e in
flue
nce
of th
e fo
reig
n po
llen.
The
y ca
n, th
eref
ore,
be
obse
rved
eve
n in
the
firs
t yea
rof
exp
erim
ent,
whi
lst a
ll th
eot
her
char
acte
rs n
atur
ally
onl
y ap
pear
in th
e fo
llow
ing
year
insu
ch
plan
ts a
s ha
ve b
een
rais
edfr
om th
e cr
osse
d se
ed.
[F2]
TH
E G
EN
ER
AT
ION
[B
RE
D]
FRO
M T
HE
HY
BR
IDS
In th
is g
ener
atio
n th
ere
reap
pear
,to
geth
er w
ith th
e do
min
ant
char
acte
rs, a
lso
the
rece
ssiv
e on
esw
ith th
eir
pecu
liari
ties
fully
deve
lope
d, a
nd th
is o
ccur
sin
the
defi
nite
ly e
xpre
ssed
ave
rage
pro
-po
rtio
n of
thre
e to
one
, so
that
am
ong
each
fou
r pl
ants
of th
isge
nera
tion
thre
e di
spla
y th
edo
min
ant c
hara
cter
and
one
the
rece
ssiv
e.T
his
rela
tes
with
out e
xcep
tion
toal
l the
cha
ract
ers
whi
ch w
ere
inve
stig
ated
in th
eex
peri
men
ts. T
he a
ngul
ar w
rink
led
form
of
the
seed
, the
gre
enco
lour
of
the
albu
men
, the
whi
te c
olou
r
of th
e se
ed-c
oats
and
the
flow
ers,
the
cons
tric
tions
of
the
pods
,the
yello
w c
olou
r of
the
unri
pepo
d, o
f th
e st
alk,
of
the
caly
x,an
d of
the
leaf
ven
atio
n, th
eum
bel-
like
form
of
the
infl
ores
cenc
e,an
d th
e
dwar
fed
stem
, all
reap
pear
in th
e nu
mer
ical
pro
port
ion
give
n,
with
out a
ny e
ssen
tial
alte
ratio
n.T
rans
ition
al f
orm
s w
ere
not
obse
rved
in a
ny e
xper
imen
t.Si
nce
the
hybr
ids
resu
lting
from
rec
ipro
cal c
ross
es a
refo
rmed
alik
e an
d pr
esen
t no
appr
ecia
ble
diff
eren
ce in
thei
r su
bseq
uent
deve
lopm
ent,
cons
eque
ntly
the
resu
lts [
of th
e re
cipr
ocal
cros
ses]
can
be r
ecko
ned
toge
ther
in e
ach
expe
rim
ent.
The
rel
ativ
e nu
m-
bers
whi
ch w
ere
obta
ined
for
eac
hpa
ir o
f di
ffer
entia
ting
char
acte
rsar
e as
fol
low
s:E
xpt.
1. F
orm
of
seed
.Fr
om 2
53 h
ybri
ds 7
,324
seed
s w
ere
obta
ined
in th
e se
cond
tria
l yea
r.A
mon
g th
em w
ere
5,47
4 ro
und
or r
ound
ish
ones
and
1,85
0 an
gula
r w
rink
led
ones
.T
here
from
the
ratio
2.9
6 to
1 is
ded
uced
.E
xpt.
2.C
olou
r of
alb
umen
.25
8 pl
ants
yie
lded
8,0
23se
eds,
6,02
2 ye
llow
, and
2,0
01 g
reen
;th
eir
ratio
, the
refo
re, i
s as
3.0
1 to
1.
1 [T
his
refe
rs to
the
coat
s of
the
seed
s bo
rne
by F
, pla
nts.
)
In th
ese
two
expe
rim
ents
each
pod
yie
lded
usu
ally
both
kin
ds o
f
seed
s.In
wel
l-de
velo
ped
pods
whi
ch c
onta
ined
on
the
aver
age
six
to n
ine
seed
s, it
ofte
n ha
ppen
ed th
at a
ll th
ese
eds
wer
e ro
und
(Exp
t. 1)
or
all y
ello
w(E
xpt.
2); o
n th
e ot
her
hand
ther
e w
ere
neve
r ob
serv
ed m
ore
than
fiv
e w
rink
led
or f
ive
.gre
en o
nes
in o
ne
pod.
It a
ppea
rs to
mak
e no
diff
eren
ce w
heth
er th
e po
ds a
rede
velo
ped
earl
y or
late
rin
. the
hyb
rid
or w
heth
er th
eysp
ring
fro
m
the
mai
n ax
is o
r fr
om a
late
ral o
ne.
In s
ome
few
pla
nts
only
a f
ewse
eds
deve
lope
d in
the
firs
tfor
med
pod
s, a
nd th
ese
poss
esse
d ex
clu-
sive
ly o
ne o
f th
e tw
o ch
arac
ters
,but
in th
e su
bseq
uent
ly d
evel
oped
pods
the
norm
alpr
opor
tions
wer
e m
aint
aine
dne
vert
hele
ss.
As
in s
epar
ate
pods
, so
did
the
dist
ribu
tion
of th
ech
arac
ters
var
y
in s
epar
ate
plan
ts. B
y w
ayof
illu
stra
tion
the
firs
t ten
indi
vidu
als
from
bot
h se
ries
of
expe
rim
ents
may
ser
ve.
EX
PER
IME
NT
1.
Form
of
Seed
.Pl
ants
Rou
ndA
ngul
ar
EX
PER
IME
NT
2.
Col
or o
f A
lbum
en.
Yel
low
Gre
en
145
1223
11
227
832
7
247
14
419
1670
27
532
1124
13
626
20
788
2432
13
822
1044
9
928
650
14
1025
744
18
As
extr
emes
in th
e di
stri
butio
nof
the
two
seed
cha
ract
ers
in o
nepl
ant,
ther
e w
ere
obse
rved
in E
xpt.
1 an
inst
ance
of
43 r
ound
and
only
2 a
ngul
ar, a
nd a
noth
erof
14
roun
d an
d 15
ang
ular
see
ds.
InE
xpt.
2 th
ere
was
a c
ase
of32
yel
low
and
onl
y 1
gree
n se
ed,b
ut a
lso
one
of 2
0ye
llow
and
19
gree
n.T
hese
two
expe
rim
ents
are
impo
rtan
t for
the
dete
rmin
atio
n of
the
aver
age
ratio
s, b
ecau
sew
ith a
sm
alle
r nu
mbe
r of
exp
erim
enta
lpl
ants
they
sho
w th
at v
ery
cons
ider
able
flu
ctua
tions
may
occ
ur.
In c
ount
ing
the
seed
s,al
so, e
spec
ially
in E
xpt.
2, s
ome
care
is
requ
isite
, sin
ce in
som
e of
the
seed
s of
man
y pl
ants
the
gree
n co
lour
of th
e al
bum
en is
less
deve
lope
d, a
nd a
t fir
st m
ay b
e ea
sily
ove
r-lo
oked
.T
he c
ause
of
this
par
tial
disa
ppea
ranc
e of
the
gree
nco
lour
ing
has
no c
onne
ctio
nw
ith th
e hy
brid
-cha
ract
er o
f th
epl
ants
,
as it
like
wis
e oc
curs
in th
e pa
rent
al v
arie
ty.
Thi
s pe
culia
rity
11 [ble
achi
ng]
is a
lso
conf
ined
to th
ein
divi
dual
and
is n
ot in
heri
ted
by
the
offs
prin
g.In
luxu
rian
t pla
nts
this
app
eara
nce
was
freq
uent
lyno
ted.
See
ds w
hich
are
dam
aged
by in
sect
s du
ring
thei
r de
velo
p-m
ent o
ften
var
y in
col
our
and
form
, but
, with
a li
ttle
prac
tice
inso
rtin
g, e
rror
s ar
e ea
sily
avo
ided
.It
is a
lmos
t sup
erfl
uous
to m
en-
tion
that
the
pods
mus
t rem
ain
onth
e pl
ants
unt
il th
ey a
re th
or-
ough
ly r
ipen
ed a
nd h
ave
beco
me
drie
d, s
ince
it is
onl
y th
en th
atth
e sh
ape
and
colo
ur o
f th
ese
ed a
re f
ully
dev
elop
ed.
Exp
t. 3.
Col
our
of th
e se
ed-c
oats
.A
mon
g 92
9 pl
ants
705
bor
evi
olet
-red
flo
wer
s an
d gr
ey-b
row
nse
ed-c
oats
; 224
had
whi
te f
low
ers
and
whi
te s
eed-
coat
s, g
ivin
gth
e pr
opor
tion
3.15
to 1
.E
xpt.
4. F
orm
of
pods
.O
f 1,
181
plan
ts 8
82 h
ad th
em s
impl
yin
flat
ed, a
nd in
299
they
wer
eco
nstr
icte
d.R
esul
ting
ratio
,2.
95 to
1.
Exp
t. 5.
Col
our
of th
e un
ripe
pod
s.T
he n
umbe
r of
tria
lpl
ants
was
580
, of
whi
ch 4
28 h
ad g
reen
pods
and
152
yel
low
one
s.C
onse
quen
tly th
ese
stan
d in
the
ratio
2.8
2 to
1.
Exp
t. 6.
Posi
tion
of f
low
ers.
Am
ong
858
case
s 65
1 ha
din
flor
esce
nces
axi
al a
nd 2
07 te
rmin
al.
Rat
io, 3
.14
to 1
.E
xpt.
7.L
engt
h of
stk
.O
ut o
f 1,
064
plan
ts, i
n 78
7 ca
ses
the
stem
was
long
, and
in 2
77 s
hort
.H
ence
a m
utua
l rat
io o
f 2.
84to
1.
In th
is e
xper
imen
t the
dw
arfe
dpl
ants
wer
e ca
refu
lly li
fted
and
tran
sfer
red
to a
spe
cial
bed
. Thi
spr
ecau
tion
was
nec
essa
ry,
as o
ther
wis
e th
eyw
ould
hav
e pe
rish
ed th
roug
h be
ing
over
grow
nby
thei
r ta
ll re
lativ
es. E
ven
in th
eir
quite
you
ng s
tate
they
can
be
easi
ly p
icke
d ou
t by
thei
r co
mpa
ct g
row
than
d th
ick
dark
-gre
enfo
liage
.'If
now
the
resu
lts o
f th
e w
hole
of
the
expe
rim
ents
be
brou
ght
toge
ther
, the
re is
fou
nd, a
s be
twee
n th
enu
mbe
r of
for
ms
with
the
dom
inan
t and
rec
essi
ve c
hara
cter
s, a
n av
erag
era
tio o
f 2.
98 to
1,
or 3
to 1
.T
he d
omin
ant c
hara
cter
can
hav
e he
re a
doub
le s
igni
fica
tion
viz.
that
of
a pa
rent
al c
hara
cter
, or
a hy
brid
-cha
ract
er."
- In
whi
chof
the
two
sign
ific
atio
ns it
app
ears
inea
ch s
epar
ate
case
can
onl
ybe
det
erm
ined
by
the
follo
win
g ge
nera
tion.
As
a pa
rent
al c
har-
acte
r it
mus
t pas
s ov
er u
ncha
nged
toth
e w
hole
of
the
offs
prin
g; a
s
[Thi
s is
true
als
o of
the
dwar
f or
" C
upid
Swee
t Pea
s.]
2 [T
his
para
grap
h pr
esen
ts th
e vi
ew o
f th
ehy
brid
-cha
ract
er a
s so
met
hing
inci
-de
ntal
to th
e hy
brid
, and
not
" tr
ansm
itted
" to
ita
true
and
fun
dam
enta
lco
ncep
tion
here
exp
ress
ed p
roba
bly
for
the
firs
t tim
e.]
12
a'hy
brid
-cha
ract
er, o
n th
e ot
her
hand
, it m
ust m
aint
ain
the
sam
ebe
havi
our
as in
the
firs
tge
nera
tion
[Pd.
[F3]
TIL
E S
EC
ON
D G
EN
ER
AT
ION
[BR
ED
] FR
OM
TH
E H
YB
RID
S
Tho
se f
orm
s w
hich
in th
efi
rst g
ener
atio
n [F
2] e
xhib
it th
e re
ces-
sive
cha
ract
er d
o no
tfu
rthe
r va
ry in
the
seco
ndge
nera
tion
it'd
asre
gard
s th
is c
hara
cter
; the
yre
mai
n co
nsta
nt in
thei
r of
fspr
ing.
It is
oth
erw
ise
with
thos
ew
hich
pos
sess
the
dom
inan
t cha
ract
erin
the
firs
t gen
erat
ion
[bre
d fr
om th
e hy
brid
s]. O
f th
ese
two-
thir
ds
yiel
d of
fspr
ing
whi
ch d
ispl
ayth
e do
min
ant a
nd r
eces
sive
cha
r-ac
ters
in th
e pr
opor
tion
of 3
to 1
, and
ther
eby
show
exa
ctly
the
sam
e ra
tio a
sth
e hy
brid
for
ms,
whi
le o
nly
one-
thir
d re
mai
ns w
ith
the
dom
inan
t cha
ract
erco
nsta
nt.
The
sep
arat
e ex
peri
men
tsyi
elde
d th
e fo
llow
ing
resu
lts:
Exp
t. 1.
Am
ong
565
plan
tsw
hich
wer
e ra
ised
fro
m r
ound
see
ds
of th
e fi
rst g
ener
atio
n,19
3 yi
elde
d ro
und
seed
s on
ly,
and
re-
mai
ned
ther
efor
e co
nsta
ntin
this
cha
ract
er; 3
7`2,
how
ever
, gav
ebo
th r
ound
and
wri
nkle
d se
eds,
in th
e pr
opor
tion
of 3
to 1
.T
henu
mbe
r of
the
hybr
ids,
ther
efor
e, a
sco
mpa
red
with
the
cons
tant
sis
1.9
3 to
1.
Exp
t. 2.
Of
519
plan
ts w
hich
wer
era
ised
fro
m s
eeds
who
seal
bum
en w
as o
f ye
llow
col
our
in th
e fi
rst'
gene
ratio
n, 1
66 y
ield
edex
clus
ivel
y ye
llow
, whi
le 3
53yi
elde
d r
ello
w a
nd g
reen
see
ds h
i the
prop
ortio
n of
3 to
1.
The
re r
esul
ted,
ther
efor
e, a
div
isio
n in
tohy
brid
and
con
stan
t for
ms
in th
e pr
opor
tion
of 2
.13
to 1
.Fo
r ea
ch s
epar
ate
tria
l in
the
follo
win
g ex
peri
men
ts 1
00 p
lant
sw
ere
sele
cted
whi
ch d
ispl
ayed
the
dom
inan
t cha
ract
erin
the
firs
tge
nera
tion,
and
in o
rder
toas
cert
ain
the
sign
ific
ance
of
this
, ten
seed
s of
eac
h w
ere
culti
vate
d.E
xpt.
3,T
he o
ffsp
ring
of
36 p
lant
s yi
elde
dex
clus
ivel
y gr
ey-
brow
n se
ed-c
oats
, whi
le o
f th
eof
fspr
ing
of 6
4 pl
ants
som
e ha
dgr
ey-b
row
n an
d so
me
had
whi
te.
Exp
t. 4.
The
off
spri
ng o
f 29
pla
nts
had
only
sim
ply
infl
ated
pods
; of
the
offs
prin
g of
71,
on
the
othe
r ha
nd, s
ome
had
infl
ated
and
som
e co
nstr
icte
d.E
xpt.
5. T
he o
ffsp
ring
of
40pl
ants
had
onl
y gr
een
pods
; of
the
offs
prin
g of
60
plan
ts s
ome
had
gree
n, s
ome
yello
w o
nes.
Exp
t, 6.
The
off
spri
ng o
f 33
plan
ts h
ad o
nly
axia
l flo
wer
s; o
fth
e of
fspr
ing
of 6
7, o
n th
eot
her
hand
, som
e ha
d ax
ial a
nd s
ome
term
inal
flo
wer
s.
13
Expt. 7. The offspring of 28 plants inherited the long axis, andthose of 72 plants some the long and some the short axis.
In each of these experiments a certain number of the plants cameconstant with the dominant character. For the determination ofthe proportion in which the separation of the forms with the con-stantly persistent character results, the two first experiments areof especial importance, since in these a larger number of plants canbe compared. The ratios 1.93 to 1 and 2.13 to 1 gave togetheralmost exactly the average ratio of 2 to 1. The sixth experimentgave a quite concordant result; in the others the ratio varies moreor less, as was only to be expected in view of the smaller number of100 trial plants. Experiment 5, which shows the greatest depar-ture, was repeated, and then, in lieu of the ratio of 60 and 40, thatof 65 and 35 resulted. The average ratio of 2 to 1 appears, therefore,as fixed with certainty. It is therefore demonstrated that, of thoseforms which possess the dominant character in the first generation,two-thirds have the hybrid-character, while one-third remainsconstant with the dominant character.
The ratio of 3 to 1, in accordance with which the distribution ofthe dominant and recessive characters results in the first genera-tion, resolves itself therefore in all experiments into the ratio of2:1:1 if the dominant character be differentiated according to itssignific ance as a hybrid-character or as a parental one. Since themembers of the first generation [F2] spring directly from the seedof the hybrids [F1], it is now clear that the hybrids form seeds havingone or other of the two differentiating characters, and of these one-halfdevelop again the hybrid form, while the other half yield plants whichremain constant and receive the dominant or the recessive characters[respectively] in equal numbers.
- 114 -
BIB
LIO
GR
APH
Y O
N B
EH
AV
IOR
AL
OB
JEC
TIV
ES
AN
D I
NQ
UIR
YT
EA
CH
ING
IN
BIO
LO
GY
Con
tent
s
Sect
ion
I.B
ehav
iora
l Obj
ectiv
esSo
me
Con
side
ratio
ns11
7
II.
The
Inq
uiry
Pro
cess
123
III.
Inqu
iry
as a
Tea
chin
g St
rate
gy12
7
IV.
Prep
arin
g th
e T
each
er f
or I
nqui
ry13
9
V.
Eva
luat
ing
the
Inqu
iry
Proc
ess
143
SEC
TIO
N I
BE
HA
VIO
RA
L O
BJE
CT
IVE
S -
SOM
E C
ON
SID
ER
AT
ION
S
-117
-
1.A
mm
erm
an, H
. L.
The
der
ivat
ion,
ana
lysi
s an
d cl
assi
fica
tion
of in
stru
ctio
nal o
bjec
tives
. Hum
anR
esou
rces
Res
earc
h O
ffic
e,
Geo
rge
Was
hing
ton
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vers
ity,
Ale
xand
ria,
Va.
Tec
hnic
al R
epor
t 66-
4. M
ay,1
966.
ED
014
793
, AD
633
474
.
Thi
s st
udy
exam
ines
the
met
hods
, ter
ms,
and
crite
ria
asso
ciat
ed w
ith th
ede
term
inat
ion
of s
tude
nt p
erfo
rman
ceob
ject
ives
.
2.A
tkin
, J. M
. Beh
avio
ral o
bjec
tives
in c
urri
culu
m d
esig
n: A
cau
tiona
ry n
ote.
The
Sci
ence
Tea
cher
, May
, 196
8, 3
5(5
), 2
7-30
.
Thi
s ar
ticle
poi
nts
out t
he li
mita
tions
of b
ehav
iora
l obj
ectiv
es a
nd c
autio
nsag
ains
t unc
ritic
al u
se o
f th
em.
3.B
aker
, E. L
. The
dif
fere
ntia
l eff
ect o
fbe
havi
oral
and
non
beha
vior
al o
bjec
tives
give
n to
teac
hers
on
the
achi
evem
ent
of th
eir
stud
ents
. (D
octo
ral d
isse
rtat
ion,
Uni
vers
ityof
Cal
ifor
nia,
Los
Ang
eles
) A
nnA
rbor
, Mic
h.: U
nive
rsity
Mic
rofi
lms,
1967
.
No.
68-
7451
. DA
28:
4505
-A.
No
sign
ific
ant d
iffe
renc
es w
ere
foun
d on
the
item
s di
rect
ly m
easu
ring
the
obje
ctiv
es, o
n th
e tr
ansf
er it
ems,
or
onth
e te
ache
r
ques
tionn
aire
.
4.B
loom
, B. S
., E
ngle
hart
, M. D
., Fu
rst,
E. J
., H
ill, W
. H.,
and
Kra
thw
ohl,
D. R
. A ta
xono
my
of e
duca
tiona
lobj
ectiv
es: H
andb
ook
I: T
he c
ogni
tive
dom
ain.
New
Yor
k:L
ongm
ans,
Gre
en, 1
956.
5.B
row
n, W
. R.
Def
inin
g th
e pr
oces
ses
of s
cien
ce: A
sta
tem
ent
by e
duca
tors
in I
ndia
. The
Sci
ence
Tea
cher
, Dec
embe
r, 1
968,
3.5
(9),
26-
28.
Thi
s ar
ticle
is a
sta
tem
ent i
nbe
havi
oral
term
s an
d co
nfor
ms
roug
hly
to th
esc
hem
e of
the
Tax
onom
y of
Edu
catio
nal O
b-
ject
ives
of
the
obje
ctiv
e "t
o te
ach
the
proc
esse
sof
sci
ence
."
6.B
urns
, R. W
. The
theo
ry o
f ex
pres
sing
obje
ctiv
es. E
duca
tiona
l Tec
hnol
ogy,
Oct
ober
30, 1
967,
7 (
20).
7.C
anfi
eld,
A. A
. A r
atio
nale
for
per
form
ance
obje
ctiv
es. A
udio
visu
al I
nstr
uctio
n,Fe
brua
ry, 1
968,
13
(2),
127
-129
.
To
over
com
e th
e re
sist
ance
of
facu
ltyan
d st
uden
ts, b
ehav
iora
l obj
ectiv
essh
ould
be
acco
mpa
nied
by
a st
atem
ent o
fth
e ra
-
tiona
le f
or e
ach
obje
ctiv
e. E
xam
ples
of
the
utili
zatio
n of
rat
iona
les
are
give
n fo
r se
vera
lco
nven
tiona
l obj
ectiv
es.
8.C
ohen
, A. M
.D
efin
ing
inst
ruct
iona
l obj
ectiv
es. I
n Sy
stem
appr
oach
es to
cur
ricu
lum
, and
inst
ruct
ion
inop
en-d
oor
colle
ges.
Occ
asio
nal R
epor
t fro
m U
.C.L
.A. J
unio
rC
olle
ge L
eade
rshi
p Pr
ogra
m, N
o. 9
, Jan
uary
,19
67, 2
7-28
.
9.C
ox, R
. C.,
and
Unk
s, N
. J. A
sel
ecte
dan
d an
nota
ted
bibl
iogr
aphy
of
stud
ies
conc
erni
ngth
e T
axon
omy
of E
duca
tiona
l obj
ectiv
es:
Cog
nitiv
e do
mai
n. L
earn
ing
Res
earc
h an
dD
evel
opm
ent C
ente
r, U
nive
rsity
of
Pitts
burg
h, J
une,
1967
.
10.
Eng
man
n, B
. D. B
ehav
iora
l obj
ectiv
es: K
ey to
plan
ning
. The
Sci
ence
Tea
cher
, Oct
ober
, 196
8, 3
5(7
), 8
6-88
.
Beh
avio
ral o
bjec
tives
are
an
aid
to e
ffec
tive
teac
hing
onl
y if
the
teac
her
base
s hi
s pl
ans
on th
eman
d us
es th
em to
info
rm th
e
stud
ent o
f w
hat i
s ex
pect
ed o
f hi
m.
-118
-
11.
Fren
ch, W
. and
Ass
ocia
tes.
Beh
avio
ral g
oals
of g
ener
al e
duca
tion
in h
igh
scho
ol. N
ew Y
ork:
Rus
sell
Sage
Fou
ndat
ion,
195
7.T
he a
utho
r an
d hi
s as
soci
ates
fee
l tha
t the
best
way
to a
ppro
ach
eval
uatio
n of
cur
ricu
lum
is b
y de
scri
bing
the
beha
vior
sw
hich
sho
uld
be e
xpec
ted
of th
e st
uden
t. T
here
are
tabl
es o
f be
havi
ors
whi
ch m
ight
be
expe
cted
and
som
e di
scus
sion
of
how
thes
e m
ight
be
used
by
curr
icul
umpl
anne
rs, t
each
ers,
gui
danc
e co
unse
lors
, lay
men
, etc
. to
eval
uate
the
stud
ent.
Pre-
pari
ng th
e st
uden
t for
sel
f-ed
ucat
ive
activ
ities
cons
titut
es a
maj
or c
ateg
ory
in th
e go
alst
ruct
ure.
12.
Gag
ne, R
. M. T
he im
plic
atio
ns o
f in
stru
ctio
nal o
bjec
tives
for
lear
ning
. In
Lin
dval
l, C
. M.
(Ed)
, Def
inin
g ed
ucat
iona
l obj
ectiv
es.
Pitts
burg
h: U
nive
rsity
of
Pitts
burg
h Pr
ess,
1964
.
13.
Gag
ne, R
. M. T
he a
naly
sis
of in
stru
ctio
nal
obje
ctiv
es f
or th
e de
sign
of
inst
ruct
ion.
In
Gla
ser,
R. M
. (E
d.),
Tea
chin
g m
achi
nes
and
prog
ram
med
lear
ning
. Vol
. IL
Was
hing
ton,
D.C
.: N
atio
nal E
duca
tion
Ass
ocia
tion,
1965
.14
.G
lase
r, R
., an
d R
eyno
lds,
J. H
. Ins
truc
tiona
lob
ject
ives
and
pro
gram
med
inst
ruct
ion:
Aca
se s
tudy
. In
Lin
dval
l, C
. M. (
Ed.
),D
efin
ing
educ
atio
nal o
bjec
tives
. Pitt
sbur
gh:
Uni
vers
ity o
f Pi
ttsbu
rgh
Pres
s, 1
964.
15.
Gla
ser,
R.,
Obj
ectiv
es a
nd e
valu
atio
nan
indi
vidu
aliz
ed s
yste
m. S
cien
ce E
duca
tion
New
s, J
une,
196
7.R
epri
nted
: Lea
rnin
gR
esea
rch
and
Dev
elop
men
t Cen
ter;
Uni
vers
ityof
Pitt
sbur
gh, P
ittsb
urgh
, Pa.
Rep
rint
24. J
une,
196
7. E
D 0
15 8
44.
Thi
s ar
ticle
em
phas
izes
the
impo
rtan
ceof
spe
cify
ing
educ
atio
nal o
bjec
tives
for
curr
icul
um d
esig
n, te
achi
ng, a
nd e
valu
atin
gst
uden
t per
form
ance
.
16.
Hab
erm
an, M
. Beh
avio
ral o
bjec
tives
:B
andw
agon
or
brea
kthr
ough
. Jou
rnal
of
Tea
cher
Edu
catio
n, S
prin
g, 1
968,
19
(1),
91-9
4.A
n as
sess
men
t of
the
valu
es a
ndlim
itatio
ns o
f th
e us
e of
beh
avio
ral o
bjec
tives
.
17.
Haf
fett,
J. E
. Ins
truc
tiona
l per
form
ance
obje
ctiv
es f
or a
cou
rse
in g
ener
al b
iolo
gy.
Man
atee
Jun
ior
Col
lege
, Bra
dent
on,
Fla.
,(n
o da
te).
ED
016
482
.
The
se in
stru
ctio
nal o
bjec
tives
of
a fr
eshm
an c
ours
e in
gen
eral
bio
logy
are
org
aniz
ed f
or th
est
uden
t's e
ase
of r
efer
ence
.18
.H
arm
on, P
. Dev
elop
ing
perf
orm
ance
obje
ctiv
es in
job
trai
ning
prog
ram
s. E
duca
tiona
l Tec
hnol
ogy,
Nov
embe
r 30
, 196
8,8
(221
,11
-16.
Perf
orm
ance
obj
ectiv
esar
e de
fine
d as
cle
ar a
nd p
reci
se s
tate
men
ts o
f si
ngle
mea
ning
ful u
nits
of
beha
vior
that
will
sat
isfy
anin
stru
ctor
that
a s
tude
ntca
n pe
rfor
m a
task
whi
ch is
a d
esir
ed o
utco
me
ofa
cour
se o
f in
stru
ctio
n. P
erfo
rman
ce o
bjec
tives
are
com
pris
ed o
f (a
) th
e pe
rfor
man
ce o
bjec
tive
title
, (b)
the
cond
ition
s, (
c) th
e be
havi
or, a
nd(d
) th
e su
cces
s cr
iteri
a.19
.ka
pfer
, M. B
. Beh
avio
ral o
bjec
tives
and
the
gift
ed. E
duca
tiona
l Tec
hnol
ogy,
June
15,
196
8, 8
(11
)9 1
4-16
.A
rep
ort o
f th
e C
lark
Cou
nty
Scho
olD
istr
ict's
(L
as V
egas
, Nev
ada)
eff
orts
to s
peci
fy o
bjec
tives
for
thei
r pi
lot
prog
ram
for
the
gift
ed.
- 11
9 -
20.
Kap
fer,
P. G
.B
ehav
iora
l obj
ectiv
es in
the
cogn
itive
and
aff
ectiv
e do
mai
ns. E
duca
tiona
l Tec
hnol
ogy,
Jun
e 15
, 196
8, 8
(11
),11
-13.
Thi
s ar
ticle
rep
orts
app
roac
hes
curr
ently
bei
ng u
sed
in a
Titl
e H
I pr
ojec
t at R
uby
S. T
hom
as E
lem
enta
ry S
choo
l, L
as V
egas
,N
evad
a to
ove
rcom
e th
e ne
gativ
e re
actio
ns o
f te
ache
rs a
nd s
tude
nts
to b
ehav
iora
l obj
ectiv
es.
21.
Koe
pke,
C. A
. Rep
ly to
Atk
in o
n be
havi
oral
obj
ectiv
es. T
he S
cien
ce T
each
er, N
ovem
ber,
196
8, 3
5 (8
), 1
2-14
.A
def
ense
of
the
valu
e of
beh
avio
ral o
bjec
tives
.
22.
Kra
thw
ohl,
D. R
. The
Tax
onom
y of
edu
catio
nal o
bjec
tives
its u
se in
cur
ricu
lum
bui
ldin
g. I
n L
indv
all,
C. M
. (E
d.),
Def
inin
ged
ucat
iona
l obj
ectiv
es. P
ittsb
urgh
: Uni
vers
ity o
f Pi
ttsbu
rgh
Pres
s, 1
964.
The
val
ue o
f th
e T
axon
omy
in c
urri
culu
m c
onst
ruct
ion
is d
iscu
ssed
. Som
e of
its
maj
or u
ses
are:
(a)
it p
rovi
des
a ba
sis
for
wor
king
with
obj
ectiv
es w
ith a
spe
cifi
city
and
a p
reci
sion
that
is n
ot g
ener
ally
typi
cal o
f su
ch s
tate
men
ts, (
b) th
is s
peci
fici
tyin
the
desc
ript
ion
of s
tude
nt b
ehav
ior
mak
es it
eas
ier
to c
hoos
e ap
prop
riat
e le
arni
ng e
xper
ienc
es a
nd e
valu
atio
n in
stru
men
ts,
(c)
it pr
ovid
es a
ran
ge o
f po
ssib
le o
utco
mes
that
may
sug
gest
add
ition
al g
oals
that
mig
ht b
e in
clud
ed in
a c
urri
culu
m, (
d) it
prov
ides
for
a c
ompa
riso
n of
obj
ectiv
es f
rom
cur
ricu
lum
to c
urri
culu
m, (
e) it
mig
ht s
ugge
st a
hie
rarc
hy o
f le
arni
ng e
xper
i-en
ces,
and
(f)
it p
rovi
des
a st
ruct
ure
for
anal
yzin
g te
st it
ems
(bot
h st
anda
rdiz
ed a
nd te
ache
r-m
ade)
for
com
pari
son
with
curr
icul
um o
bjec
tives
.
23.
Kra
thw
ohl,
D. R
. Sta
ting
obje
ctiv
es a
ppro
pria
tely
for
pro
gram
, for
cur
ricu
lum
, and
for
inst
ruct
iona
l mat
eria
ls d
evel
opm
ent.
Jour
nal o
f T
each
er E
duca
tion,
Mar
ch, 1
965,
16
(1),
83-
92.
The
use
of
educ
atio
nal o
bjec
tives
at s
ever
al le
vels
of
deta
il in
the
educ
atio
nal p
roce
ss is
dis
cuss
ed. T
he T
axon
omy
is d
es-
crib
ed a
s a
fram
ewor
k w
hich
can
fac
ilita
te th
e de
velo
pmen
t and
ana
lysi
s of
obj
ectiv
es a
t the
inte
rmed
iate
leve
l. T
he T
axon
-om
y is
a r
elat
ivel
y co
ncis
e m
odel
for
the
anal
ysis
of
obje
ctiv
es; i
t pro
vide
s a
pano
ram
a of
obj
ectiv
es to
be
expl
ored
; it p
ro-
vide
s a
basi
s fo
r pr
ecis
e co
mpa
riso
n; a
nd it
may
sug
gest
a r
eadi
ness
rel
atio
nshi
p ex
istin
g be
twee
n th
ose
obje
ctiv
es lo
wer
inth
e hi
erar
chy
and
thos
e hi
gher
.
24.
Kra
thw
ohl,
D. R
., B
loom
, B. S
., an
d M
asia
, B. A
taxo
nom
y of
edu
catio
nal o
bjec
tives
: Han
dboo
k II
: The
aff
ectiv
e do
mai
n.N
ew Y
ork:
Dav
id M
acK
ay, 1
964.
25.
Lin
dval
l, C
. M. D
efin
ing
educ
atio
nal o
bjec
tives
. Pitt
sbur
gh: U
nive
rsity
of
Pitts
burg
h Pr
ess,
196
4.
26.
Lin
dval
l, C
. M. T
he im
port
ance
of
spec
ific
obj
ectiv
es in
cur
ricu
lum
dev
elop
men
t. In
aut
hor's
Def
inin
g ed
ucat
iona
l obj
ectiv
es.
Pitts
burg
h: U
nive
rsity
of
Pitts
burg
h Pr
ess,
196
4.
27.
Mag
er, R
. F. P
repa
ring
inst
ruct
iona
l obj
ectiv
es. P
alo
Alto
, Cal
if.:
Fear
on P
ublis
hers
, Inc
., 19
62. E
D 0
18 1
43 (
abst
ract
onl
y).
Thi
s pr
ogra
mm
ed te
xt in
clud
es a
sel
f-te
st o
f its
con
tent
s. I
t dem
onst
rate
s ho
w to
spe
cify
inst
ruct
iona
l obj
ectiv
es b
y be
-ha
vior
obs
erva
ble
in a
lear
ner,
and
how
to w
rite
obj
ectiv
es, d
efin
e de
sire
d te
rmin
al b
ehav
ior,
and
sta
te c
rite
ria
of s
ucce
ssfu
lle
arni
ng.
- 1
20
A A a
28.
Mag
er, R
. F. D
eriv
ing
obje
ctiv
es f
or th
e hi
ghsc
hool
cur
ricu
lum
. NSP
I Jo
urna
l, M
arch
, 196
8, V
II.
29.
McD
erm
ott,
J. J
. Car
lisle
Dis
tric
t wri
tes
beha
vior
alob
ject
ives
. The
Sci
ence
Tea
cher
, May
, 196
8,35
(5)
, 32.
3.T
he o
bjec
tive
of th
e C
arlis
le A
rea
Scho
olD
istr
ict (
Pa.)
Titl
e II
I ev
alua
tion
proj
ect
was
to e
xpre
ss th
e sk
ills
and
com
pete
ncie
spr
esen
tly p
osSe
ssed
by
thei
r st
uden
ts in
beh
avio
ral
term
s so
that
they
cou
ld b
e m
easu
red
with
som
e de
gree
of
accu
racy
.30
.M
elch
ing,
W. H
. Der
ivin
g, s
peci
fyin
g an
dus
ing
inst
ruct
iona
l obj
ectiv
ea. H
uman
reso
urce
s R
esea
rch
Off
ice,
Geo
rge
Was
hing
ton
Uni
vers
ity, A
lexa
ndri
a, V
a. P
rofe
ssio
nal P
aper
10-
66.
Dec
embe
r, 1
966.
ED
014
795
, AD
646
976
.T
he r
epor
t of
a sy
mpo
sium
to c
onsi
der
som
e pr
oble
ms
freq
uent
ly e
ncou
nter
ed w
hen
prep
arin
g in
stru
ctio
nal o
bjec
tives
and
to d
iscu
ss s
ever
al m
eans
by
whi
ch f
utur
e ef
fort
sat
impl
emen
tatio
n m
ight
be
faci
litat
ed.
31.
Mon
tagu
e, E
. J.,
and
But
ts, D
. P. B
ehav
iora
l obj
ectiv
es. T
he S
cien
ce T
each
er,,
Mar
ch, 1
968,
35 (
3), 3
3-35
.32
.Po
pham
, W. J
., an
d B
aker
, E. L
. Mea
suri
ngte
ache
rs' a
ttitu
des
tow
ard
beha
vior
alob
ject
ives
. Jou
rnal
of
Edu
catio
nal R
esea
rch:
,Ju
ly-A
ugus
t, 19
67, 6
0 (1
0), 4
5345
5.A
n at
titud
e in
vent
ory
cons
istin
g of
20
inst
ruct
iona
l obj
ectiv
es, s
ome
beha
vior
al a
nd s
ome
nonb
ehav
iora
l,W
98de
velo
ped
and
show
n to
pos
sess
a de
gree
of
valid
ity.
33.
Rum
mle
r, G
. Spe
cify
ing
term
inal
beh
avio
rs f
ortr
aini
ng. C
ente
r fo
r Pr
ogra
mm
ed L
earn
ing
for
Bus
ines
s, U
nive
rsity
of
Mic
higa
n,A
nn A
rbor
, Mic
h., 1
967.
34.
Shar
pe, G
. H. S
ome
beha
vior
al o
bjec
tives
for
elem
enta
ry s
choo
l mat
hem
atic
spr
ogra
ms.
Col
orad
o St
ate
Dep
artm
ent o
f E
duca
-tio
n, D
enve
r, C
olo.
, Aug
ust,
1966
. ED
017
454.
Che
cklis
ts o
f co
mpe
tenc
ies
and
inst
ruct
iona
l obj
ectiv
es (
whi
ch s
peci
fy e
xplic
itly
wha
t ski
lls p
upils
hav
e m
aste
red)
are
indi
-ca
ted
and
exem
plif
ied
for
man
y of
the
topi
cs o
f m
athe
mat
ics.
35.
Smith
, R. B
. An
empi
rica
l exa
min
atio
nof
the
assu
mpt
ions
und
erly
ing
the
Tax
onom
y of
edu
catio
nal o
bjec
tives
: Cog
nitiv
edo
mai
n. J
ourn
al o
f E
duca
tiona
l Mea
sure
men
t,Su
mm
er, 1
968.
5 (
2), 1
25.
In th
is s
tudy
hie
rarc
hial
syn
drom
e an
alys
is(M
cQui
tty, 1
960)
was
use
d to
inve
stig
ate
poss
ible
way
s of
com
bini
ng th
e co
gni-
tive
clas
sifi
catio
ns s
ugge
sted
in th
e T
axon
omy.
Thi
s w
as d
one
in o
rder
to v
alid
ate
the
auth
or's
cont
entio
n th
at th
e co
gniti
vepr
oces
ses
invo
lved
in th
e T
axon
omy
are
cum
ulat
ive
and
hier
arch
ical
.
36.
Smith
, R. G
Jr.
An
anno
tate
d bi
blio
grap
hyon
the
dete
rmin
atio
n of
trai
ning
obj
ectiv
es, r
esea
rch
mem
oran
dum
.H
uman
Res
ourc
es R
esea
rch
Off
ice,
Geo
rge
Was
hing
ton
Uni
vers
ity, A
lexa
ndri
a, V
a., J
une,
196
4, E
D01
2 97
6, A
D 4
48 3
63.
Seve
n ca
tego
ries
are
list
ed: (
a) g
ener
alra
tiona
les,
(b)
sys
tem
s an
alys
is, (
c) jo
b an
alys
is,
(d)
allo
catio
n of
trai
ning
, (e)
task
desc
ript
ion,
(f)
det
erm
inat
ion
of k
now
ledg
esan
d sk
ills,
and
(g)
des
crip
tion
of o
bjec
tives
.
-121
-
4 %
.
37.
Smith
, R. G
., Jr
. The
dev
elop
men
t of
trai
ning
obj
ectiv
es. H
uman
Res
ourc
es R
esea
rch
Off
ice,
Geo
rge
Was
hing
ton
Uni
vers
ity,
Ale
xand
ria,
Va.
, Res
earc
h B
ulle
tin 1
1, 1
964.
38.
Tay
lor,
P. A
., an
d M
agui
re, T
. 0. P
erce
ptio
ns o
f so
me
obje
ctiv
es f
or a
sci
ence
cur
ricu
lum
. Sci
ence
Edu
catio
n, D
ecem
ber,
196
7,51
(5)
, 438
-493
.
Thi
s st
udy
show
s th
at s
ubje
ct-m
atte
r ex
pert
s, te
ache
rs, a
nd c
urri
culu
m w
rite
rs h
ave
cong
ruen
t per
cept
ions
of
scie
nce
ob-
ject
ives
.
39.
Tyl
er, R
. W. S
ome
pers
iste
nt q
uest
ions
on
the
defi
ning
of
obje
ctiv
es. I
n L
indv
&ll,
C. M
. (E
d.),
Def
inin
g ed
ucgt
iona
t obj
ectiv
es.
Pitts
burg
h: U
nive
rsity
of
Pitts
burg
h Pr
ess,
196
4.
Os
SECTION II
THE INQUIRY PROCESS
- 123 -
40.
Bru
ner,
J. S
., G
oodn
ow, J
. J.,
and
Aus
tin, G
. A. A
stu
dy o
f th
inki
ng. N
ewY
ork:
Wile
y, 1
956.
`41.
Bru
ner,
J. S
. The
pro
cess
of
educ
atio
n. N
ew Y
ork:
Ran
dom
Hou
se, 1
960.
Bru
ner
emph
asiz
es th
e ne
ed f
or c
onne
ctio
n or
str
uctu
re in
kno
wle
dge
if it
is to
be
mea
ning
ful a
nd/o
r re
tain
ed.
42.
Bru
ner,
J. S
. The
act
of
disc
over
y. H
arva
rd E
duca
tiona
l Rev
iew
, Win
ter,
1961
, 31
(1),
21-
32.
43.
Dav
is, G
. A. T
he c
urre
nt s
tatu
s of
res
earc
h an
d th
eory
in h
uman
pro
blem
sol
ving
.U
nive
rsity
of
Wis
cons
in, M
adis
on, W
is.,
1966
.E
D 1
01 5
06.
Sum
mar
izes
pro
blem
-sol
ving
theo
ries
in th
ree
area
s: tr
aditi
onal
(st
imul
us-r
espo
nse)
lear
ning
,cog
nitiv
e-ge
stal
t app
roac
hes,
and
com
pute
r an
d m
athe
mat
ical
mod
els.
44.
Edu
catio
nal P
olic
ies
Com
mis
sion
. Edu
catio
n an
d th
e sp
irit
of s
cien
ce. W
ashi
ngto
n, D
. C.:
Nat
iona
lE
duca
tion
Ass
ocia
tion,
196
6.E
D 0
11 5
07.
The
Edu
catio
nal P
olic
ies
Com
mis
sion
rec
omm
ends
that
sch
ools
sho
uld
be p
rom
otin
gun
ders
tand
ing
of th
e va
lues
on
whi
chsc
ienc
e is
eve
ryw
itere
bas
ed; n
amel
y, (
a) lo
ngin
g to
kno
w a
nd u
nder
stan
d, (
b) q
uest
ioni
ng o
f al
lth
ings
, (c)
sea
rchi
ng f
orda
ta a
nd th
eir
mea
ning
, (d)
dem
andi
ng v
erif
icat
ion,
(e)
res
pect
ing
logi
c, (
f) c
onsi
deri
ng p
rem
ises
,an
d (g
) co
nsid
erin
g se
-qu
ence
s.
45.
Edu
catio
nal S
ervi
ces,
Inc
. The
rep
ort o
f th
e C
ambr
idge
Con
fere
nce.
Bos
ton:
Hou
ghto
n-M
iffl
in,1
963.
46.
Fox,
F. W
. Edu
catio
n an
d th
e sp
irit
of s
cien
ceth
e ne
w c
halle
nge.
The
Sci
ence
Tea
cher
, Nov
embe
r, 1
966,
33
(8),
58-
59.
The
aut
hor
revi
ews
the
reco
mm
enda
tions
of
the
Edu
catio
nal P
olic
ies
Com
mis
sion
.
47.
Gag
ne, R
. M. T
he a
cqui
sitio
n of
kno
wle
dge.
Psy
chol
ogic
al R
evie
w, 1
962,
69
(4),
355
-365
.
48.
Gag
ne, R
. M. P
sych
olog
ical
issu
es in
Sci
ence
A p
roce
ss a
ppro
ach.
A le
ctur
e de
liver
ed a
t Chi
cago
and
San
Fra
ncis
co, 1
965.
49.
Gag
ne, R
. M. T
he c
ondi
tions
of
lear
ning
. New
Yor
k: H
olt,
Rin
ehar
t & W
inst
on, 1
967.
Eig
ht v
arie
ties
of le
arni
ng a
re id
entif
ied
and
an a
ccou
nt g
iven
of
the
cond
ition
s th
at g
over
n th
eir
occu
rren
ce.
50.
Gag
ne, R
. M. W
hy th
e "p
roce
ss"
appr
oach
for
a m
oder
n cu
rric
ulum
? E
PIE
For
um, A
pril-
May
, 196
8, 1
(8-9
), 1
1.
Thi
s ar
ticle
pre
sent
s th
e ra
tiona
le o
f th
e C
omm
issi
on o
n Sc
ienc
e E
duca
tion,
Am
eric
an A
ssoc
iatio
n fo
r th
ead
vanc
emen
t of
Scie
nce,
for
thei
r ch
oice
of
the
proc
ess
appr
oach
as
the
basi
s of
thei
r ne
w e
lem
enta
ry s
cien
ce c
urri
culu
m.
51.
Gla
ser,
R. T
he d
esig
n of
inst
ruct
ion.
Lea
rnin
g R
esea
rch
and
Dev
elop
men
t Cen
ter,
Uni
vers
ity o
f Pi
ttsbu
rgh,
Pitts
burg
h, P
a.,
1966
. Rep
rint
No.
5. E
D 0
11 5
09.
The
theo
ry a
nd th
e re
sear
ch r
elev
ant t
o in
stru
ctio
nal d
esig
n ar
e di
scus
sed
in th
is p
aper
, a c
hapt
er f
rom
the
65th
yea
rboo
kof
the
Nat
iona
l Soc
iety
for
the
stud
y of
edu
catio
n, P
art I
I. G
ener
aliz
atio
n, c
once
pt f
orm
atio
n, a
nd "
proc
ess"
obje
ctiv
esar
e di
scus
sed
in a
sec
tion
devo
ted
to th
ean
alys
is o
f su
bjec
t-m
atte
r ob
ject
ives
of
inst
ruct
ion.
- 12
4-
52.
Gui
lfor
d, J
. P. T
he n
atur
e of
hum
an in
telli
genc
e.N
ew Y
ork:
McG
raw
-Hill
, 196
7.53
.H
awki
ns, D
. Edu
catio
n an
d th
e sp
irit
of s
cien
ce.
The
Sci
ence
Tea
cher
, Sep
tem
ber,
196
6,33
(6)
, 18-
20.
Whi
le w
elco
min
g th
e re
com
men
datio
ns o
f th
eE
duca
tiona
l Pol
icie
s C
omm
issi
on in
spi
rit,
Dr.
Haw
kins
fin
ds it
lack
ing
inbo
dy. I
ts s
hort
com
ing
lies
in la
belin
g vi
rtue
sas
val
ues
and
then
fai
ling
to in
clud
ea
stat
emen
t of
valu
es. D
r. H
awki
nspr
o-po
ses
dire
ctin
g th
e sp
irit
of s
cien
ce to
war
d th
e es
thet
ic v
alue
of
our
com
mun
icat
ion
with
nat
ure.
54.
Hol
t, J.
How
chi
ldre
n le
arn.
New
Yor
k:Pi
tman
, 196
7.In
this
boo
k Jo
hn H
olt
reve
rses
his
per
spec
tive
from
that
of
his
earl
ier
book
, How
Chi
ldre
nFa
il, to
a m
ore
posi
tive
surv
eyof
the
deve
lopm
enta
l fac
tors
whi
chca
n be
use
d to
enc
oura
ge a
nd e
xten
d th
e na
tura
l lea
rnin
g w
hich
resu
lts f
rom
the
curi
-os
ity p
rese
nt in
all
youn
g ch
ildre
n.
55.
Kla
usm
eier
, H. J
., D
avis
, J. K
., R
amsa
y, J
. G.,
Fred
rick
,W
. C.,
and
Dav
ies,
M. H
., C
once
ptle
arni
ng a
nd p
robl
em s
olvi
nga
bib-
liogr
aphy
, 195
0-64
. Wis
cons
in R
esea
rch
and
Dev
elop
men
t Cen
ter
for
Cog
nitiv
e L
earn
ing,
Uni
vers
ity o
f W
isco
nsin
, Mad
ison
,W
is.,
1965
. CR
P-28
50-T
R-1
. ED
010
201.
Thi
s te
chni
cal r
epor
t pre
sent
sa
defi
nitio
n of
con
cept
, a ta
xono
my
of v
aria
bles
sig
nifi
cant
in c
once
pt le
arni
ng a
nd p
robl
emso
lvin
g, a
nd a
bib
liogr
aphy
of
artic
les
deal
ing
with
bot
h to
pics
.56
.M
assi
alas
, B. G
., an
d Z
evin
, J. C
reat
ive
enco
unte
rs in
the
clas
sroo
m. N
ew Y
ork:
Joh
n W
iley,
1967
.A
mor
e ch
alle
ngin
g ty
pe o
fse
cond
ary
educ
atio
n sh
ould
be
prom
oted
thro
ugh
teac
hing
the
stud
ents
the
basi
c sk
ills
ofun
ders
tand
ing,
cri
tical
thin
king
, and
pro
blem
solv
ing.
57.
May
er, W
. V. B
iolo
gysy
nthe
size
r of
sci
ence
or d
isin
tegr
atin
g di
scip
line?
Am
eric
an B
iolo
gy T
each
er,
Dec
embe
r, 1
968,
30
(1.0
),79
9-80
5.
Thr
ough
em
phas
izin
g th
e fu
ndam
enta
lph
iloso
phy
and
met
hodo
logy
on w
hich
all
scie
ntif
ic d
isci
plin
es d
epen
d, b
iolo
gy in
-st
ruct
ion
can,
and
sho
uld,
bec
ome
the
synt
hesi
zer
of s
cien
ce.
58.
New
ton,
D. E
. The
dis
hone
sty
of in
quir
yte
achi
ng. S
choo
l Sci
ence
and
Mat
hem
atic
s,D
ecem
ber,
196
8, 6
8 (9
), 8
07-8
10.
Thi
s ar
ticle
con
tend
s th
ata
pure
ly in
duct
ive
scie
nce
clas
sroo
m is
dis
hone
st f
orfo
ur r
easo
ns: (
a) it
is n
otco
nson
ant w
ithth
e de
mon
stra
ted
need
s of
ado
lesc
ents
;(b
) it
is n
otan
hon
est p
repa
ratio
n fo
r co
llege
-bou
nd s
tude
nts;
(c)
it do
es n
otho
nest
ly r
efle
ct th
e na
ture
of
scie
nce;
and
(d)
it ha
s no
t bee
n an
alyz
edad
equa
tely
, so
that
it is
com
mon
lyan
inef
fect
ive
and
inef
fici
ent t
echn
ique
of
teac
hing
.
59.
Nov
ak, A
. Sci
entif
ic in
quir
y. B
ioSc
ienc
e,O
ctob
er, 1
964,
14
(10)
, 25-
28.
The
pro
blem
of
scie
nce
educ
atio
nis
to a
void
teac
hing
sci
ence
as "
acqu
iry"
and
to b
egin
teac
hing
it a
s "i
nqui
ry."
Sci
entif
icin
quir
y is
def
ined
as th
e to
tal c
onfi
gura
tion
of b
ehav
iors
invo
lved
in th
e st
rugg
le o
f hu
man
bei
ngs
for
reas
onab
le e
xpla
na-
il
tions
of
gene
ral p
heno
men
a ab
out
whi
ch th
ey a
re c
urio
us.
60.
The
psy
chol
ogic
al b
ases
of
scie
nce
A p
roce
ss a
ppro
ach.
Was
hing
ton,
D. C
.: A
mer
ican
Ass
ocia
tion
for
the
Adv
ance
men
t of
Scie
nce,
1.9
65. A
AA
S M
isce
llane
ous
Publ
icat
ion
65-8
.
A c
olle
ctio
n of
thre
e w
orki
ng p
aper
s de
scri
bing
the
obje
ctiv
es o
f Sc
ienc
eA
Pro
cess
App
roac
h. T
he g
ener
al o
bjec
tive
is to
deve
lop
tran
sfer
able
inte
llect
ual p
roce
sses
for
app
licat
ion
to c
ontin
ued
lear
ning
in s
cien
ce. D
etai
led
desc
ript
ions
of
the
pro-
cess
goa
ls f
or e
ach
elem
enta
ry g
rade
leve
l are
giv
enun
der
each
of
the
five
maj
or o
bjec
tives
: (a)
obs
e..in
g an
d cl
assi
fyin
g,(b
) co
mm
unic
atin
g, (
c) m
easu
ring
, (d)
rec
ogni
zing
and
usi
ng s
patia
l rel
atio
ns, (
e) d
raw
ing
infe
renc
es. F
or th
e ju
nior
hig
hle
vel,
obje
ctiv
es a
re li
sted
as
follo
ws:
(a)
for
mul
atin
g hy
poth
eses
, (b)
mak
ing
oper
atio
nal d
efin
ition
s, (
c) c
ontr
aing
and
man
ipul
atin
g va
riab
les,
(d)
exp
erim
entin
g, (
e) f
orm
ulat
ing
mod
els,
and
(f)
inte
rpre
ting
data
.
61.
Rou
ghea
d, W
. G.,
and
Scan
dura
, J. M
. Wha
t is
lear
ned
in m
athe
mat
ical
dis
cove
ry?
Jour
nal o
f E
duca
tiona
l Psy
chol
ogy,
Aug
ust,
1968
, 59
(4),
283
-289
.T
he m
ajor
hyp
othe
sis
(tha
t dis
cove
ry s
ubje
cts
may
dis
cove
r de
riva
tion
rule
s fo
r de
rivi
ng c
lass
es o
f so
lutio
ns, b
ut o
nly
whe
nth
e so
lutio
ns w
ere
not i
nitia
lly k
now
n) w
as c
onfi
rmed
.
62.
Schw
ab, J
. J. W
hat d
o sc
ient
ists
do?
Beh
avio
ral S
cien
ce, J
anua
ry, 1
960,
5 (
1), 1
-27.
Con
sist
s of
a f
orm
ulat
ion
of p
rinc
iple
s of
enq
uiry
com
mon
to s
cien
tists
, not
ions
whi
ch in
itiat
e an
d gu
ide
the
cour
se o
f a
line
of r
esea
rch,
and
a s
trat
egy
of e
nqui
ry is
pro
pose
d. A
lso,
it is
sug
gest
ed th
at th
is th
eore
tical
fra
mew
ork
can
be u
sed
toin
vest
igat
e w
hy s
cien
tists
hav
e th
ese
patte
rns
of e
nqui
ry.
63.
Shul
man
, L. S
. Psy
chol
ogic
al c
ontr
over
sies
in th
e te
achi
ng o
f sc
ienc
e an
d m
athe
mat
ics.
The
Sci
ence
Tea
cher
, Sep
tem
ber,
196
8,35
(6)
, 34-
38.
Thi
s ar
ticle
com
pare
s th
e in
stru
ctio
nal t
heor
ies
of B
rune
r an
d G
agne
with
res
pect
to in
stru
ctio
nal o
bjec
tives
, ins
truc
tiona
lst
yles
, rea
dine
ss f
or le
arni
ng, a
nd tr
ansf
er o
f le
arni
ng.
64.
You
ng, D
. D. E
nqui
rya
criti
que.
Sci
ence
Edu
catio
n, M
arch
, 196
8, 5
2(2
), 1
38-1
42.
Aft
er r
evie
win
g th
e va
riou
s de
fini
tions
of
enqu
iry,
the
auth
or p
oint
s ou
t fou
r ne
eds
for
enqu
iry:
(a)
the
need
for
mor
esc
ient
ists
, (b)
the
need
for
info
rmed
pol
itica
l lea
ders
hip,
(c)
the
need
for
an
info
rmed
pub
lic, a
nd (
d) th
e ne
ed f
or a
bro
ader
cons
ider
atio
n of
the
scie
nces
. Enq
uiry
is p
rese
ntly
lim
ited
by c
onfl
ictin
g de
fini
tions
and
inad
equa
tely
pre
pare
d te
ache
rs.
1611
.
I 4
SECTION III
INQUIRY AS A TEACHING STRATEGY
65.
Alle
nder
, J. S
., Z
iasm
an, H
., D
utte
r, D
. R.,
and
Juro
wsk
i, E
. S. T
he te
achi
ng o
f in
quir
y sk
ills
to f
ifth
gra
de c
hild
ren.
Pap
erpr
e-se
nted
at t
he A
mer
ican
Edu
catio
nal R
esea
rch
Ass
ocia
tion
mee
ting,
Chi
cago
, Ill.
, Feb
ruar
y, 1
968.
Tw
o ex
peri
men
tal g
roup
s at
tend
ed a
lear
ning
cen
ter
desi
gned
to te
ach
inqu
iry
skill
s un
der
two
degr
ees
of s
truc
ture
: for
the
firs
t gro
up th
e pr
ogra
m w
as te
ache
r-di
rect
ed a
nd f
or th
e se
cond
gro
up th
epr
ogra
m w
as s
elf-
dire
cted
. It w
as h
ypot
he-
size
d th
at m
ean
incr
ease
s in
pro
blem
s lo
oked
into
, que
stio
ns a
sked
, inf
orm
atio
n re
ques
ted,
and
inqu
iry
time
wou
ld b
e:(a
) le
ast f
or th
e co
ntro
l gro
up, (
b) o
f m
iddl
e va
lue
for
the
grou
p th
at a
ttend
ed th
e le
arni
ng c
ente
r w
hose
prog
ram
was
stru
ctur
ed b
y a
teac
her,
and
(c)
gre
ates
t for
the
grou
p th
at a
ttend
ed a
lear
ning
cen
ter
who
se p
rogr
amw
as s
truc
ture
d by
the
stud
ent.
All
of th
e m
ean
scor
es f
or th
e fo
ur m
easu
res,
with
one
exc
eptio
n, w
ere
in th
e pr
edic
ted
dire
ctio
n.
66.
And
erse
n, H
. 0. A
n an
alys
is o
f a
met
hod
for
impr
ovin
g pr
oble
m s
olvi
ng s
kills
pos
sess
ed b
y co
llege
stu
dent
s pr
epar
ing
topu
rsue
scie
nce
teac
hing
as
a pr
ofes
sion
. (D
octo
ral d
isse
rtat
ion,
Ind
iana
Uni
vers
ity),
Ann
Arb
or, M
ich.
: Uni
vers
ity M
icro
film
s,19
66. N
o. 6
7-39
97. D
A 2
7:33
32-A
.T
he s
tude
nts
enro
lled
in th
e in
vest
igat
or-
desi
gned
pro
blem
sol
ving
cour
se s
how
ed a
n im
prov
ed a
ttitu
de to
war
d pr
oble
mso
lvin
g bu
t no
sign
ific
ant i
mpr
ovem
ent i
n sk
ill.
And
erse
n, H
. 0. P
robl
em s
olvi
ng a
nd s
cien
ce te
achi
ng. S
choo
l Sci
ence
and
Mat
hem
atic
s, M
arch
, 196
7, 6
7 (3
), 2
43-2
51.
Thi
s ar
ticle
out
lines
(a)
the
fact
ors
whi
ch te
nd to
infl
uenc
e th
e pr
oble
m s
olvi
ngpr
oces
s, (
b) th
e pr
oble
m s
olvi
ng p
roce
ssits
elf,
and
(c)
som
e m
etho
ds w
hich
hav
e be
en u
sed
to im
prov
e pr
oble
m s
olvi
ng s
kills
.
68.
And
erso
n, R
. D.
Usi
ng th
e la
bora
tory
to te
ach
the
natu
re o
f sc
ienc
e. A
mer
ican
Bio
logy
Tea
cher
, Oct
ober
, 196
8, 3
0 (8
),63
3-63
6.
Usi
ng a
n ex
erci
se in
the
BSC
S ye
llow
ver
sion
, the
aut
hor
desc
ribe
s te
chni
ques
in te
achi
ng in
the
labo
rato
ry.
69.
Bau
ghm
an, M
. D. T
each
ing
earl
y ad
oles
cent
s to
thin
k. J
unio
r H
igh
Scho
ol A
ssoc
iatio
n of
Illi
nois
, Urb
ana,
Ill.
, 196
4. E
D 0
11 8
67.
A s
erie
s of
pap
ers
deal
ing
with
the
teac
hing
of
thin
king
to a
dole
scen
ts is
con
tain
ed in
this
rep
ort.
70.
Bin
ter,
A. R
., an
d D
ewar
, J. A
.T
each
er c
omm
itmen
ts in
a d
isco
very
pro
cess
. Sci
ence
Edu
catio
n, F
ebru
ary,
196
8, 5
2 (1
),10
3-10
4.
In o
rder
to m
ake
disc
over
y le
arni
ng o
pera
tiona
l in
the
clas
sroo
m, t
he te
ache
r m
ust b
e co
mm
itted
to th
ew
ay c
hild
ren
goab
out d
isco
veri
ng, t
o co
mm
unic
atin
g hi
s re
spec
t for
thei
r le
arni
ng, a
nd to
rec
ogni
zing
the
limita
tions
of
the
disc
over
ypr
oces
s as
a te
achi
ng to
ol.
71.
Bol
erat
z, J
. M. L
earn
ing
by d
isco
very
: An
expe
rim
enta
l stu
dy to
mea
sure
its
effe
ctiv
enes
s fo
r te
achi
ng v
alue
con
cept
s. J
ourn
alof
Exp
erim
enta
l Edu
catio
n, W
inte
r, 1
967,
36
(2),
13-
21.
Irre
spec
tive
of in
telli
genc
e, s
ocio
econ
omic
sta
tus,
and
teac
her
char
acte
rist
ics,
stu
dent
s in
the
expe
rim
enta
l gro
up o
utpe
r-fo
rmed
the
cont
rol g
roup
on
the
Val
ue C
once
pts
Tes
t des
igne
d fo
r th
is s
tudy
.
- 12
8 -
72.
Bra
kken
, E. I
nqui
ry in
volv
es in
divi
dual
izin
g, I
nstr
ucto
r, O
ctob
er, 1
968,
73
(2),
95+
.
Chi
ldre
n w
ho a
re in
tere
sted
in s
omet
hing
wan
t to
find
out
mor
e ab
out t
hat s
peci
fic
som
ethi
ng o
n th
eir
own
term
s an
d at
the
part
icul
ar m
omen
t the
sen
se o
f in
quir
y st
rike
s th
em. T
his
desi
re im
plie
s th
e ne
ed f
or in
divi
dual
ized
inst
ruct
ion.
73.
But
ts, D
. P. T
he r
elat
ions
hip
of p
robl
em s
olvi
ng a
bilit
y an
d sc
ienc
e kn
owle
dge.
Sci
ence
Edu
catio
n, M
arch
, 196
5, 4
9 (2
), 1
38-1
46.
The
hyp
othe
sis
that
ther
e is
no
corr
elat
ion
betw
een
know
ledg
e of
the
fact
s an
d pr
inci
ples
of
scie
nce
and
prob
lem
sol
ving
beha
vior
, whe
n th
at b
ehav
ior
is e
valu
ated
acc
ordi
ng to
the
degr
ee to
whi
ch it
dis
play
s sp
ecif
ic p
atte
rns,
was
not
rej
ecte
d.Fu
rthe
r, th
e fi
ndin
gs s
ugge
st th
at p
robl
em s
olvi
ng b
ehav
ior
is n
ot n
ctes
sari
ly c
hara
cter
ized
by
patte
rned
thou
ght.
74.
But
ts, D
. P.,
and
Jone
s, H
. L. I
nqui
ry tr
aini
ng a
nd p
robl
em s
olvi
ng in
ele
men
tary
sch
ool c
hild
ren.
Jou
rnal
of
Res
earc
h in
Sci
ence
Tea
chin
g, 1
966,
4 (
1). E
D 0
10 9
95.
Thi
s st
udy
show
ed a
sig
nifi
cant
rel
atio
nshi
p be
twee
n in
quir
y tr
aini
ng a
nd c
hang
es in
the
prob
lem
sol
ving
beh
avio
rs o
fst
uden
ts, b
ut n
o si
gnif
ican
t rel
atio
nshi
p be
twee
n in
quir
y tr
aini
ng a
nd c
once
pt tr
ansf
er o
r ch
ange
s in
rec
all o
f fa
ctua
lkn
owle
dge.
75.
Cra
ig, R
. C. R
ecen
t res
earc
h on
dis
cove
ry. E
duca
tiona
l Lea
ders
hip,
Feb
ruar
y, 1
969,
26
(5),
501
+.
An
exce
llent
rev
iew
of
rese
arch
on
disc
over
y, in
quir
y, a
nd p
robl
em s
olvi
ng s
trat
egie
s as
tech
niqu
es f
or te
achi
ng.
76.
De
Tor
nyay
, R. M
. The
eff
ect o
f an
exp
erim
enta
l tea
chin
g st
rate
gy o
n th
e pr
oble
m s
olvi
ng a
bilit
ies
of s
opho
mor
e nu
rsin
gst
uden
ts. (
Doc
tora
l dis
sert
atio
n, S
tanf
ord
Uni
vers
ity)
Ann
Arb
or, M
ich.
: Uni
vers
ity M
icro
film
s, 1
967.
No.
67-
17, 5
48.
DA
28:
3499
-A.
A g
uide
d di
scov
ery
met
hod
was
not
sig
nifi
cant
ly m
ore
effe
ctiv
e th
an c
onve
ntio
nal m
etho
ds in
impr
ovin
g th
e pr
oble
mso
lvin
g ab
ilitie
s of
nur
sing
stu
dent
s.
77.
Dic
kins
on, M
. B. I
ndep
ende
nt a
nd g
roup
lear
ning
. Was
hing
ton,
D. C
.: N
atio
nal E
duca
tion
Ass
ocia
tion,
(no
dat
e). E
D 0
17 3
32.
A d
iscu
ssio
n of
the
valu
e of
inde
pend
ent a
nd g
roup
lear
ning
for
the
deve
lopm
ent o
f th
inki
ng p
roce
sses
, suc
has
the
abili
tyto
rea
son
abst
ract
ly a
nd to
syn
thes
ize.
78.
Dub
ois,
E. A
. C.
Indu
ctio
n an
d de
duct
ion.
(D
octo
ral d
isse
rtat
ion,
Har
vard
Uni
vers
ity)
Ann
Arb
or, M
ich.
: Uni
vers
ity M
icro
-fi
lms,
196
6. N
o. 6
7-55
63. D
A 2
8:49
2-A
.
From
a f
ifty
-yea
r sp
an o
f th
e lit
erat
ure,
twel
ve e
xper
imen
ts a
re r
epor
ted
and
criti
cize
d. O
nly
six
of th
e tw
elve
exp
erim
ents
perm
it si
gnif
ican
t con
clus
ions
reg
ardi
ng in
duct
ion
and
dedu
ctio
n as
trea
tmen
ts, a
nd le
arni
ng, r
eten
tion,
or tr
ansf
er a
s cr
i-te
ria.
Of
the
twel
ve s
tatis
tical
ly s
igni
fica
nt m
easu
rem
ents
res
ultin
g fr
om th
ese
six
expe
rim
ents
, ele
ven
favo
r de
duct
ion
over
indu
ctio
n.
-129
-
79,
Edw
ards
, J. C
., an
d K
eisl
er, E
. R. T
he e
ffec
t of
inst
ruct
ion
and
conc
omita
nt v
aria
bles
on
mul
tiple
cat
egor
izat
ion
abili
ty. P
aper
pres
ente
d at
the
Am
eric
an E
duca
tiona
l Res
earc
h A
ssoc
iatio
n m
eetin
g, C
hica
go, 1
11.,
Febr
uary
, 196
8.
Sinc
e su
bjec
ts in
bot
h in
stru
ctio
nal t
reat
men
t con
ditio
ns m
ade
sign
ific
antly
Mor
e ca
tego
riza
tions
than
the
cont
rols
, the
find
ings
indi
cate
that
chi
ldre
n's
cate
gori
zing
ski
lls c
an b
e sh
aped
and
mod
ifie
d on
a g
roup
inst
ruct
iona
l bas
is. S
econ
d, p
ar-
ticul
ar in
stru
ctio
nal t
echn
ique
s m
ay b
e m
ore
appr
opri
ate
than
oth
ers
for
teac
hing
cer
tain
cla
sses
of
conc
epts
; the
infe
rent
ial
met
hod
taug
ht th
e su
bjec
ts to
cat
egor
ize
usin
g re
latio
nal c
once
pts
bette
r th
an th
e ov
ert p
rese
ntat
ion
of m
etho
d.
80.
Flec
kman
, B. I
mpr
ovem
ent o
f le
arni
ng d
ivis
ion
thro
ugh
the
use
of th
e di
scov
ery
met
hod.
(D
octo
ral d
isse
rtat
ion,
Uni
vers
ity o
fG
eorg
ia)
Ann
Arb
or, M
ich.
: Uni
vers
ity M
icro
film
s, 1
966.
No.
67-
3545
. DA
27:
3366
-A.
The
gui
ded-
disc
over
y pr
oved
mor
e ef
fect
ive
than
con
vent
iona
l ins
truc
tion
in te
achi
ng th
e co
ncep
ts a
nd d
id n
ot a
ppre
ciab
lyhi
nder
com
puta
tiona
l lea
rnin
gs.
81.
Gag
ne, R
. M.,
and
Bro
wn,
L. T
. Som
e fa
ctor
s in
the
prog
ram
min
g of
con
cept
ual l
earn
ing.
Jou
rnal
of
Exp
erim
enta
l Psy
chol
ogy,
Oct
ober
, P./6
1, 6
2 (4
), 3
13.
Thi
s st
udy
conc
lude
d th
at th
e di
scov
ery
met
hod
lead
s to
gre
ater
tran
sfer
than
doe
s a
rule
and
exa
mpl
e m
etho
d, a
con
clus
ion
whi
ch is
qui
te c
onsi
sten
t with
pre
viou
s fi
ndin
gs.
82.
Gar
ry, R
., D
ietm
eier
, H.,
Shee
han,
A. C
., an
d D
ecke
r, M
. An
inve
stig
atio
n of
con
cept
dev
elop
men
t in
elem
enta
ry s
choo
l sci
ence
teac
hing
by
tele
visi
on. B
osto
n U
nive
rsity
, Bos
ton,
Mas
s., D
ecem
ber,
196
3. E
D 0
03 5
84.
Tw
o ty
pes
of te
levi
sion
pro
gram
s w
ere
prod
uced
: inf
orm
atio
n-gi
ving
and
pro
blem
sol
ving
. Nei
ther
app
roac
h w
as s
igni
fi-
cant
ly m
ore
effe
ctiv
e th
an c
onve
ntio
nal i
nstr
uctio
n; h
owev
er, t
h4 p
robl
em s
olvi
ng f
orm
at d
id r
esul
t in
a hi
gher
deg
ree
ofin
tera
ctio
n be
twee
n th
e te
levi
sion
inst
ruct
or a
nd th
e st
uden
t.
83.
Gib
bs, R
. K. A
n an
alys
is o
f th
e ef
fect
iven
ess
of th
e B
iolo
gica
l Sci
ence
s C
urri
culu
m S
tudy
sin
gle
topi
c fi
lms
in te
achi
ng h
ypot
h-es
is c
onst
ruct
ion
to h
igh
scho
ol b
iolo
gy s
tude
nts.
(D
octo
ral d
isse
rtat
ion,
Ind
iana
Uni
vers
ity)
Ann
Arb
or, M
ich.
: Uni
vers
ityM
icro
film
s, 1
967.
No.
67-
16, 3
99. D
A 2
8:30
51-A
.
The
abi
lity
of h
igh
scho
ol b
iolo
gy s
tude
nts
to c
onst
ruct
rel
evan
t hyp
othe
ses
was
sig
nifi
cant
ly im
prov
ed th
roug
h th
e pr
e-sc
ribe
d te
ache
r in
stru
ctio
n w
hich
acc
ompa
nied
the
use
of f
ive
diff
eren
t 13S
CS
sing
le to
pic
film
loop
s an
d w
as a
lso
sign
ifi-
cant
ly c
orre
late
d w
ith th
e IQ
and
bac
kgro
und
of th
e st
uden
ts.
84.
Gre
enw
ood,
G. E
. A s
tudy
of
a sy
stem
of
clas
sroo
m in
stru
ctio
n: G
roup
inde
pend
ent p
robl
em s
olvi
ng. (
Doc
tora
l dis
sert
atio
n,In
dian
a U
nive
rsity
) A
nn A
rbor
, Mic
h.: U
nive
rsity
Mic
rofi
lms,
196
7. N
o. 6
7-16
, 402
. DA
28:
2117
-A.
Aft
er b
eing
exp
osed
to G
RIP
S fo
r te
n w
eeks
, stu
dent
s ch
ange
thei
r pe
rcep
tion
of th
e te
ache
r's r
ole
tow
ard
one
of v
iew
ing
the
teac
her
as a
pro
blem
sol
ver.
The
ir a
ttitu
des
tow
ard
the
met
hod
of in
stru
ctio
n an
d th
e fu
ture
util
ity o
f th
e co
urse
rea
d-in
g m
ater
ials
do
not s
igni
fica
ntly
cha
nge
but a
re f
avor
able
. The
se a
ttitu
des
are
affe
cted
by
inst
ruct
or d
iffe
renc
es in
gra
ding
- 13
0 -
and
teac
hing
exp
erie
nce.
A d
efin
iteco
nclu
sion
cou
ld n
ot b
e re
ache
don
sub
ject
mat
ter
gain
s. G
RIP
S do
es n
ot s
igni
fica
ntly
affe
ct s
tude
nt a
ttitu
des
tow
ard
the
six
com
bina
tions
of
teac
hing
obj
ectiv
es a
ndte
achi
ng m
etho
ds.
85.
Gri
ffin
, G. B
. A c
ompa
riso
n of
thre
esu
pple
men
tary
app
roac
hes
to te
achi
ng h
igh
scho
ol b
iolo
gy in
two
Geo
rgia
hig
hsc
hool
s.(D
octo
ral d
isse
rtat
ion,
Uni
vers
ity o
f Geo
rgia
) A
nn A
rbor
, Mic
h.: U
nive
rsity
Mic
rofi
lms,
196
7. N
o. 6
7-16
, 222
. DA
28:2
093-
A.
The
maj
or r
esea
rch
hypo
thes
esw
ere
that
atta
inm
ent o
f sc
ient
ific
kno
wle
dge
of s
tude
nts
taug
ht (
a) b
y sp
ecif
ied
inqu
iry
pro-
cess
es w
ill e
xcee
d su
ch a
ttain
men
t of
stud
ents
taug
ht b
ya
spec
ifie
d no
n-in
quir
y pr
oces
s, a
nd (
b) b
y th
e Sc
hwab
inqu
iry
proc
ess
will
exc
eed
such
atta
inm
ent o
f st
uden
ts ta
ught
by th
e Su
chm
an in
quir
ypr
oces
s. B
oth
rese
arch
hyp
othe
ses
wer
ere
ject
ed a
t the
.05
leve
l of
sign
ific
ance
.
86.
Gro
bman
, A. G
. BSC
S bi
olog
yim
plem
enta
tion
in th
e sc
hool
s. B
iolo
gica
lSc
ienc
es C
urri
culu
m S
tudy
, Bou
lder
,C
olo.
BSC
SB
ulle
tin N
o. 3
. Jun
e, 1
964.
ED
011
506.
The
rat
iona
le a
nd c
onte
nt o
f th
eB
SCS
vers
ions
are
expl
aine
d; p
hysi
cal f
acili
ties,
labo
rato
ry e
quip
men
t,an
d la
bora
tory
ma-
teri
als
that
fac
ilita
te te
achi
ngB
SCS
biol
ogy
are
anal
yzed
, and
adm
inis
trat
ive
proc
edur
es a
ndar
rang
emen
ts f
or im
plem
ent-
ing
BSC
S bi
olog
yar
e pr
esen
ted.
87.
Ham
pton
, H. F
. A c
ompa
rativ
est
udy
of s
elec
ted
fact
ors
of m
athe
mat
ics
achi
evem
ent i
n ho
mog
eneo
usgr
oups
of
fift
h gr
ade
pupi
ls u
sing
dis
cove
ry. (
Doc
tora
ldi
sser
tatio
n, O
klah
oma
Stat
e U
nive
rsity
)A
nn A
rbor
, Mic
h.: U
nive
rsity
Mic
rofi
lms,
196
7.N
o. 6
8-84
12. D
A 2
8:49
34-A
.
The
res
ults
of
this
stu
dy in
dica
ted
that
: (a)
ther
ew
as n
o si
gnif
ican
t dif
fere
nce
betw
een
the
perf
orm
ance
of th
e hi
gh a
nd lo
wab
ility
gro
ups
rela
tive
tosu
cces
ses
by s
tude
nt o
r by
ses
sion
, (6)
the
two
grou
ps w
ere
sign
ific
antly
dif
fere
ntre
lativ
e to
the
post
-tes
t, an
d (c
) th
ere
was
sig
nifi
cant
cor
rela
tion
betw
ccn
perf
orm
ance
indi
scov
ery
epis
odes
, pas
t ach
ieve
men
tin
trad
i-tio
nal a
rith
met
ic, a
nd a
chie
vem
ent t
est s
core
s. A
n an
alys
is o
f th
e re
sults
indi
cate
d th
at w
hile
the
low
abi
lity
grou
p co
mpe
ted
favo
rabl
y w
ith th
e hi
gh a
bilit
ygr
oup
duri
ng th
e di
scov
ery
epis
odes
, the
y di
dno
t lea
rn a
s m
uch.
88.
Han
son,
L. E
. Ind
uctiv
e di
scov
ery
lear
ning
, rec
eptio
n le
arni
ng, a
ndfo
rmal
ver
baliz
atio
n of
mat
hem
atic
alco
ncep
ts. (
Doc
tora
ldi
sser
tatio
n, F
lori
da S
tate
Uni
vers
ity)
Ann
Arb
or, M
ich.
: Uni
vers
ityM
icro
film
s, 1
967.
No.
67-
14, 4
51. D
A28
:173
1-A
.T
he d
iffe
renc
es b
etw
een
the
disc
over
ygr
oup
and
the
rece
ptio
n gr
oup
on m
easu
res
of a
chie
vem
ent,
tran
sfer
, and
ret
entio
nw
ere
not s
igni
fica
nt f
or e
ight
h gr
ade
subj
ects
but w
ere
sign
ific
ant i
n fa
vor
of th
e di
scov
ery
grou
p fo
r th
e co
llege
sub
ject
s.89
.H
urd,
P. D
. A s
tudy
of
smal
lgr
oup
dyna
mic
s an
d pr
oduc
tivity
in th
e B
SCS
labo
rato
ry b
lock
prog
ram
. Jou
rnal
of
Res
earc
h in
Scie
nce
Tea
chin
g, 1
966,
4 (
2). E
D01
0 99
4.T
he p
erfo
rman
ce o
f in
com
patib
legr
oups
in c
olle
ge b
ound
cla
sses
tend
edto
be
high
er th
an th
ose
in c
ompa
tible
grou
ps.
Perf
orm
ance
in n
on-c
olle
ge b
ound
stud
ents
tend
ed to
incr
ease
with
pred
icte
d co
mpa
tibili
ty.
90.
Kar
lins,
M. a
nd S
chro
der,
H. M
. Dis
cove
ry le
arni
ng, c
reat
ivity
,and
the
indu
ctiv
e te
achi
ng p
rogr
am. P
sych
olog
ical
Rep
orts
,Ju
ne,
1967
, 20
(3, P
t. 1)
, 867
-876
. PA
41:
1423
4.T
he I
nduc
tive
Tea
chin
g Pr
ogra
m c
onta
ins
a se
t of
fact
sab
out a
spe
cifi
c pr
oble
m w
hich
the
stud
ent m
ust e
licit
thro
ugh
the
inqu
iry
met
hod.
The
app
licat
ions
of
the
ITP
in e
duca
tion
and
educ
atio
nal r
esea
rch
are
exam
ined
, and
its
linki
ngro
le b
e-
twee
n di
scov
ery
lear
ning
and
cre
ativ
ityin
vest
igat
ions
are
rev
iew
ed.
91.
Ker
sh, B
. Y.
Dir
ecte
d di
scov
ery
vs. p
rogr
amm
ed in
stru
ctio
na
test
of
a th
eore
tical
pos
ition
invo
lvin
g ed
ucat
iona
l tec
hnol
ogy.
Ore
gon
Stat
e Sy
stem
of
Hig
her
Edu
catio
n, M
onm
outh
, Ore
.,M
arch
31,
196
4. E
D 0
03 6
16.
Thi
s pr
ojec
t em
phas
izes
the
desi
gn o
f in
stru
ctio
nal u
nits
rath
er th
an th
e re
sear
ch p
robl
em.
92.
Lee
, A. E
. The
dev
elop
men
t of
new
sup
plem
enta
ryte
achi
ng m
ater
ials
and
an
anal
ysis
of
thei
r po
tent
ial u
se in
the
high
sch
ool
biol
ogy
curr
icul
um, f
inal
rep
ort.
CR
P-S-
451:
Uni
vers
ity o
f T
exas
,A
ustin
, Tex
as, A
ugus
t, 19
66. E
D 0
15 1
38.
Mat
eria
ls c
alle
d "S
prin
gboa
rds
for
Dis
cuss
ion"
wer
e de
mon
stra
ted
tobe
eff
ectiv
e te
achi
ng d
evic
es to
em
phas
ize
proc
esse
san
d pr
oced
ures
of
scie
ntif
ic in
quir
y.
93.
Lee
, M. A
. Dev
elop
men
t of
inqu
iry
skill
s in
ung
rade
dso
cial
stu
dies
cla
sses
in a
juni
or h
igh
scho
ol. (
Doc
tora
ldi
sser
tatio
n, I
ndia
naU
nive
rsity
) A
nn A
rbor
, Mic
h.: U
nive
rsity
Mic
rofi
lms,
196
7, N
o.68
-231
6. D
A 2
8:33
67-A
.
A m
etho
d of
inst
ruct
ion
can
be d
esig
ned
so th
at p
upils
can
be e
xplic
itly
taug
ht to
dev
elop
and
util
ize
skill
s in
prob
lem
solv
ing
with
out l
oss
of p
upil
achi
evem
ent i
n fa
ctua
l inf
orm
atio
n.Pu
pils
who
nev
er h
ave
been
eng
aged
in c
lass
es d
esig
ned
tode
velo
p pr
oble
m s
olvi
ng s
kills
fai
l to
show
impr
ovem
ent i
nac
quir
ing
or r
efin
ing
thes
e sk
ills.
94.
Luc
k, W
. E. A
n ex
peri
men
tal c
ompa
riso
n of
dir
ect-
and-
deta
iled
met
hod
and
dire
cted
-dis
cove
ry m
etho
d of
teac
hing
sel
ecte
dau
tom
otiv
e to
pics
to s
enio
r hi
gh s
choo
l ind
ustr
ial a
rts
stud
ents
.(D
octo
ral d
isse
rtat
ion,
Okl
ahom
a St
ate
Uni
vers
ity)
Ann
Arb
or, M
ich.
: Uni
vers
ity M
icro
film
s, 1
966.
No.
67-7
252:
DA
27:
4156
-A.
Alth
ough
it w
as r
epor
ted
in th
e fi
ndin
gs th
at th
ere
are
no s
igni
fica
ntdi
ffer
ence
s be
twee
n th
e tw
o m
etho
ds, t
he c
ompu
ted
resu
lts o
f th
is s
tudy
def
inite
ly in
dica
te th
at th
e su
bjec
t gro
ups
incl
uded
in th
e hi
gher
and
low
er le
vels
of
inte
llige
nce,
whi
chw
ere
inst
ruct
ed b
y th
edi
rect
ed-d
isco
very
met
hod,
sco
red
high
er o
n bo
th te
sts
than
did
the
dire
ct-a
nd-d
etai
led
grou
p.
95.
Mas
colo
, R. P
. New
con
cept
ual s
chem
es a
nd in
quir
y tr
aini
ng: S
ome
effe
cts
upon
new
lear
ning
. (D
octo
ral d
isse
rtat
ion,
New
Yor
kU
nive
rsity
) A
nn A
rbor
, Mic
h.: U
nive
rsity
Mic
rofi
lms,
196
7. N
o.67
-11,
114
. DA
28:
1345
-A.
The
hyp
othe
sis
pred
ictin
g gr
eate
r af
fect
ive
mea
ning
for
gro
ups
rece
ivin
gkn
owle
dge
orga
nize
d ar
ound
the
key
conc
eptu
alsc
hem
es o
f th
e di
scip
line
was
sup
port
ed. O
rgan
izat
ion
of s
ubje
ct m
atte
rar
ound
the
key
conc
eptu
al s
chem
es s
eem
ed to
in-
crea
se p
erfo
rman
ce in
conc
eptu
aliz
ing
new
mat
eria
l, w
here
as f
orm
al in
quir
y tr
aini
ng h
ad n
o si
gnif
ican
teff
ect.
96.
Mas
on, J
. M. T
he d
irec
t tea
chin
g of
cri
ticai
thin
king
in g
rade
s fo
urth
roug
h si
x. J
ourn
al o
f R
esea
rch
in S
cien
ce T
each
ing,
196
3,1
(4).
ED
011
239
.Sc
ienc
e un
its c
onst
ruct
ed to
dir
ectly
teac
h cr
itica
l thi
nkin
g pr
oved
mor
eef
fect
ive
than
con
vent
iona
l sci
ence
uni
ts in
the
teac
hing
of
criti
cal t
hink
ing.
97.
Mon
tagu
e, E
. J.,
and
War
d, R
. M. T
he d
evel
opm
ent o
f pr
oble
m s
olvi
ng a
bilit
ies
in s
econ
dary
sch
ool c
hem
istr
y. J
ourn
al o
fR
esea
rch
in S
cien
ce T
each
ing,
196
8, 5
(4)
, 354
-356
.T
he u
nexp
ecte
d re
sults
of
this
stu
dy s
ugge
st th
at s
tude
nts
with
inve
stig
ativ
e ex
peri
ence
in th
e ch
emis
try
labo
rato
ry d
o no
tle
arn
to tr
ansf
er a
bilit
ie: i
n cr
itica
l thi
nkin
g an
y be
tter
than
thos
e w
ith tr
aditi
onal
exp
erie
nces
or
that
teac
hers
may
not
use
thes
e ap
proa
ches
with
equ
al e
ffec
tiven
ess.
98.
Mur
phy,
G. W
, Con
tent
ver
sus
proc
ess
cent
ered
bio
logy
labo
rato
ries
, par
t II:
The
dev
elop
men
t of
know
ledg
e, s
cien
tific
atti
-tu
des,
pro
blem
sol
ving
abi
lity,
and
inte
rest
in b
iolo
gy. S
cien
ce E
duca
tion,
Mar
ch, 1
968,
52
(2),
148
-162
.
No
sign
ific
ant d
iffe
renc
e w
as d
isco
vere
d be
twee
n th
e co
nten
t- a
nd p
roce
ss-c
ente
red
labo
rato
ries
with
res
pect
to th
e de
velo
p-m
ent o
f kn
owle
dge,
sci
entif
ic a
ttitu
des,
pro
blem
sol
ving
abi
lity,
or
inte
rest
in b
iolo
gy.
99.
Nea
l, L
. A. T
echn
ique
s Fo
r de
velo
ping
met
hods
of
scie
ntif
ic in
quir
y in
chi
ldre
n in
gra
des
one
thro
ugh
six.
Sci
ence
Edu
catio
n,O
ctob
er.,
1961
, 45
(4),
313
-320
.T
his
pape
r de
scri
bes
a w
ide
vari
ety
of te
chni
ques
for
dev
elop
ing
the
abili
ty o
f pu
pils
to u
se m
etho
ds o
f sc
ient
ific
inqu
iry.
100.
Nov
ak, A
. Sci
entif
ic in
quir
y in
the
labo
rato
ry. A
mer
ican
Bio
logy
Tea
cher
, Mar
ch, 1
963,
25
(3),
342
.346
.T
his
artic
le d
escr
ibes
som
e la
bora
tory
exp
erie
nces
des
igne
d to
giv
e th
e st
uden
t som
e un
ders
tand
ing
of th
e pr
oble
ms
and
oper
atio
ns o
f a
scie
ntis
t.
101.
Para
kh, J
. S. A
stu
dy o
f te
ache
r-pu
pil i
nter
actio
n in
BSC
S Y
ello
w V
ersi
on b
iolo
gy c
lass
es. A
mer
ican
Bio
logy
Tea
cher
, Dec
em-
ber,
196
8, 3
0 (1
0), 8
41-8
48.
Thi
s ar
ticle
foc
uses
on
desc
ribi
ng a
nd a
naly
zing
the
natu
re o
f th
e te
ache
r-pu
pil i
nter
actio
n in
sel
ecte
d B
SCS
Yel
low
Ver
sion
biol
ogy
lect
ure-
disc
ussi
on c
lass
es, a
nd c
ompa
res
inte
ract
ion
scor
es o
f ea
ch s
elec
ted
teac
her
whi
le te
achi
ng tw
o di
ffer
ent
grou
ps o
f pu
pils
.
102.
Pipe
, P. P
ract
ical
pro
gram
min
g. N
ew Y
ork:
Hol
t, 19
66.
Pipe
app
eals
to te
ache
rs to
sta
te o
bjec
tives
beh
avio
rally
. He
says
it is
am
azin
g ho
w m
any
teac
hers
and
inst
ruct
ors
say,
"Y
es,
I ca
n se
e ho
w u
sefu
l it i
s to
hav
e th
ese
care
ful s
tate
men
ts o
f ob
ject
ives
for
mos
t cou
rses
. But
in m
y co
urse
it is
dif
fere
nt.
..."
Obj
ectiv
es c
an b
e im
prov
ed b
y as
king
thre
e qu
estio
ns: (
a) w
hat w
ill th
e st
uden
t be
doin
g w
hen
he is
dem
onst
ratin
g pr
ofi-
cien
cy?
(b)
unde
r w
hat c
ondi
tions
will
this
beh
avio
r oc
cur?
(c)
wha
t is
the
leve
l of
acce
ptab
le p
erfo
rman
ce?
(Beg
in w
ith a
nac
tion
wor
d.)
Mos
t peo
ple,
whe
n th
ey f
irst
try
to w
rite
beh
avio
ral o
bjec
tives
, see
m u
nabl
e to
thin
k sm
all e
noug
h.
103.
Rau
n, C
. E.,
and
But
ts, D
. P. T
he r
elat
ions
hip
betw
een
the
stra
tegi
es o
f in
quir
y in
sci
ence
and
stu
dent
cog
nitiv
e an
d af
fect
ive
beha
vior
al c
hang
e. J
ourn
al o
f R
esea
rch
in S
cien
ce T
each
ing,
196
8, 5
(3)
, 261
-268
.C
rite
rion
var
iabl
es o
f be
havi
or w
ere
test
ed to
det
erm
ine
thei
r re
latio
nshi
p to
the
stra
tegi
es o
f in
quir
y in
sci
ence
. It a
ppea
rsth
at n
one
of th
e st
rate
gies
of
inqu
iry
in s
cien
ce b
y th
emse
lves
can
be
used
to p
redi
ct b
ehav
iora
l cha
nge
in a
ll of
the
be-
havi
oral
cri
teri
a.
104.
Ren
ner,
J. W
., an
d R
agan
, W. B
. Tea
chin
g sc
ienc
e in
the
elem
enta
rysc
hool
. New
Yor
k: H
arpe
r &
Row
, 196
8.
Incl
udes
cha
pter
s di
ffer
entia
ting
inqu
iry
and
disc
over
y fr
om o
ther
teac
hing
ori
enta
tions
, tea
cher
res
pons
ibili
ties
in d
isco
v-
ery
orie
ntat
ions
, tec
hniq
ues
toin
volv
e ch
ildre
n w
ith s
cien
ce a
nd d
isco
very
, and
an
espe
cial
ly s
igni
fica
nt tr
eatm
ento
f th
e
impo
rtan
ce o
f "f
reed
om o
f m
ind"
to th
e ap
plic
atio
n of
rat
iona
l pow
ers
inpr
oble
m s
olvi
ng a
nd d
ecis
ion
mak
ing.
105.
Ric
hard
, P. W
. Exp
erim
enta
l ind
ivid
ualiz
ed B
SCS
biol
ogy.
The
Sci
ence
Tea
cher
, Feb
ruar
y, 1
969,
36
(2),
53-
54.
An
expe
rim
ent w
as u
nder
take
n at
the
Lab
orat
ory
Scho
ol,C
olor
ado
Stat
e C
olle
ge, t
o de
term
ine
the
exte
nt to
whi
ch s
elf-
dire
cted
lear
ning
cou
ld b
e st
reng
then
ed th
roug
h in
divi
dual
izat
ion
ofbi
olog
y an
d th
e ex
tent
to w
hich
labo
rato
ry b
iolo
gyco
uld
be in
divi
dual
ized
.
106.
Ric
hard
son,
C. E
., an
d O
liver
, L. E
. Int
erm
edia
te s
cien
ce c
urri
culu
mst
udy
proj
ect a
s vi
ewed
by
part
icip
atin
g te
ache
rs. S
choo
lSc
ienc
e an
d M
athe
mat
ics,
Dec
embe
r, 1
968,
68
(9),
785
-790
.O
pen-
ende
d ex
peri
men
tatio
n is
mor
e ap
prop
riat
e to
the
natu
re o
f th
e ea
rly
adol
esce
nt th
an is
hig
hly
dire
cted
inst
ruct
ion.
107.
Ric
hard
son,
E. I
nqui
ry in
inst
ruct
iona
l tel
evis
ion:
A p
ilot p
roje
ct. A
udio
visu
alIn
stru
ctio
n, N
ovem
ber,
196
7, 1
2 (9
), 9
15-9
16.
Thi
s in
teri
m r
epor
t des
crib
es th
e pr
ogre
ss o
f a
Cal
ifor
nia-
base
d pr
ojec
t to
deve
lop
inst
ruct
iona
l tel
evis
ion
prog
ram
s in
the
inqu
iry
mod
e. U
nder
the
dire
ctio
n of
KQ
ED
, pilo
t tap
es w
ere
prep
ared
toill
ustr
ate
inqu
iry
mod
es.
108.
Rub
adea
u, D
. 0. A
com
pari
son
of le
arne
r-ce
nter
ed a
nd te
ache
r-ce
nter
edle
arni
ng. (
Doc
tora
l dis
sert
atio
n, U
nive
rsity
of
Roc
hes-
ter)
Ann
Arb
or, M
ich.
: Uni
vers
ity M
icro
film
s, 1
967.
No.
67-
13, 6
65.
DA
28:
1710
-A.
The
lear
ner-
cent
ered
gro
up le
arne
d m
ore
effi
cien
tly a
nd e
qual
ly a
s ef
fect
ivel
y as
the
teac
her-
cent
ered
gro
up.
109.
Sals
trom
, D. A
com
pari
son
of c
once
ptua
lizat
ion
in tw
o ty
pes
ofgu
ided
dis
cove
ry s
cien
ce le
sson
s. (
Doc
tora
l dis
sert
atio
n, K
ent
Stat
e U
nive
rsity
) A
nn A
rbor
, Mic
h.: U
nive
rsity
Mic
rofi
lms,
196
6. N
o.67
-942
8. D
A 2
8:40
7-A
.
Thi
s st
udy
give
s ev
iden
ce th
at c
once
ptua
lizat
ion
may
be
aide
d th
roug
hth
e te
ntat
ive
prop
osal
to s
ixth
gra
de p
upils
of
aw
orka
ble
conc
eptu
al f
ram
ewor
k. T
his
seem
s to
be
true
eve
n fo
r pu
pils
wor
king
indi
vidu
ally
dur
ing
inqu
iry,
with
out t
hest
imul
atio
n, in
form
atio
n, a
nd c
uein
g af
ford
ed b
y th
e or
al p
artic
ipat
ion
of th
eir
clas
smat
es.
110.
Sand
ers,
N. C
lass
room
que
stio
ns: W
hat k
inds
? N
ew Y
ork:
Har
per
& R
ow,1
967.
111.
Schu
ck, R
. F. T
he c
ompa
rativ
e ef
fect
s of
the
BSC
S cu
rric
ula
upon
stu
dent
sex
pose
d to
inst
ruct
iona
l str
ateg
ies
inco
rpor
atin
gse
t ind
uctio
n pr
oced
ures
. Sch
ool S
cien
cean
d M
athe
mat
ics,
Oct
ober
, 196
8, 6
8 (7
), 6
01.6
08.
Sign
ific
ant d
iffe
renc
es, f
avor
ing
the
expe
rim
enta
l gro
up, w
ere
foun
dbe
twee
n th
e ex
peri
men
tal a
nd c
ontr
ol g
roup
s in
bot
hpu
pil a
chie
vem
ent a
nd p
upil
perc
eptio
n of
eff
ectiv
e te
achi
ng; h
owev
er,
thes
e re
sults
wer
e no
t sig
nifi
cant
ly e
ffec
ted
by th
eB
SCS
vers
ion
used
.
- 13
4 -
112.
Schw
ab, J
. J.
The
teac
hing
of
scie
nce
as e
nqui
ry. T
he I
nglis
Lec
ture
in T
he te
achi
ngof
sci
ence
. Cam
brid
ge, M
ass.
: Har
vard
Uni
vers
ity P
ress
, 196
2.
The
cas
e fo
r sc
ienc
e te
achi
ng to
ref
lect
the
rece
nt c
hang
e fr
om s
tabl
e to
flui
d en
quir
y in
sci
ence
,su
gges
tions
for
eff
ect-
ing
this
cha
nge
in th
e cl
assr
oom
are
pre
sent
ed.
113.
Scie
nce
Edu
catio
n In
form
atio
n A
naly
sis
Cen
ter.
Sci
ence
edu
catio
nin
form
atio
n re
port
: Bib
liogr
aphy
1, i
nstr
uctio
nal p
roce
dure
s.O
hio
Stat
e U
nive
rsity
, Col
umbu
s, O
hio,
Dec
embe
r, 1
.967
. ED
015
077
.
Rep
orte
d ar
e ov
er 1
80 c
itatio
ns to
sel
ecte
d do
cum
ents
rel
ated
to in
stru
ctio
nal
proc
edur
es in
sci
ence
edu
catio
n.
114.
Scot
t, N
. C.,
and
Sige
l, I.
E. T
he e
ffec
ts o
f in
quir
y tr
aini
ng in
phy
sica
lsci
ence
on
crea
tivity
and
cog
nitiv
e st
yles
of
elem
enta
rysc
hool
chi
ldre
n. M
erri
ll Pa
lmer
Ins
titut
e, D
etro
it, M
ich.
, 196
5. E
D 0
03 7
00.
Onl
y in
the
cogn
itive
sty
le ta
sks
did
the
inqu
iry
appr
oach
sho
w s
igni
fica
nt e
ffec
ts o
nco
ncep
tual
act
iviti
es. T
he in
quir
y pr
o-
cess
app
eare
d ge
nera
lly to
enc
oura
gean
d de
velo
p an
exp
lora
tory
atti
tude
on
the
part
of
the
indi
vidu
al le
arne
rw
hich
led
him
bey
ond
basi
c ov
ert p
erce
ptio
n.
115.
Shal
lcro
ss, D
. J. A
cre
ativ
e pr
oble
m s
olvi
ng c
ours
e. N
EA
Jou
rnal
, Feb
ruar
y,19
67, 5
6 (6
), 5
7.
Thi
s ar
ticle
des
crib
es a
cre
ativ
e pr
oble
m s
olvi
ng c
ours
e of
fere
d at
the
llth
and
12th
gra
de le
vels
. The
tech
niqu
es m
ost c
om-
mon
ly u
sed
in th
e co
urse
are
bra
inst
orm
ing
or u
sing
che
cklis
ts, s
uch
asA
lex
F. O
sbor
n's
Idea
-Spu
rrin
g Q
uest
ions
.
116.
Shoc
kley
, W.,
and
McD
onal
d, F
. J. T
each
ing
scie
ntif
ic th
inki
ng a
t the
high
sch
ool l
evel
. Sch
ool o
f E
duca
tion,
Sta
nfor
d U
ni-
vers
ity, S
tanf
ord,
Cal
if.,
Oct
ober
, 196
4. E
D 0
03 4
56.
The
stu
dy h
ad tw
o ob
ject
ives
: (a)
to te
ach
the
proc
ess
of s
earc
h fo
r an
ans
wer
,and
(b)
to te
ach
the
logi
cal s
truc
ture
of
im-
port
ant p
rinc
iple
s.
117.
Skin
ner,
R.
Inqu
iry
sess
ion:
An
assi
st f
or te
achi
ng s
cien
ce v
ia in
stru
ctio
nal t
elev
isio
n in
the
elem
enta
ry s
choo
ls. J
ourn
al o
fR
esea
rch
in S
cien
ce T
each
ing,
196
8, 5
(4)
, 346
-349
.
One
of
two
type
s of
fol
low
-up
was
use
d af
ter
each
tele
vise
d le
sson
, eith
er"t
ypic
al d
iscu
ssio
n" o
r "i
nqui
ry s
essi
on."
The
redi
d no
t see
m to
be
a co
nsis
tent
pat
tern
in p
upil
achi
evem
ent w
hen
grou
ps w
ere
com
pare
d ac
cord
ing
to th
e ty
pe o
f te
ache
r
follo
w-u
p.
118.
Sloa
n, F
. A.,
and
Pate
, R. T
. Tea
cher
-pup
il in
tera
ctio
n di
ffer
ence
s be
twee
nSc
hool
Mat
hem
atic
s St
udy
Gro
up a
nd tr
aditi
onal
mat
hem
atic
s. C
RP-
S-13
7. U
nive
rsity
of
Okl
ahom
a, N
orm
an, O
kla.
, 196
4. E
D 0
0346
2.
Sign
ific
antly
mor
e ne
w m
athe
mat
ics
teac
hers
than
trad
ition
al m
athe
mat
ics
teac
hers
(a)
used
ana
lysi
s qu
estio
ns w
hich
elic
-ite
d sp
onta
neou
s re
spon
ses
from
the
stud
ents
, and
(b)
pai
d pa
rtic
ular
atte
ntio
n to
con
tent
deve
lopm
ent.
119.
Such
man
, J. R
. Reb
uild
ing
the
scie
nce
prog
ram
: Inq
uiry
trai
ning
in th
e el
emen
tary
sch
ool.
The
Sci
ence
Tea
cher
, Nov
embe
r,19
60, 2
7 (8
), 4
2-49
.
Fift
h-gr
ade
stud
ents
suc
cess
fully
dev
elop
ed tr
ansf
erab
le in
quir
y st
rate
gies
, mad
e fe
wer
unt
este
das
sum
ptio
ns, a
nd m
ade
and
test
ed m
ore
hypo
thes
es a
s a
resu
lt of
thei
r pa
rtic
ipat
ion
inan
inqu
iry
trai
ning
pro
gram
.
120.
Such
man
, J. R
. The
ele
men
tary
sch
ool t
rain
ing
prog
ram
in s
cien
tific
inqu
iry.
Uni
vers
ity o
f Il
linoi
s, U
rban
a, I
ll., J
une,
196
2.E
D 0
03 5
30.
Mar
ked
effe
cts
on th
e m
otiv
atio
n, a
uton
omy,
and
que
stio
ning
flu
ency
of
the
expe
rim
enta
lgr
oup
of c
hild
ren
wer
e ob
serv
edas
a r
esul
t of
thei
r pa
rtic
ipat
ion
in th
e tr
aini
ng p
rogr
am.
121.
Such
man
, J. R
. The
mot
icat
ion
to in
quir
e.T
he I
nstr
ucto
r, O
ctob
er, 1
965,
75
(2),
26+
.T
his
artic
le is
an
exce
llent
sta
tem
ent
on th
e re
latio
nshi
p be
twee
n cl
osur
e an
d th
e st
atic
min
d as
opp
osed
to th
at b
etw
een
open
sure
and
cur
iosi
ty. T
he m
otiv
atio
n to
inqu
ire
seem
s to
fol
low
a p
erso
nal r
eluc
tanc
e to
acc
ept t
hing
sas
set
tled
and
ape
rsis
tenc
e in
hol
ding
exp
lana
tions
tent
ativ
e.
122.
Tab
er, J
. I.,
Gla
ser,
R, a
nd S
chae
fer,
H. H
. A g
uide
to th
e pr
epar
atio
n of
pro
gram
med
inst
ruct
iona
lm
ater
ial.
Dep
artm
ent o
fps
ycho
logy
, Uni
vers
ity o
f Pi
ttsbu
rgh,
Pitt
sbur
gh, P
a., 1
962.
123.
Ter
Keu
rst,
A. J
., an
d M
artin
, J. M
. Rot
evs
. dis
cove
ry le
arni
ng. S
choo
l and
Com
mun
ity, N
ovem
ber,
196
8, 5
5 (3
), 4
2+.
The
hyp
othe
sis,
that
sch
ool c
hild
ren
in th
e m
iddl
e el
emen
tary
gra
des
achi
eve
bette
r res
ults
in le
arni
ng a
nd r
etai
ning
a s
impl
ear
ithm
etic
al p
roce
dure
whe
n th
e in
stru
ctio
n em
phas
izes
rot
e le
arni
ng r
athe
r th
an le
arni
ng b
y di
scov
ery,
was
con
firm
ed.
124.
Tw
elke
r, P
. A. T
wo
type
s of
teac
her-
lear
ner
inte
ract
ion
in le
arni
ng b
y di
scov
ery:
Fin
alre
port
. Ore
gon
Stat
e Sy
stem
of
Hig
her
Edu
catio
n, M
onm
outh
, Ore
., Se
ptem
ber,
196
7. E
D 0
18 1
17.
No
sign
ific
ant d
iffe
renc
e w
as f
ound
bet
wee
n th
e ef
fect
iven
ess
of r
einf
orce
men
t by
prai
se o
nly,
rei
nfor
cem
ent b
y pr
aise
plus
indi
rect
gui
danc
e on
how
to p
roce
ss in
form
atio
n av
aila
ble
to th
e le
arne
r, a
nd d
irec
t pre
scnt
atio
n of
the
sam
e in
for-
mat
ion
inte
nded
for
dis
cove
ry.
125.
Van
Dev
ente
r, W
. C. A
n in
quir
y ap
proa
ch to
inte
rdis
cipl
inar
y se
vent
h gr
ade
scie
nce.
Jour
nal o
f R
esea
rch
in S
cien
ce T
each
ing,
1968
, 5 (
4), 3
73-3
84.
Juni
or h
igh
scho
ol f
urni
shes
a f
inal
opp
ortu
nity
to ta
kea
mea
ning
ful l
ook
at in
terd
isci
plin
ary
scie
nce.
Thi
s in
terd
isci
pli-
nary
sci
ence
, how
ever
, nee
ds to
be
plan
ned
in te
rms
of p
robl
ems,
idea
s, a
nd u
nder
stan
ding
s, r
athe
r th
ana
limite
d fa
ctua
lsu
rvey
of
conv
entio
nal s
cien
ce f
ield
s.
126.
Will
s, H
. Tra
nsfe
r of
pro
blem
sol
ving
abi
lity
gain
ed th
roug
h le
arni
ng b
y di
scov
ery.
(D
octo
ral
diss
erta
tion,
Uni
vers
ity o
f Il
linoi
s)A
nn A
rbor
, Mic
h.: U
nive
rsity
Mic
rofi
lms,
196
7, N
o. 6
7-11
, 937
. DA
28:
1319
-A.
4
144
Thi
s st
udy
has
show
n th
at s
tude
nts
can
sign
ific
antly
impr
ove
thei
r pr
oble
m s
olvi
ng a
bilit
yas
a b
onus
to c
onte
nt le
arne
dby
dis
cove
ry.
127.
Wor
then
, B. R
.D
isco
very
and
exp
osito
ry ta
sk p
rese
ntat
ion
in e
lem
enta
rym
athe
mat
ics.
Jou
rnal
of
Edu
catio
nal P
sych
olog
y,Fe
brua
ry, 1
968,
59
(1, P
t. 2)
.
Dis
cove
ry te
achi
ng p
rove
d su
peri
or to
exp
osito
ry m
etho
dsw
ith r
espe
ct to
ret
entio
n an
d tr
ansf
er b
ut in
feri
or w
ithre
spec
tto
initi
al le
arni
ng.
128.
Wor
then
, B. R
. A s
tudy
of
disc
over
y an
d ex
posi
tory
pres
enta
tion:
Im
plic
atio
ns f
or te
achi
ng. J
ourn
al o
f T
each
erE
duca
tion,
Sum
mer
, 196
8, 1
9 (2
), 2
23-2
42.
Alth
ough
the
expo
sito
ry m
etho
d yi
elde
dgr
eate
r in
itial
lear
ning
, the
dis
cove
ry m
etho
d pr
oved
sup
erio
rin
ret
entio
n, tr
ans-
fer,
and
dev
elop
men
t of
prob
lem
sol
ving
ski
ll.
129.
Yag
er, E
. Y.
Com
pari
son
of te
achi
ng o
utco
mes
bet
wee
ntw
o te
ache
rs o
f se
cond
ary
biol
ogy.
Am
eric
an B
iolo
gyT
each
er,
Dec
embe
r, 1
968,
30
(10)
, 816
-819
.
Stud
ents
of
the
indi
rect
teac
her
show
edm
ore
grow
th o
n a
test
mea
suri
ng m
aste
ry o
f fa
cts.
How
ever
, on
anot
her
achi
eve-
men
t tes
t whi
ch r
equi
res
som
e sk
ill in
inte
rpre
ting
data
as w
ell a
s so
me
abili
ty to
app
ly in
form
atio
n, th
e st
uden
ts o
f th
etw
o te
ache
rs s
tudi
ed w
ere
near
ly e
qual
. The
stu
dent
s w
ithth
e in
dire
ct te
achi
ng m
etho
ds s
eem
ed to
und
erst
and
the
natu
reof
sci
ence
bet
ter
than
did
stu
dent
s ta
ught
by
dire
ctm
eans
.
SECTION IV
PREPARING THE TEACHER FOR INQUIRY
-139-
130.
Bio
logi
cal S
cien
ces
Cur
ricu
lum
Stu
dy. L
abor
ator
y bl
ocks
in te
achi
ngbi
olog
y. B
SCS
Spec
ial P
ublic
atio
n N
o. 5
. Bio
logi
cil
Scie
nces
Cur
ricu
lum
Stu
dy, U
nive
rsity
of
Col
orad
o, B
ould
er, C
olo.
, 196
7.
Des
crib
es th
e ob
ject
ives
and
use
of
the
labo
rato
ry b
lock
mat
eria
ls.
131.
Bio
logi
cal S
cien
ces
Cur
ricu
lum
Stu
dy. N
ew m
ater
ials
and
tech
niqu
es in
the
prep
arat
ion
of h
igh
scho
ol b
iolo
gy te
ache
rs. B
SCS
Spec
ial P
ublic
atio
n N
o. 6
. Bio
logi
cal S
cien
ces
Cur
ricu
lum
Stu
dy.
Uni
vers
ity o
f C
olor
ado,
Bou
lder
, Col
o., 1
969.
Incl
udes
sec
tions
on
test
ing
and
eval
uatio
n an
d on
pre
- an
d in
-ser
vice
trai
ning
of
biol
ogy
teac
hers
.
132.
BSC
S N
ewsl
ette
r 32
. The
teac
her.
Bio
logi
cal S
cien
ces
Cur
ricu
lum
Stud
y. U
nive
rsity
of
Col
orad
o, B
ould
er, C
olo.
, Sep
tem
ber,
1967
.A
col
lect
ion
of a
rtic
les
on th
e B
SCS
teac
her
prep
arat
ion
activ
ities
.
133.
Cur
tis, W
. C. T
each
er-t
rain
ing
for
proc
ess
orie
ntat
ed s
cien
cein
stru
ctio
n. S
cien
ce E
duca
tion,
Dec
embe
r, 1
967,
51
(5),
494
-498
.
Thi
s st
udy
outli
nes
the
unde
rsta
ndin
gs a
teac
her
shou
ld h
ave
of th
e pr
oces
ses
of s
yste
mat
ic s
cien
tific
inve
stig
atio
ns. S
peci
fic
com
pete
ncie
s ar
e de
scri
bed
unde
r th
e fo
llow
ing
maj
or h
eadi
ngs:
(a)
data
col
lect
ion,
(b)
dat
a pr
oces
sing
, (c)
dat
a in
terp
re-
tatio
n, (
d) c
omm
unic
atio
n.
134.
Lee
, A. E
. The
exp
erim
enta
l app
roac
h in
teac
hing
bio
logy
: An
intr
oduc
tion
to th
e B
SCS
Lab
orat
ory
Blo
ck P
rogr
am. A
mer
ican
Bio
logy
Tea
cher
, Nov
embe
r, 1
961,
23
(9),
409
-411
.
The
pur
pose
of
this
art
icle
is to
acq
uain
t the
teac
her
with
the
obje
ctiv
es a
nd r
atio
nale
of
the
BSC
S L
abor
ator
y B
lock
Pro
-gr
am. S
ome
pres
enta
tions
by o
ther
labo
rato
ry b
lock
aut
hors
giv
e th
e re
ader
an
idea
of
how
the
obje
ctiv
es c
anbe
rea
ched
.
135.
McC
orm
ick,
F. R
. The
out
door
labo
rato
ry: I
n-se
rvic
e ed
ucat
ion
in th
e pr
oces
ses
of s
cien
ce. (
Doc
tora
l dis
sert
atio
n, U
nive
rsity
of A
rkan
sas)
Ann
Arb
or, M
ich.
: Uni
vers
ity M
icro
film
s,19
67. N
o. 6
7-12
, 883
. DA
28:
1330
-A.
The
teac
her's
und
erst
andi
ng o
f th
e pr
oces
ses
of s
cien
ce in
crea
sed
to a
smal
l deg
ree
as a
res
ult o
f pa
rtic
ipat
ion
in th
e ex
peri
-m
enta
l pro
gram
. The
fin
ding
s al
so a
ppea
r to
just
ify
the
conc
lusi
onth
at th
e ex
peri
men
tal p
rogr
am p
rovi
ded
at le
ast a
s m
uch,
and
poss
ibly
mor
e, k
now
ledg
e of
bio
logi
cal p
rinc
iple
s th
an d
id th
eco
ntro
l and
that
par
ticip
atio
n in
the
prog
ram
eff
ecte
dch
ange
s in
teac
hing
pra
ctic
es.
136.
Raa
ck, M
. L. T
he e
ffec
t of
an in
-ser
vice
edu
catio
n pr
ogra
m o
n te
ache
rve
rbal
beh
avio
r. (
Doc
tora
l dis
sert
atio
n, U
nive
rsity
of
Cal
ifor
nia,
Los
Ang
eles
) A
nn A
rbor
, Mic
h.: U
nive
rsity
Mic
rofi
lms,
1967
. No.
67-
12, 2
31. D
A 2
8:13
32-A
.
As
a re
sult
of a
n ex
peri
men
tal p
rogr
am to
dev
elop
inqu
iry
teac
hing
str
ateg
ies,
teac
hers
sho
wed
gai
ns in
thei
r ac
cept
ance
of
pupi
l res
pons
es a
nd in
use
of
prai
se a
nd e
ncou
rage
men
t. T
hese
gain
s w
ere
acco
mpa
nied
by
pred
icte
d in
crea
ses
in th
e pe
r-ce
ntag
e of
tota
l pup
il pa
rtic
ipat
ion
as w
ell a
s pu
pil
initi
atio
n of
inte
ract
ion.
Whi
le te
achi
ng b
ehav
ior
beca
me
mor
e in
dire
ct,
tota
l tea
cher
talk
wen
t dow
n, a
s pr
edic
ted,
for
the
maj
ority
of
teac
hers
. Als
o as
pre
dict
ed, t
each
ers
affi
rmed
a d
escr
iptio
nof
the
teac
her's
cla
ssro
om r
ole
cong
ruen
t with
an
indi
rect
app
roac
h to
teac
hing
by
the
end
of th
e pr
ogra
m.
- 14
0-
137.
Schw
ab, J
. J. (
Supe
rvis
or)
BSC
SB
iolo
gy te
ache
rs' h
andb
ook.
New
Yor
k:Jo
hn W
iley,
196
3. 2
nd E
ditio
n,19
70. K
linck
man
n, E
.(S
uper
viso
r).
The
cha
ract
er o
f th
eB
SCS
appr
oach
tobi
olog
y, s
ome
mat
eria
ls f
orte
achi
ng b
iolo
gy a
sen
quir
y, m
ater
ials
fro
m s
tatis
tics
and
from
the
phys
ical
sci
ence
s re
leva
nt to
biol
ogy,
and
res
ourc
e m
ater
ials
are
incl
uded
.13
8.Sm
ith, R
. B. T
heim
plic
atio
ns o
f in
quir
y st
ruct
ures
for
the
teac
her
educ
atio
ncu
rric
ulum
. Jou
rnal
of T
each
er E
duca
tion,
Fall,
1968
, 19
(3),
338
-343
.
Thr
ough
an
anal
ysis
of
the
conc
eptio
n of
kno
wle
dge
impl
icit
in th
e ne
w c
urri
cula
, the
aut
hor
cons
truc
ts a
n in
stru
ctio
nal
mod
el f
orus
e in
the
teac
her
educ
atio
ncu
rric
ulum
.
a 'a 3 AA
A
SECTION V
EVALUATING THE INQUIRY PROCESS
-143-
139.
BSC
S N
ewsl
ette
r 19
. Eva
luat
ion
supp
lem
ent.
Bio
logi
cal S
cien
ces
Cur
ricu
lum
Stu
dy, U
nive
rsity
of
Col
orad
o, B
ould
er, C
olo.
,Se
ptem
ber,
196
3.A
rep
ort o
f th
e 19
61-6
2 B
SCS
eval
uatio
n pr
ogra
m.
140.
BSC
S N
ewsl
ette
r 30
. Eva
luat
ion
issu
e. B
iolo
gica
l Sci
ence
s C
urri
culu
m S
tudy
. Uni
vers
ity o
f C
olor
ado,
Bou
lder
,Col
o., J
anua
ry,
1967
.C
onta
ins
artic
les
on e
valu
atio
n is
sues
, a r
epor
t of
the
1964
-65
eval
uatio
n pr
ogra
m, a
nd a
bib
liogr
aphy
and
abst
ract
s on
re-
sear
ch in
volv
ing
BSC
S m
ater
ials
.
141.
But
ts, D
. P. A
n in
vent
ory
of s
cien
ce m
etho
ds. U
nive
rsity
of
Tex
as. S
cien
ce E
duca
tion
Cen
ter,
Aus
tin, T
exas
,A
ugus
t, 19
66.
ED
010
338
.T
he T
AB
Sci
ence
Tes
t was
des
igne
d to
sam
ple
inqu
iry
beha
vior
s by
pre
sent
ing
the
stud
ent w
its' (
a) a
spe
cifi
c pr
oble
m, (
b) a
list o
f cl
ues
to h
elp
him
sol
ve th
e pr
oble
m, a
nd (
c) th
e op
port
unity
to g
athe
r cl
ue d
ata
whe
n th
ey a
re n
eede
d.
142.
But
ts, D
. P.,
and
Jone
s, H
. L. T
he d
evel
opm
ent o
f th
e T
AB
Sci
ence
Tes
t. Sc
ienc
e E
duca
tion,
Dec
embe
r, 1
967,
51
(5),
463-
473.
The
rel
iabi
lity
and
valid
ity o
f a
tab-
item
test
to m
easu
re th
e be
havi
ors
of in
quir
y w
ere
asse
ssed
..
143.
Cov
ingt
on, M
. V. A
chi
ldho
od a
ttitu
de in
vent
ory
for
prob
lem
sol
ving
. Uni
vers
ity o
f C
alif
orni
a, B
erke
ley,
Cal
if.,
ca.
1966
.E
D 0
15 4
97.
Thi
s pa
per
desc
ribe
s a
60-i
tem
, gro
up-a
dmin
iste
red,
pap
er-p
enci
l atti
tude
inve
ntor
y co
mpr
ised
of
two
scal
es, o
ne a
sses
sing
the
child
's b
elie
f ab
out t
he n
atur
e of
the
prob
lem
-sol
ving
pro
cess
(sc
ale
I) a
nd th
e ot
her
asse
ssin
g th
e ch
ild's
sel
f-co
nfid
ence
in u
nder
taki
ng p
robl
em-s
olvi
ng a
ctiv
ities
(sc
ale
II).
144.
Cox
, R. C
. Ite
m s
elec
tion
tech
niqu
es a
nd e
valu
atio
n of
inst
ruct
iona
l obj
ectiv
es. J
ourn
al o
f E
duca
tiona
l Mea
sure
men
t, 19
65, 2
.E
D 0
14 8
05 (
abst
ract
onl
y).
Thi
s st
udy
is d
esig
ned
to e
valu
ate
the
effe
ct o
f st
atis
tical
item
sel
ectio
n on
the
stru
ctur
e of
the
fina
l eva
luat
ion
inst
rum
ent
as c
ompa
red
with
the
stru
ctur
e of
its o
rigi
nal i
tem
poo
l.
145.
Ham
mon
d, R
. L. E
vlau
atio
n at
the
loca
l lev
el. P
roje
ct E
PIC
, Tuc
son,
Ari
z., 1
967.
ED
016
547
.T
his
artic
le r
epor
ts a
new
sys
tem
atic
app
roac
h to
the
prob
lem
of
eval
uatio
n of
inno
vatio
ns.
146.
Jeff
rey,
J. C
. Ide
ntif
icat
ion
of o
bjec
tives
of
the
chem
istr
y la
bora
tory
and
dev
elop
men
t of
mea
ns f
or m
easu
ring
stu
dent
ach
ieve
-m
ent o
f so
me
of th
ese
obje
ctiv
es. (
Doc
tora
l dis
sert
atio
n, U
nive
rsity
of
Tex
as)
Ann
Arb
or, M
ich.
: Uni
vers
ityM
icro
film
s,19
65. N
o. 6
6-19
28. D
A 2
8:17
32-A
..
Thi
s st
udy
clas
sifi
es th
e st
uden
t per
form
ance
obj
ectiv
es o
f th
e ch
emis
try
labo
rato
ry in
to s
ix m
ajor
cat
egor
ies
and
prop
oses
type
-tes
ts f
or m
easu
ring
ach
ieve
men
t in
thre
e of
thes
e ca
tego
ries
. Cat
egor
ies
liste
d ar
e: (
a) c
omm
unic
ativ
e co
mpe
tenc
e,(b
) ob
serv
atio
nal c
ompe
tenc
e, (
c) in
vest
igat
ive
com
pete
nce,
(d)
rep
ortin
g co
mpe
tenc
e, (
e) m
anip
ulat
ive
com
pete
nce,
and
(f)
labo
rato
ry d
isci
plin
e.
147.
Kap
lan,
E. H
. The
Bur
mes
ter
Tes
t of
aspe
cts
of s
cien
tific
thin
king
as a
mea
ns o
f te
achi
ng th
e m
echa
nics
of
the
scie
ntif
ic m
etho
d.Sc
ienc
e E
duca
tion,
Oct
ober
, 196
7, 5
1 (4
), 3
53-3
57.
It a
ppea
rs th
at th
e B
urm
este
r T
est o
f as
pect
s of
sci
entif
ic th
inki
ng is
use
ful
as a
n ai
d in
acq
uain
ting
fres
hman
col
lege
stu
-de
nts
with
the
mec
hani
cal a
spec
ts o
f th
e sc
ient
ific
met
hod.
A p
ropo
sed
tech
niqu
e fo
r ut
ilizi
ng th
e te
st f
or p
edag
ogic
alpu
rpos
es, i
nvol
ving
the
use
of o
ne o
r tw
o pr
actic
e se
ssio
ns w
ith a
n al
tern
ate
form
, res
ulte
d in
a hi
ghly
sig
nifi
cant
incr
emen
tof
impr
ovem
ent.
148.
Kei
sler
, E. R
. Tea
chin
g ch
ildre
n to
dis
cove
ra
prob
lem
of
goal
def
initi
on. S
outh
wes
t Reg
iona
l Edu
batio
nal L
abor
ator
y,In
glew
ood,
Cal
if.,
1968
. ED
018
833
(ab
stra
ct o
nly)
.
The
pur
pose
of
this
rep
ort i
s (a
) to
cla
rify
cer
tain
asp
ects
of
teac
hing
chi
ldre
nto
dis
cove
r, a
nd (
b) to
off
er d
irec
tions
for
the
deve
lopm
ent o
f pr
oble
m s
olvi
ng te
sts.
149.
Klin
ckm
ann,
E. T
he B
SCS
grid
for
test
ana
lysi
s. B
SCS
New
slet
ter
19. B
iolo
gica
l Sci
ence
sC
urri
culu
m S
tudy
, Bou
lder
, Col
o.,
1964
, 17-
21.
The
BSC
S ad
apta
tion
of th
e T
axon
omy,
for
exa
min
atio
n of
test
s to
det
erm
ine
if th
e tc
sts
actu
ally
inco
rpor
ate
BSC
S ai
ms,
is p
rese
nted
. Tw
o B
SCS
test
s an
d th
e C
oope
rativ
e B
iolo
gy T
est
are
anal
yzed
. A d
iffi
culty
enc
ount
ered
was
that
of
clas
sify
-in
g te
st it
ems
whe
n th
e re
leva
nt p
rior
lear
ning
exp
erie
nces
of
the
stud
ents
arc
unkn
own.
150.
La
Shie
r, W
. S.,
and
Wes
tmey
er, P
. The
use
of
inte
ract
ion
anal
ysis
in B
SCS
labo
rato
ry b
lock
clas
sroo
ms.
Jou
rnal
of
Tea
cher
Edu
catio
n, W
inte
r, 1
967,
18
(4),
439
-446
.
151.
Lee
, A. E
.(E
d.)
Res
earc
h an
d cu
rric
ulum
dev
elop
men
t in
scie
nce
educ
atio
n: 1
. The
new
pro
gram
s in
hig
h sc
hool
bio
logy
.Pu
blic
atio
n N
o. 6
720.
Sci
ence
Edu
catio
n C
ente
r, U
nive
rsity
of
Tex
as, A
ustin
, Tex
.,19
68.
A c
olle
ctio
n of
res
earc
h re
port
s co
ncer
ned
prim
arily
with
the
eval
uatio
n of
new
bio
logy
pro
gram
s.
152.
Lin
dval
l, C
. M. T
estin
g an
d ev
alua
tion:
An
intr
oduc
tion.
New
Yor
k: H
arco
urt,
Bra
ce a
nd W
orld
, 196
1.T
his
volu
me
acco
mpl
ishe
s tw
o ta
sks:
(a)
str
essi
ng th
e im
port
ance
of
dete
rmin
ing
and
clas
sify
ing
obje
ctiv
es b
efor
e m
eani
ng-
ful e
valu
atio
n ca
n ta
ke p
lace
, and
(b)
fur
nish
ing
conc
rete
pra
ctic
al h
elp
in th
ew
ritin
g of
test
item
s. N
earl
y on
e hu
ndre
dpa
ges
are
devo
ted
to th
is la
tter
task
, pro
vidi
ng e
xcel
lent
exa
mpl
es o
f te
st it
ems
of v
ario
us ty
pes
whi
chca
n be
use
d by
cla
ss-
room
teac
hers
.
Als
o in
clud
ed a
re d
iscu
ssio
ns o
f st
anda
rdiz
ed te
sts
curr
ently
ava
ilabl
e an
d ad
vice
on r
unni
ng a
sch
ool-
wid
e pr
ogra
m o
f te
st-
ing
and
eval
uatio
n.
153.
Pfei
ffer
, I, a
nd D
avis
, 0. L
., Jr
. Tea
cher
-mad
e ex
amin
atio
ns: W
hat k
inds
of
thin
king
do th
ey d
eman
d? B
ulle
tin o
f th
e N
atio
nal
Ass
ocia
tion
of S
econ
dary
Sch
ool P
rinc
ipal
s, S
epte
mbe
r, 1
965,
49
(302
), 1
-10.
ED
015
170.
145
-
The
taxo
nom
ic c
lass
ific
atio
n of
test
item
s in
the
sem
este
r ex
amin
atio
ns o
fni
nth-
grad
e te
ache
rs w
as s
tudi
ed. P
erce
ntag
e of
item
s in
eac
h of
the
six
maj
or c
ateg
orie
s w
ere
com
pare
d ac
ross
cou
rses
,ab
ility
gro
up le
vels
, and
pro
gram
s of
stu
dy. I
n al
lca
ses
the
high
est p
erce
ntag
e of
que
stio
ns f
elli
nto
the
know
ledg
e ca
tego
ry. S
econ
d hi
ghes
t was
app
licat
ion.
Ver
y fe
w q
ues-
tions
wer
e cl
assi
fied
into
the
uppe
r th
ree
cate
gori
es, a
nd th
ese
wer
e fo
und
prim
arily
in s
ome
Eng
lish
cour
ses.
It w
as s
ug-
gest
ed th
at te
ache
rs s
houl
d be
aw
are
of w
hich
cog
nitiv
e pr
oces
ses
they
arc
emph
asiz
ing
in th
eir
test
que
stio
ns, a
nd th
atth
ere
shou
ld b
e m
ore
emph
asis
on
the
high
er o
bjec
tives
for
all
stud
ents
in a
ll co
urse
s.A
lso,
a s
tudy
sho
uld
be m
ade
of te
ach-
ing
emph
ases
: are
they
the
sam
e as
thos
e of
the
exam
inat
ion
ques
tions
?
154.
Schm
idt,
D. J
.T
est o
n un
ders
tand
ing
scie
nce:
A c
ompa
riso
n am
ong
seve
ral g
roup
s. J
ourn
al o
f R
esea
rch
in S
cien
ce T
each
ing,
1967
, 5 (
4), 3
65-3
66.
Of
seco
ndar
y sc
ienc
e m
etho
ds s
tude
nts,
ele
men
tary
sci
ence
sur
vey
stud
ents
, and
wor
king
sci
entis
ts, t
he w
orki
ng s
cien
tists
scor
e hi
ghes
t on
TO
US;
how
ever
, the
ir m
ean
scor
eis
ten
poin
ts le
ss th
an th
e m
axim
um p
ossi
ble
scor
e, in
dica
ting
that
a r
e-sp
ecta
ble
scor
e on
TO
US
may
be
som
ewha
t les
s th
an p
revi
ousl
y su
spec
ted.
155.
Shaf
fer,
V. F
.T
he c
ateg
oriz
atio
n of
stu
dent
inqu
irie
s an
d th
e re
spon
ses
mad
e w
ithin
the
cont
ext o
f cl
assr
oom
inte
ract
ion.
(Doc
tora
l dis
sert
atio
n, U
nive
rsity
of
Illin
ois)
Ann
Arb
or, M
ich.
: Uni
vers
ity M
icro
film
s, 1
966.
No.
67-6
729.
DA
27:
4158
-A.
The
pur
pose
of
the
stud
y w
as to
inve
stig
ate
and
desc
ribe
the
inqu
irie
s m
ade
by g
ifte
d ju
nior
and
seni
or h
igh
scho
ol s
tu-
dent
s du
ring
cla
ssro
om d
iscu
ssio
ns, a
s w
ell a
s th
e re
spon
ses
mad
e to
the
inqu
irie
s.
156.
Stei
ner,
H. E
., Jr
. A s
tudy
of
the
rela
tions
hips
bet
wee
n te
ache
r pr
actic
es a
nd s
tude
ntpe
rfor
man
ces
on s
elec
ted
inqu
iry
proc
ess
beha
vior
s in
the
affe
ctiv
e do
mai
n in
hig
h sc
hool
bio
logy
cla
sses
. (D
octo
ral d
isse
rtat
ion,
Uni
vers
ity o
f T
exas
at A
ustin
). 1
970.
The
pur
pose
of
this
stu
dy w
as to
dev
elop
inst
rum
ents
(bo
th o
bser
vatio
nal a
nd p
enci
l-pa
per)
to m
easu
rese
lect
ed a
ffec
tive
obje
ctiv
es a
nd d
eter
min
e ho
w w
ell s
tude
nt p
erfo
rman
ce c
orre
late
d w
ith s
elec
ted
teac
her
prac
tices
.Thi
s st
udy
was
bas
ed o
nK
ingm
an, R
. M. (
Ed.
) in
quir
y ob
ject
ives
in th
e te
achi
ng o
f bi
olog
y, K
ansa
s C
ity, M
o.:
Mid
-con
tinen
t Reg
iona
l Edu
catio
nal
Lab
orat
ory,
Pos
ition
pap
er, 1
(1)
, 196
9.
157.
Stilw
ell,
M. E
. The
dev
elop
men
t and
ana
lysi
s of
a c
ateg
ory
syst
em f
or s
yste
mat
ic o
bser
vatio
nof
teac
her-
pupi
l int
erac
tion
duri
ng g
eom
etry
pro
blem
sol
ving
act
ivity
. (D
octo
ral d
isse
rtat
ion,
Cor
nell
Uni
vers
ity)
Ann
Arb
or, M
ich.
: Uni
vers
ity M
icro
-fi
lms,
196
7. N
o. 6
8-89
3. D
A 2
8:30
83-A
.T
his
proj
ect i
s di
rect
ed to
the
prob
lem
of
bette
r un
ders
tand
ing
the
proc
ess
of p
robl
em s
olvi
ng in
mat
hem
atic
s ed
m:a
tion
seen
in th
e in
tera
ctio
n be
twee
n te
ache
r an
dpu
pils
dur
ing
actu
al c
lass
room
act
ivity
.
158.
Tab
a, H
., L
evin
e, S
., an
d E
lzey
, F. F
. Thi
nkin
g in
ele
men
tary
sch
ool c
hild
ren.
CR
P-15
74.
San
Fran
cisc
o St
ate
Col
lege
, San
Fran
cisc
o, C
alif
., 19
64.
Con
tain
s se
ts o
f ca
tego
ries
that
can
be
used
for
cat
egor
izin
g te
ache
r-st
uden
t ver
bal b
ehav
iors
'to
mak
e ce
rtai
nte
achi
ng s
trat
-eg
ies
mor
e ex
plic
it.
-146
-
159.
Tur
ner,
G. C
., an
d H
ettic
k,V
. An
eval
uativ
e st
udy
ofte
ache
r co
nstr
ucte
d te
st it
ems
for
BSC
S bi
olog
y. C
alif
orni
aSt
ate
Co
Ileg
ct,
Fulle
rton
, Cal
if.,
Dec
embe
r,19
67. E
D 0
18 3
71.
Thi
s st
udy
prov
ides
a po
rtfo
lio o
f se
vera
l tho
usan
d fi
eld-
test
edm
ultip
le c
hoic
e te
st it
ems
coor
dina
ted
with
the
chap
teu
rfth
e B
SCS
Yel
low
Ver
sion
text
book
. The
pro
toco
lde
scri
bed
for
deve
lopi
ngte
st it
ems,
for
fie
ld te
stin
g th
ese
itms,
and
for
eval
uatin
g th
em c
ould
be
adap
ted
by o
ther
teac
hing
grou
ps in
dev
elop
ing
test
item
sap
prop
riat
e to
thei
row
n te
achi
ngsi
tuat
ion.
160.
Wild
s, P
. L.,
and
Zac
hert
,V
.M
ultic
ateg
oric
al e
valu
atio
n of
perf
orm
ance
in c
linic
al p
robl
emso
lvin
g te
sta.
Geo
rgia
Med
ical
Col
lege
, Aug
usta
, Ga.
, Jan
uary
, 196
8. E
D 0
17 0
25.
Thi
s pr
ojec
t atte
mpt
edto
det
erm
ine
if n
umer
ical
scor
ing
syst
ems
for
clin
ical
prob
lem
sol
ving
test
s co
labe
. dev
elop
edw
hich
wou
ldm
easu
re th
e ef
fect
iven
ess
of d
iffe
rent
inst
ruct
iona
l met
hods
in te
achi
ngcl
inic
al p
robl
em s
olvi
ng s
kills
.16
1.W
oodb
urn,
J. H
. The
met
hods
and
the
proc
edur
es o
fsc
ienc
e: A
n ex
amin
atio
n.Sc
ienc
e E
duca
tion,
Dec
cmbi
w,
1967
, 51
(5),
481-
482.
Thi
s ar
ticle
rep
orts
the
avai
labi
lity
ofa
50-i
tem
test
of
stud
ents
' und
erst
andi
ngof
the
met
hods
and
proc
edur
es o
f si
enee
.