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Support Assistants for Fire Emergencies; StudentManual, Part A. Firefighting for Civil DefenseEmergencies.International Association of Fire Chiefs, New York,N.Y.Office of Civil Defense (DOW, Washington, D.C.SM-9-2AJul 7160p.

MF-$0.65 1-1C-$3.29*Adult Education; Behavior Standards; *Civil Defense;Concept Teaching; Discipline; Educational Programs;Emergency Programs; Emergency Squad Personnel;Fallout Shelters; *Firefighters; *Fire Protection;*Manuals; Organization; Role Perception; SafetyEducation; Service Occupations

ABSTRACTA manual intended to help fire departments and Civil

Defense organizations train people to support regular fire forcesduring a national emergency is presented. It contains 11 chapters:Introduction, Modern Weapons and Radioactive Fallout, Role of FireService in Civil Defense, Local Fire Department Organization, Role ofSupport Assistants in Civil Defense Fire Emergencies, Discipline andthe Firefighter, Basic Concepts of Fire Behavior, Techniques of FirePrevention and Fire Limitation, Fundamentals of Fire Suppression,Elementary Firefighting Techniques, and Shelter Duties. m

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SM-9.2A (student manual)

July 1971

Firefighting for Civil Defense Emergencies

SUPPORT ASSISTANTS ,

FOR FIRE EMERGENCIES4

STUDENT MANUAL PART A

4

DeveloPed for The Office.of Civil Defenseby The International Association of Fire Chiefs

Firefighting For Civil Defense Emergencies

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SUPPORT ASSISTANTSLL9

for

FIRE EMERGENCIES

STUDENT MANUAL(Part A)

SM-9.2A-July 1971

Developed for the Office of Civil Defense

by

International Association of Fire Chiefs

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The Office of Civil Defense wishes to express its appreciation to the members ofthe International Association of Fire Chiefs Development Committee for their capa-ble guidance and assistance in developing the training course for Support Assistantsfor Fire Emergencies.

Review Committee Members and the organizations they represented are:

John aoughertyFire Chief, RetiredBoston, Massachusetts

David B. GratzFire ChiefSilver Springs, Maryland

James M. HalloranDirector of Fire and Civil DefenseKansas City, Missouri

T. A. McGaughey (Deceased)Fire ChiefWichita, Kansas

G. A. MitchellFire ChiefOpelika, Alabama

Donald M. O'BrienGeneral Manager

International Association of FireChiefs

Lester R. SchickFire Chief, Retired, Davenport, IowaPast President, International

Association of Fire Chiefs

John Fred ShreveConsultantInternational Association of

Fire ChiefsNew York, New York

Gordon VickeryFire ChiefSeattle, Washington

Curtis VolkamerChief Fire MarshalChicago, Illinois

International Association of Fire Chief s Work Group :

Keith RoyerSupervisorFire Service ExtensionIowa State University

Floyd W. NelsonChief Instructor

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Fire Service ExtensionIowa State University

William E. Clark, ChiefBureau of Fire TrainingState of FloridaOcala, Florida

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter Title Page

1. Introduction 1

2. Modern Weapons and Radioactive Fallout 3

3. Role of Fire Service in Civil Defense 19

4. Local Fire Department Organization 21

5. Role of Support Assistants in Civil Defense Fire Emergencies 25

6. Discipline and the Firefighter 26

7. Basic Concepts of Fire Behavior 27

8. Techniques of Fire Prevention and Fire Limitation 31

9. Fundamentals of Fire Suppression 35

10. Elementary Firefighting Techniques 39

11. Shelter Duties 53

INTRODUCTION

Reason for Civil Defense Preparedness

As responsible United States' citizens, per-sons studying this manual should be aware ofthe perils that threaten today's free world. Thethreat of nuclear war is one of the most im-portant sources of tension and conflict afflictingthe peoples of the world.

To counter this threat the United States ismaintaining a strong military posture. As adeterrent to war, we are also developing a shel-ter-oriented Civil Defense program designed tosave millions of lives from radioactive fallout incase of nuclear attack. There appears no prac-tical program that would avoid large-scale lossof life in a nuclear war ; however, an effectiveCivil Defense program could save millions notkilled in the nuclear blast and resulting fire.

The Role of Civil Defense

"Civil Defense" is the support and coordi-nation of plans and operations of local govern-ment forces such as fire, police and publicworks in unusual emergency situations.

Fire Service ResponsibilityThe fire service has the responsibility of

protecting life and property from the ravagesof fire and natural disaster at all times. In ex-treme fire emergencies, natural or manmade,and during National Civil Defense emergencies,the primary responsibilities of the fire serviceare : (I) to locate, surround, confine, control,and extinguish fires, (2) perform rescue andradiological monitoring activities that relatedirectly to the fire, ani (3) report the radio-logical findings to the regularly constitutedCivil Defense authority.

The fire service, therefore, is an integralpart of Civil Defense. The organization andcontrol of fire protection during a Civil De-

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CHAPTER ONE

fense emergency is primarily the responsibilityof local, state, and federal governments, not themilitary. As the Secretary of Army stated inhis May 5, 1964, address to State Civil DefenseDirectors:

"We cannot pern it our armed forces to becomeirrevocably committed to the task of Civil De-fense. Our armed forces must retain their capa-bility to deal with any military threat. Great caremust be exercised to insure that Civil Defenseefforts at federal, state, and local levels are notrelaxed. The military forces and resources basedin this country, even if committed entirely to CivilDefense operations, could not cope with the re-quirements sinci, these forces represent less than3% of the nations manpower and equipmentpotential."

Purpose of This ManualThis manual is intended to help fire depart-

ments and Civil Defense organizations trainpeople to support regular fire forces during anational emergency. These trained citizenswould be qualified to suppress small fires stem-ming from nuclear attack, assist fire fighters,and help defend community shelters from fire.Many local, area, and state fire services havedesigned fire defense plans to facilitate theorganization, mobilization, and operation oftheir fire fighting resources to most effectivelyminimize the effects of natural or warcauseddisasters. The fire service, with its trainedassistants, would work in areas immediately ad-jacent to target cities and (or) within disasterareas.

Under nuclear fire conditions fire suppressioncould overtax the regularly organized fire serv-ices. Therefore, it becomes imperative that sup-port forces be trained to assist the regularlyorganized fire service. These forces would berecruited, screened, and trained by the regularfire service. They would always remain under

the control of the fire service in a given com-munity. The support forces would also helpcarry out many of the related duties and activi-ties that are the responsibility of the fire serviceand are directly associated with fire suppres-sion.

This support and assistance during emergen-cies can make the difference 13 tween success orfailure in defending our cities and homes, aswell as a sheltered populace, from fires result-ing from nuclear attack. Experiences duringWorld War II in the United Kingdom and otherEuropean countries led government officials torefer to the fire suppression organizations asthe fourth arm of defense.

This manual is prepared with the idea thatcitizens can be trained to give valuable supportto the regularly organized fire service. Also,the manual can help train people to act on theirown or lead small groups of untrained citizensin using resources at hani to carry out firesuppression.

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The manual does have certain limitations thatshould be understood. This manual will notmake experienced firefighters or Civil Defensespecialists out of the students involved in thisprogram. To accomplish this would take muchmore time than is allotted to this course. It does,however, give an insight and understanding ofthe fire service's role in a Civil Defense emer-gency. It illustrates the training required to in-sure that a support assistant can handle theduties he is likely to be assigned to maintainan orderly and efficient operation during anemergency. Each lesson in this manual is de-signed to give the student a basic understandingof the material covered by the instructor. Thelessons may be supplemented by referring tothe publications cited in the bibliography asoptional student references. By thking part B ofthe course for Support Assistants for FireEmergencies the firefighting Support Assist-ants will become much better qualified to carryout their responsibilities.

MODERN WEAPONS AND

This chapter was adopted from the OCD/DOD publication "Personal and Family Sur-vival" used in the Civil Defense adult educationcourse across the country. The general back-ground on modern weapons and radioactive fall-out gained by reading this chapter will assistyou in understanding how a fireman can pro-tect himself from radiation hazards. It will alsoprepare you to take a more active part in theclassroom session that includes handling anduse of radiological defense instruments.

Both the military and the civilians of theUnited States may be endangered by the effectsof modern weapons. Our country must prepareto defend itself against any weapon that mightbe used in an attack. There are four possibili-ties: conventional, chemical, biological, andnuclear.

CONVENTIONAL WEAPONS

Weapons that depend on TNT or similar non-nuclear explosives are classified as "conven-tional." These include many of the weaponsused during World War II and the Korean Warshells, torpedoes, rockets, mines, and bombs.Preparation for nuclear attack is more thanadequate for coping with conventional weapons;the converse is not true.

CHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL AGENTS

Studies conducted by the Department of De-fense indicate that the threat to the UnitedStates posed by chemical and biological agentsis less significant than that posed by the nuclearone. Chemical agents are not considered a ma-jor strategic threat, because they are effectivemainly if used against tactical targets oflimited area. Although the use of biologicalagents against U. S. population centers cannotbe ruled out, neither a chemical nor biological

CHAPTER TWO

RADIOACTIVE FALLOUT

threat against the continental United Stateswarrants, at this time, the attention and pri-ority given to defense against the effects ofnuclear weapons. However, research on methodsof detecting, identifying, reporting, analyzing,and defending against biological agents willcontinue while there is a potential threat.

NUCLEAR WEAPONS

Destructive CapabilitiesA nuclear weapon is usually described in

terms of the total energy it can release in com-parison with the number of tons of TNT re-quired to release the same amount of energy.Thus, the detonation of a 1-megaton (1-MT)'nuclear bomb releases the same amount ofenergy as the explosion of approximately 1 mil-lion tons of TNT.

An enemy might use nuclear weapons invarious ways, depending on the results he seeks.He must consider the systems for delivering theweapons, such as aircraft for dropping nuclearbombs or missiles armed with nuclear war-heads. He must also consider the effects of vari-ous weapons yields and types of burst becausean explosion's power and its point of detonationlargely determine how much of an area wouldbe destroyed, what types of partial or totaldamage would be inflicted, and how widespreadthe radioactive fallout and other secondaryeffects would be. For instance, a nuclear weaponmay be detonated high in the air or at the sur-face of land or water or even after the weaponhas penetrated below the surface.

An air detonation results in small fallout par-ticles that travel with upper level winds forlong periods of time. When the particles driftdown to earth, they are widely distributed

Megaton = ( 1 million tons).

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and pose small radiation danger. Detonationsat or near the surface or below the surface,however, result in "local fallout." This meansmuch larger particles are formed and a largefraction of them settles to earth during the first24 hours. The early contamination near theburst and for many miles downwind is a fargreater hazard than fallout released high in theair which may take years to settle out.

Effects of the Explosion

The point directly beneath the center of a nu-clear explosion is called ground zero. The sur-rounding land, objects, and people would suffervarying amounts of damage, depending on theirdistance from the ground zero, the interveningterrain, and weapon size.

For weapons that burst at or near the sur-face, damage varies with distance from groundzero. Closest to ground zero, destruction may bevirtually complete with few survivors. Movingaway from ground zero, the probability of sur-vival increases, and damage and destructionof structures tend to become less severe. Therrea of light, but appreciable, damage (shat-tered glass, kindling of dry fuels) may extendas much as 10 miles from a 5-MT burst.

The results of the World War II bombingattacks on Coventry, England, and Hiroshima,Japan, can be compared. In the Coventry raid,the largest mass air raid on England, 437 air-craft dropped 394 tons of high-explosive bombs,56 tons of incendiary bombs, and 127 parachutebombs. The result were: 380 persons killed, 800injured. At Hiroshima, one bomber droppedone nuclear bomb, and 70,000 were killed and70,000 injured. The weapon used in the Hiro-shima raid was of the 20-kiloton (20-KT)2"A-bomb" class (equal to approximately 20,000tons of TNT). Yet, the Hiroshima bomb is nowconsidered a weapon of limited power whencompared with current thermonuclear weaponsthat can produce explosions equivalent to theexplosion of many millions of tons of TNT.

A nuclear explosion releases a fairly largeproportion of its energy in the form of light orheat. Its intense light and heat can cause skinburns and fires at great distances from thepoint of detonation. Powerful blast and shockwaves are also produced.

Nuclear explosions alone among the various

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2 Kiloton = (1 thousand tons).

41,

types of weapons produce nuclear radhtion.The initial (immediate) nuclear radiatiol thataccompanies the blast and heat wave is Isuallydefined as the radiation occurring within thefirst minute after the explosion. Its effecls arelimited to the immediate neighborhood of st vereblast damage.

About 90 percent of the total energy re-leased by a nuclear weapon appears in theseforms. The remaining 10 percent is releasedas the residual nuclear radiation associated withthe radioactive materials from the explosion.These materials and other debris are drawnupward into the escending cloud, returning toearth as FALLOUT.

The pattern of effects in an actual explosionwould resemble a series of distorted, roughlyconcentric areas, rather than neat circles, be-cause of the interference by hills, valleys, largebuildings, or other obstacles. As the altitudeat which the bomb is detonated increases, theareas of physical damage at first increase andthen decrease until at high altitude detonation3the blast wave may not reach the ground andthe predominant effect would be the thermalradiation.

Fire Hazards

A large portion of the energy in the detona-tion of a nuclear weapon is given off as heat.This heat is intense enough, beyond the rangeof any physical damage to structures, to ignite"kindling fuels" exposed to it either outside orinside buildings through windows. Papers,fabrics, and thin or dry rotten wood are "kin-dling fuels." Fires in these materials mayspread to heavier fuelsfurniture, rooms,fences, porches, etc.and then involve entirebuildings or groups of buildings if fires are notextinguished when small. In the presence of aground wind, the fires would merge and proba-bly form several large moving fires or "con-flagrations' (Figt: ?. 2). These conflagrationswould be 4irnilar to those that swept throughChicago in 1871, Baktimore in 1904, the Maineforests in 1947, itidoci the Bel Air section of LosAngeles in 1961. In the absence of a groundwind and in combination with several otherfactorsa large congested area with manyfiresa "fire storm" (Figure 3) might develop.In a fire storm the fires merge into a largefire with a vertically rising column of hot gases

Air burst

Surface burst

Subsurface burst

TYPES OF BURSTS

An air burst is defined as one in which the bomb is explodedin the air so high above land or water that the fireball (atmaximum brilliance) does not touch the surface. Greatblast and heat hazards are produced. The heat wave result-ing from the explosion of a one-megaton reuciear weapon

can cause moderately severe burns of exposed skirt as faras 12 miles from the point Of detonation. The warmth maybe felt at a distance of 75 miles. Practically r,o early orclosein fallout is produced.

In a surface burst, the ball of fire touches the ground. Be-cause of its intense heat, large amounts of rock, soil, andother materials will be vaporized and will rise up into thecloud. An important difference between a surface burst and

an air burst is that in the surface burst the atomic cloud ismuch more heavily loaded with this vaporized material;therefore. a surface burst causes much more early radio-active fallout than an air burst.

A subsurface burst is one in which the center of a nuclearexplosion occurs under the ground or under water. Under-

ground or underwater shock is produced, and accordingto the depth at which the explosion occurs, some of theshock will escape to produce air blast. Much of the heatwave and immediate nuclear radiation is absorbed withina short distance by the ground or water. However, largeamounts of earth or water near the explosion will be con-taminated with radioactive materials.

Consider a one-megaton blast 50 feet underground. The resulting crater would be about 300feet deep and 1,400 feet across. This means that 10 million tons of rock and soil would behurled upward from the earth's surface.

FIGURE 1.Types of Bursts

and smoke. Strong inblowing winds are created,which, in turn, fan the fire to a greater in-tensity. The conditions for this type of fire arebelieved to exist only in certain portions of afew American cities and are not considered asserious as the thousands of individual fires andnumerous conflagrations that would probablyOCCUr.

The spread of fires from a nuclear attackwould be limited by barriers such as open space,rivers, wide expressways, rainfall, and distribu-tion of burnable material. The number of firesthat might initially occur from a nuclear attackcould be significantly reduced by proper build-ing maintenance, cleanup programs, and ex-tinguishment of individual fires while they arestill small and easily controlled.

An example of the possible effects are illus-trated by the following description of a 5MTsurface burst. Large weapons are possible anddetonations may be at various altitudesallwould change the effects from those in Figure 4.

Effects of a 5-MT Burst

A 5MT nuclear weapon explodes with a bril-liant flash that lasts about a minute. A quickburst of nuclear and heat radiation emergesfrom the fireball.3 The spurt of initial nuclearradiation can be lethal within a radius of 2miles. The heat rays and immediate radiation

3 The fireball is the large, swiftly expanding sphere of hotgases, producing brilliant light and intense heat, that is thefirst manifestation of a nuclear explosion. After about aminute, the fireball has cooled enough to lose Its brilliance.

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air

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b.

FIGURE 2.Fire Conflagration

are followed by a blast (shock) wave that losesmuch of its damaging force over a distance ofabout 10 miles. With the blast wave comes aviolent wind that picks up loose objects andcarries them outward.

FIGURE 3.Fire Storm

A 5-MT burst at ground level would leave acrater about one-half mile wide in the explosionarea ; it would destroy nearly everything withinthe radius of a mile from ground zero andwould also destroy most buildings 2 miles fromthe point of explosion and start fires.

The destruction 5 miles away would be lesssevere, but fire and early fallout could besignificant hazards.

Ten miles away, most buildings would remainintact, but fires would be started by the heatradiation. The blast wave could rupture gaslines and short circuit wires within houses andbuildings, which would add to fire hazards. Fly-ing glass and early fallout would also be majordangers.

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Somewhat farther away, all buildings wouldremain standing. The fading blast wave wouldtake longer to arrive, but would still shattermany windows. The most acute danger at thesegreater distances downwind from the explosionwould be from early fallout, which might beginto arrive in some areas within one-half hour toa few hours, depending upon distance and windconditions.

The blast, heat, and fire caused by a nuclearexplosion could cause widespread destruction,but radioactive fallout would be a much greaterhazard. It could spread over thousands of squaremiles, a much greater area than that endan-gered by fire and blast, and sicken or kill un-protected people. Although only a small fractionof the total energy expended by a nuclear ex-plosion is released as nuclear radiation, it is ahighly important fraction. What, then, is radio-active fallout?

THE NATURE OF FALLOUT

In a surface burst, large quantities of earthor water enter the fireball at an early state andare fused or vaporized. When sufficient coolinghas occurred, the fission products and otherradioactive residues become incorporated withthe earth particles as a result of the condensa-tion of vaporized fission products into fusedparticles of earth, etc. A small proportion ofthe solid particles formed upon further coolingis contaminated fairly uniformly throughoutwith radioactive fission products and otherweapon residues, but in the most the contami-nation is found mainly in a thin shell hear thesurface. In water droplets, the small fissionproduct particles occur at discrete points withinthe drops. As the violent disturbance due to theexplosion subsides, the contaminated particlesand droplets gradually fall back to earth. Thiseffect is referred to as the "fallout." It is thefallout, with its associated radioactivity thatdecays over a long period of time, that is themain source of the residual nuclear radiations.

Time of Fallout Arrival

It takes time for fallout to drop from thenuclear cloud, even close to the burst, and theparticles size is important in determining therate of its return to earth.

Significant amounts of fallout begin to arrivein the immediate vicinity outside a blast area

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EFFECTS OF A 5 MT BLAST

*p.s. 12-125Percentage 98 2

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PERCENT OF PEOPLE:

DEADIIIII HURT

5-12 2.5-5 1 .5-2 .540 25 35 520 75 10 90

HEAVY MODERATE LIGHT

DAMAGE Ili DAMAGE .477 DAMAGETOTAL

DESTRUCTION.r

FIREBALL.83 MI.RADIUS

Crater.21-mi.Radius

GROUNDZERO (GZ)

0-1.5100

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*p.s.i. = pounds per square inch overpressure - or pressurein excess of normal atmospheric pressure

FIGURE 4.EITeCts Of 6-MT Burst

about 30 minutes after an explosion. People 20miles away may have an hour to seek protection.At a distance of 100 miles, the fallout may notarrive for 4 hours or more. The fallout will con-tinue to cover an increasingly large area andmay eventually cover several thousand squaremiles. Some areas that will receive fallout mightnot get it until 24 hours after the explosion,and lighter deposits of fallout may continue formany hours afterwards. Outside of areas af-fected by blast and heat, then, the earliest andmost immediate serious danger following anuclear attack could be from local fallout.

The time of fallout arrival at various dis-tances and directions from the points of ex-plosion (ground zero) depends on the windsand upon the explosion height. Layers of airmove with various speeds and directions at dif-ferent heights. Fallout distribution is deter-mined primarily by high-altitude winds thatoften blow in a quite different direction fromthe ground level winds. In a 1954 test of anH-bomb, the fallout reached a point 160 miles

downwind about 8 hours after the explosion andcontinued to fall for several hours.

As much as 80 percent of the radioactive ma-terial from a land-surface burst of a nuclearweapon may return to the earth as early falloutwithin the first day ; this fallout will assume anirregular pattern stretching downwind fromthe neighborhood of the blast-damaged area.Early fallout descends so quickly and in suchheavy concentration that the hazard from it ismuch greater than that of the widely distrib-uted, slow-falling types of world-wide fallout.The remaining radioactive material rises highinto the sky, is blown around the world by highwinds, and falls back to earth over months oryears.

Some peacetime tests of nuclear weaponshave caused worldwide fallout. Quantities ofradioactive isotopes have risen into the stratos-phere and have come slowly down afterwardsas very light fallout, creating fears of healthhazards. It should be understood that slow-falling worldwide fallout resulting from a war

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waged with nuclear weapons would be muchgreater in quantity than the fallout from peace-time tests. The main concern, however, shouldbe protection against wartime close-in or localfallout.

Area of Severe Fallout

The region of severe local fallout lies down-wind from the point of burst. It is impossible toaccurately predict how large this area will be orwhat shape it will take because so many condi-tions can affect it. The area of severe local fall-out might stretch 5 miles or more upwind ofground zero and 150 to 200 or more miles down-wind depending on wind strength and bombyield. The pattern could be irregular in outline,and fallout within the area might not be evenlydistributed. There might be local or regional hotspots as well as areas with very little fallout.These variations could result from differencescaused by local hills, valleys, lakes, and streamsor from wind, rain, and other local weatherconditions. Generally, the heavier deposits willbe in central areas rather than at the periphery.

The extent and location of a fallout area andthe levels of radiation in that area are deter-mined by :

1. Altitude of the bomb burst.2. Power and design of the bomb.3. Size, shape, and density of the fallout

particles.4. Atmospheric conditions such as air cur-

rents and the direction and speed of thewinds, particularly those up to 80,000feet.

5. Snow and rain.6. Nature of the ground surface.

The Nature of the Atom

All matter is made up of one or more simplematerials known as elements. The total numberof naturally occurring elements is 92. Amongthe common elements are gaseshydrogen,oxygen, and nitrogen ; solid nonmetalscarbon,sulfur, and phosphorous; and various metalsiron, copper, and zinc. A less-familiar element,which is used as a source of atomic (or nuclear)energy, is uranium, normally a solid metal.

The smallest part of any element that canexist and still retain the characteristics of theelement is an atom. Thus, there are atoms of

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hydrogen, iron, uranium, etc. The hydrogenatom is the lighest, but uranium atoms areamong the heaviest found in nature. An atomis the smallest unit of one element that cancombine with the atom of another element toproduce a chemical reaction. For example,common salt, known as sodium chloride(NaC1) , is a combination of one atom ofsodium (Na) and one atom of chlorine (C1).When atoms unit chemically, they form mole-cules ; for example, one atom of oxygen is rep-resented by the symbol 0, but normal oxygenexists as a molecule, a combination of twoatoms, or 02.

Atomic StructureThe atom contains three primary types of

particlesprotons, neutrons, and electrons. Theinner core of the atom, called the nucleus, iscomposed of- both protons and neutrons. Theprotons are electrically charged and are refer-red to as having a positive (plus) charge,whereas the neutrons are not electricallycharged. The only atom that is an exception tothis is hydrogen, which does not contain aneutroh.

Electrons are very tiny particles that carrya negative electrical charge. They surround thenucleus and can be thought of as revolvingaround it in about the same fashion that theearth and other planets revolve around the sun.Every atom can be pictured as a tiny "solarsystem." The "sun" of the atom is its' nucleus,and the "planets" of this sun, revolving in or-bits around it, are the electrons.

RadioactivityThe essential difference between atoms of

different elements lies in the number of protonsin the nucleus. A hydrogen atom, for example,contains only 1 proton; a helium atom has 2protons ; and a uranium atom has 92 protons.Although all the nuclei of a given element con-tain the same number of protons, they may havedifferent numbers of neutrons. The resultingatomic species, which have identical atomicnumbers (numbers of protons) but differ intheir masses because of the number of neutrons,are called "isotopes" of the particular element.

Radioactivity is the process whereby isotopesof certain elements spontaneously emit particlesand (or) rays from the nuclei of their atoms.

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Some elements are naturally radioactive, where-as others can be made artificially radioactive bybombarding the nuclei. Significant initial radi-ation from a nuclear explosion includes gammaradiation and neutrons. Significant later radi-ation (from fallout) includes gamma rays andbeta particles. Beta particles are highspeedelectrons, and gamma rays are similar to X-rays although usually more penetrating thanX-rays.

Natural radioactivity is characterized by theability of certain types of atomic nuclei to decayspontaneously, giving off alpha, beta, or gammaradiations or combinations of these. Radium,for example, is one of about 50 naturally radio-active atomic species.

In a nuclear explosion, various isotopes of

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many normally stable elements can be created.Most are radioactive producing beta andgamma radiation ; none produce alpha.

Fission

Nuclear fission is the splitting of heavyatomic nuclei. The nucleus of an atom of aheavy element, such as uranium, may be splitinto two or more parts. When a fissionable nu-cleus is split by a neutron, it releases energyand one or more neutrons. These released neu-trons may split other fissionable nuclei, releas-ing more energy and more neutrons and becom-ing self-sustaining. Self-sustaining fissionreactions occur only with the heavy elementsuranium, plutonium, or thorium.

Fission. In the process of "fission" (splitting), theatoms of some heavy element, usually Uranium, arebroken into and divided. As each nucleus is split,neutrons break free and energy is released. During theprocess of fission, isotopes are created.

FIGURE 6.Fission Process

Fusion

Nuclear fusion, on the other hand, is thejoining together of light atomic nuclei to forma neavier nucleus. Such fusion can only be ac-complished under very high temperatures (mil-lions of degrees) . If two nuclei of light atomsfuse, a great deal of energy is released. Thesun's energy, for example, results from thefusion of certain light atoms to form neavierones. Much of the energy from the so-calledhydrogen bomb (H-bomb) results from fusion.Atoms formed by fusion are not radioactive ;atoms formed by fission process are radioactive.

Detecting the Presence of Fallout

Radioactive debrisfalloutmay be of manysizes. Of course, the larger, heavier particlescome down closer to the explosion. Particles thesize of sand or table salt may be carried somemiles downwind from the explosion. Smallerparticles stay in the air much longer and travelmuch farther before reaching the ground.Whether or not the particles are visible, thenuclear radiation given off by them cannot bedetected directly by the senses. The radiation

cannot be seen, heard, smelled, tasted, or felt;instruments must be relied upon to detect andmeasure the radiation.

There are various types of radiation-measur-ing instruments, including dosimeters, used tomeasure the total radiation exposure of per.sonnel, and survey meters, used to measure therate of radiation. Civil Defense personnel,called radiological monitors, have been givenspecial training in the use of these instruments.

Radiation Not Transferred From FalloutNuclear radiation from fallout can damage

living things, but it does not cause the damagedmatter to become radioactive. Thus, if falloutparticles are on the body of a person or animal,instruments may detect nuclear radiation com-ing from that contamination, but if the falloutparticles are removed, no radiation will be de-tected.

If radioactive fallout drops on a body ofwater, the water itself does not become radio-active. After the radioactive fallout has beenremoved, the water itself is not radioactive. Thesame principle applies to water in storage tanksor to food in cans or other containers. More ex-

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9 K.

FUSION. In nuclear fusion, a pair of light nuclei unite for fuse/ together, to form a nucleusof a heavier atom. An example is the fusion of the hydrogen isotope known as deuteriumor "heavy hydrogen." Under suitable conditions, two deuterium nuclei may combineto form the nucleus of a heavier element, helium, with the release of energy. The fusionof all the nuclei present in one pound of deuterium would release roughly the sameamount of energy as the explosion of 26,000 tons of TNT.

FIGURE 6.Fusion Process

posure to radioactive fallout does not make thewater or food dangerous.

Kinds of RadiationFallout from a nuclear explosion emits beta

particles and gamma rays.Beta particles have a maximum range of only

10 to 12 feet in open air (average range 3 to4 feet) , but they do not penetrate materialseasily. Several layers of clothing can protectthe body. But if enough new fallout remainson exposed skin for some time (hours) , the betaparticles can cause severe burns. Some betaparticle emitters have long half-lives, and ifsubstantial amounts enter the body, some dam-age may result.

Fallout DistributionThe size and design of a nuclear weapon, type

of burst, and wind condition chiefly determinethe amount and distribution of radioactivity ina fallout area. Since these things can't be knownor predicted accurately, actual field measure-ments of nuclear radiation would be necessaryfollowing an attack.

Measurements of radiation levels are madeat sheltered monitoring stations, where moni-tors can take quick readings outside of theshelter, and by mobile monitors when levels arelow enough to allow extended field activity. Anarea of high radioactivity may be monitoredfrom an airplane.

Radiation dose is measured in units called"roentgens" (pronounced "rentkins"). It isnamed after W. K. Roentgen, the discoverer ofX-rays, and is a measure of X-ray or gammaradiation. A smaller unit often used is a milli-roentgen, which is one-thousandth of a roent-gen. Remember that the roentgen is a unit ofradiation exposure.

10

HEALTH HAZARDS FROM RADIATION

Internal and External RadiationDuring the early post-attack period, external

radiation is the primary problem and is themajor concern in this section. However, radi-ation damage can result from either internal orexternal radiation. Consumption of heavily con-taminated food and water could cause some in-ternal radiation damage. This damage wouldbe minor in relation to the external radiationdanger.

Foodstuffs contaminaed with fallout containmany different radioisotopes. Once inside thebody, some of these isotopes are concentratedin specific organs, tissues, and bones. For ex-ample, iodine 131 concentrates in the thyroidgland. Strontium 90 behaves much like calciumand is deposited primarily in the bones.

Radiation From Natural Sources

Living things are exposed to radiation fromnatural sources every day. Natural nuclearradiation comes from radioactive rocks andsoil ; other radiation comes from far out inspace. The individual sees nothing and feelsnothing, but the radiation damages or destroyssome of his body cells.

Inside the body there are very small amountsof naturally radioactive materials (potassium40 and carbon 14). Additional amounts aretaken in through food, water, and air. Soil androcks contain potassium 40 and uranium,thorium and radium. Tiny amounts of thesematerials are taken into the body with foodand water.

Small amounts of radiation can be receivedfor medical purposes without significant harm.The average tuberculosis chest X-ray exposesthe chest to an amount of between one-tenth

14

rto one-half roentgen. Even arge amounts ofradiation can be applied to limited areas ofthe body without being fatal. Cancer specialistsoften bombard a cancerous area with massivedoses of radiation, destroying more cancer cellsthan normal cells.

During the average lifetime, every human'being receives about 10 roentgens of radiationfrom natural sources.

Exposure to Radiation

When large amounts of radiation are ab-sorbed by the whole body in short periods oftime, sickness and death may result. In general,the effects of radiation exposure stay with peo-ple and accumulate over a period of time. Fewpeople get sick who have been exposed to 100roentgens or less. Exposure to more than 500roentgens over a few days will cause sicknessand may cause death. Death is expected foralmost everyone who receives an exposure of600 roentgens over a few days. The effects ofsimilar exposures over months or years are stillunder study although, in general, even a fairlylarge dose of radiation absorbed over months oryears is not as dangerous as when absorbedover a few days. In the former case, the bodyis able to repair much of the cell damage as itoccurs.

The table below shows the effects of variousamounts of short-term radiation exposure.

Radiation Dose(Roentgens) (Effect)

60 Smallest dose detectable in anindividual by laboratory meth-ods.

75-100 May cause transient nausea onday of exposure in 10 percent ofthe people exposed.

200 Largest dose that does not causeillness severe enough to requiremedical care in most people(90-96 percent).

460 Will cause death to about 60percent of the people, exposed, 3to 4 weeks after exposure.

600 Will cause death to almosteveryone so exposed, 2 to 3weeks after exposure.

Radiation Sickness, Not Contagious

Persons and animals exposed to largeamounts of radiation will develop radiationsickness. Radiation sickness is neither con-

tagious nor infectious; a person cannot "catchit" from others. People or animals sufferingfrom radiation sickness can be helped withoutfear of "catching" radiation injury from them.However, a person or animal with "radiationsickness" could be suffering from a massiveinfection, and should be treated accordingly.

Again, fallout radiation cannot make any-thing radioactive. Food and water that havebeen exposed to fallout radiation are contami-nated only to the extent that they contain fall-out particles or dissolved radioactive material.Exposed food that may have particles on itshould be washed, brushed, or peeled, as appro-priate. Fallout particles can be removed fromwater supplies by sedimentation or filtering.People who have fallout particles on theirbodies or clothing probably would not carryenough to endanger other people, but theyshould clean themselves for their own protec-tion.

Radiation Sickness

People may show symptoms of radiation sick-ness if they have received a dose of from 100 to550 or more roentgens. Such symptoms asnausea, vomiting, or diarrhea, may appear inthe first day or so, then about a week may passbefore other symptoms appear. These latersymptoms may include loss of weight, loss ofappetite, bleeding, discolored spots on the skin,paleness, redness, swollen mouth and throat,and general discomfort.

Symptoms of three degrees of radiation sick-ness are : (1) Mildthe especially sensitiveperson will show some nausea, lack of appetite,and fatigue within a few hours after exposure.He should rest, but can continue normal activi-ties. Recovery will be rapid. (2) Moderatethesame symptoms appear, but well within 2 hoursof exposure, and more markedly. Vomiting andeven prostration may occur. By the third day,recovery may seem complete, but symptomsmay recur in the next few days or weeks. (3)Severeagain all the early symptoms show upand may vanish after a few days. But after aweek or more, fever, mouth soreness, and diar-rhea may appear ; gums and mouth ulcerate andbleed ; and, in about the third week, the pa-tient's hair may start to fall out. Recovery maytake 7 to 8 weeks. When expoaure has beenoverwhelming, death comes in hours.

15 11

YOU CANNOT "CATCH" RADIATION

SICKNESS FROM VICTIMS

FIGURE 7.Radiation Sickness is not Catching

RADIATION SICKNESS

Early Symptoms: Nausea, Vomiting, DiarrheaLater Symptoms: Loss of Weight, Appetite

BI eedingDiscolored Spots on Skin

FIGURE S.Radiation Sickness

Symptoms should be treated in this way: Pre-scribe general rest. Give aspirin for headache.Give motion sickness tablets for nausea. Giveliquids for diarrhea and vomiting, but not untilvomiting has stopped (ideally, 1 tablespoon oftable salt to 1 quart of cool water, to be sippedslowly). This solution can be used as a mouth-wash for sore mouth.

It is important to remember that certain ofthe symptoms may also appear in people who

12

do not have radiation sickness at all. Symptomssuch as nausea, lack of appetite, and fatiguemay be seen in persons subject to extremeanxiety and emotional stress.

Individual Exposure Dose

Radiation exposure of individuals should bekept as low as possible. This would be done inthe immediate post-attack period by using thebest available shelter for the period of time

6

L

necessary to ensure survival. If it becomesnecessary to leave shelter for essential items,the dose rate and the time of exposure will de-termine the amount of radiation that an indi-vidual receives. A simplified method of calcu-lating dose would be to multiply the dose rateby the time of exposure (e.g., 3 roentgens perhour times 4 hours equals 12 roentgens). Gen-erally, individuals should obtain guidance onpermissible dose from their local Civil Defenseofficials.

Median Lethal DoseA measuring point for the effects of extreme

whole-body exposure that is often used is calledthe median lethal dose. Usually abbreviated asMLD, or LD/50, it is the radiation dose de-livered over a short period of time that is ex-pected to kill 50 percent of exposed individualswithin about a month. An acute dose is thatreceived when the whole body is exposed for ashort period of timeup to about a week. About450 roentgens (acute dose) is the estimatedmedian lethal dose for man, as compared withabout 325 roentgens for dogs or 800 to 900 forrats.

A somewhat smaller acute dose would befatal to some individuals. For example, the firstdeath out of an average population of 100 peo-ple might occur with an acute dose somewherebetween 200 and 300 roentgens.

RADIOACTIVE DECAY

Radiation rate or intensity from fallout de-creases with timethat is the radiation level,as measured in roentgens per hour, drops lowerand lower. This falling off is known as radio-active decay.

Half-lifeThe "half-life" of a radioactive element is the

time that it takes for a given amount of theisotope to decrease in radioactivity to half itsoriginal value. For instance, a form of cobalt(cobalt 60) has a half-life of about 5 years.This means that a measurement of 200 R/hr.,if repeated under identical conditions 5 yearslater, would have fallen to about 100 R/hr; 5years after that it would have fallen to about50 R/hr., and so on.

Each radioactive isotope has a different half-life, and this ranges from a small fraction of a

17

second to billions of years. The passage of 7half-lives of a radioactive isotope decreases itsradiation level to about 1 percent of its initialradiation level. The passage of 10 half-livesdecreases the radiation to about one-tenth of 1percent of the initial radiation.

Decay Rate For Fallout

The mixture of isotopes formed after a nu-clear burstthe mixture that makes up falloutis so complex that it is not possible to calcu-late the exact decay rate. However, from experi-mental measurements, a rough approximationindicates that for each sevenfold increase intime, the radioactivity of the mixture found infallout drops to about one-tenth of its formervalue. In general, the radioactivity at 49 hoursafter the explosion will have dropped to about10 percent of its amount at 7 hours. By the endof about 2 weeks, the radioactivity can be ex-pected to decay by another factor of 10. Buteven this level of radiation can be dangerousif there is a heavy concentration of fallout, andthe decay rate may differ in some cases.

100RADIOACTIVE DECAY

1

20

000000000010 2 14 15 le 20 22 24

TIME AFTER EXPLOSION 10100001

FIGURE 9.Radioactive Decay

Decay Cannot Be Speeded Up

It must be emphasized that the radioactivityin fallout cannot be destroyed. Boiling, burning,treatment with chemicals, any other action willnot destroy or neutralize radioactivity. Becauseof radioactive decay, fallout will become lessharmful with the passage of time, but there isno known way to speed up the decay process.Fallout cannot be made harmless quickly. How-

13

ever, fallout can be removed from many con-taminated surfaces.

PROTECTIVE MEASURES AGAINSTRADIATION

Protection from external radiation exposureis a combination of three things; time; distance,and shielding. That is, a person may protecthimself by :

1. Shielding (shelter).2. Distance (decontamination, movement).3. Exposure control (combination of 1 or 2

with time-scheduled exposure).

In a fallout area, shielding is the only de-pendable means of protection. People within awell-stocked shelter have placed mass betweenthemselves and the source of radiation, andthey should remain behind this mass until theradiation has decayed to levels permitting ac-tivity outside of the shelter.

Defense Against Fallout

Persons seeking shelter after a nuclear at-tack should remember that the introduction ofradioactive material into shelter areas can beminimized by such ordinary precautions as clos-ing doors and windows. Unnecessary movementin and out of shelters should be avoided when-ever there is a possibility that fallout is near.Prolonged contact with fallout material ishazardous.

Following a nuclear attack the air would becontaminated by radioactive fallout to the ex-tent that it contained fallout particles. The mosthazardous fallout particlesearly falloutwould reach the earth in the first day after thedetonation, but their mere passage through theair would not contaminate the air. Some radi-ation will probably penetrate all shelters, butfallout particles in harmful amounts should beand can be kept out of shelters. People inunderground shelters could keep fallout par-ticles out of their shelters by having a simplehood over the air-intake pipe. Special filters arenot needed for small basement family shelters.However, group shelters that have high velocityair-intake fans might need filters on the air-intake system to keep fallout particles out.

Special Clothing Offers Little Protection

Fallout gamma radiation would pass through

14

any type of protective clothing that would bepractical to wear. Heavy and dense materialssuch as earth and concrete are needed to stopthe highly penetrating gamma rays. Tightlywoven outer clothing could be usefulparticu-larly for emergency workersin keeping fall-out particles off the body, but the wearer wouldnot be protected from the gamma radiationgiven off by the particles. The worker wouldwear the outer clothing when in a fallout con-taminated area and then leave it outside orbrush or wash it thoroughly before entering anuncontaminated area.

No Special Antiradiation Medicines

Many experiments have been conducted todevelop a special medicine to protect againstthe effects of radiation. Thus far, there seemslittle likelihood that a pill, or any other typeof medicine, will soon be developed that canprotect people from the effects of fallout radi-ation.

Decontamination

Contamination is the deposit of radioactivematerial on the surface of structures, area, ob-jects, or people following a nuclear explosion.

Decontamination is the reduction or removalof contaminating radioactive fallout from astructure, area, object, or person.

Self-decontamination

Contamination could be caused by falloutmaterial settling on persons outdoors whilefallout was descending or by entering a verydusty ara after fallout had ceased.

Self-decontamination should be accomplishedonly after a person has assured himself that heis protected from the far greater hazard of thefallout field of radiation in his area. Therefore,if one is caught in the open when fallout begins,he should immediately seek shelter and thenremove any contamination from his person bybrushing, shaking, or washing, as appropriateunder the circumstances. Some communityshelters may contain a decontamination area inwhich showers would be available and a changeof clothing might be appropriate. In most casessimple wiping or washing of hands, face, andclothing, would reduce the contamination toinsignificant levels.

18

Decontaminating Food and Water

It is unlikely that food and water inside abuilding would be sufficiently contaminated tobe dangerous to eat or drink. If food suppliesdo become contaminated many types of foodcan be treated to remove the radioactive ma-terial. Fresh fruits and vegetables can bewashed or peeled to remove the outer skin orleaves. Food in cans, covered jars, or closedcontaLiers such as plastic bags can be decon-taminated by washing or wiping the materialoff the container. The contents would not becontaminated. Similar cleaning methods appro-priate to the type of food involved would in mostcases be sufficient.

Water supplies in the home (water heater ortoilet tank) or shelters would not require de-contamination. However, there is a possibilityof contamination of public water supplies.Serious contamination of public water suppliesis unlikely. Should this occur, however, a watersoftener in the home is an effective method ofdecontamination, as is distillation when practi-cal. It should be noted that mere boiling ofwater contaminated with fallout is of abso-lutely no value in removal of the radioactivity.But the regular water treatment (coagulation,sedimentation, filtration) by public authoritieswill remove most of the contaminated material.

Area DecontaminationThe decontamination of buildings, streets,

and equipment might be necessary before anarea could be used for its intended purpose.Civil Defense authorities would undertake thistype of decontamination operation. Since radio-active contamination is similar to dirt, its re-moval by water or sweeping could be done byfire department or public works personnel usingtheir day-to-day operation equipment. Manycommunities have organized decontaminationteams for this purpose.

For the individual who might have occasionto decontaminate in his home, common methodsof cleaning could be used. Thus, brooms orvacuum cleaners might be useful. But thisshould be undertaken only on instructions fromlocal authorities.

MEASUREMENT OF RADIATION

As mentioned previously, the unit of meas-

19

urement for gamma radiation doses is roent-gens or milliroentgens.

In evaluating the effect of nuclear radiationon living things we are concerned not only withtotal amounts of radiation received (that is, thedose) but also with the dose received within agiven amount of timethe dose rate. We wantto know not only how much the total exposuredose is, but also how fast the exposure dose isbuilding up.

Total accumulated radiation exposure, ortotal dose, is expressed as so many roentgens.The rate of radiation exposure at a place ofinterest is expressed as roentgens per unit oftime (usually roentgens per hour). This issometimes called radiation intensity, or radi-ation level, but more often "dose rate." Becausethe human senses cannot detect nuclear radi-ation, special instruments have been developedto measure it. These devices are either rate-meters or dosimeters (dose meters).

A ratemeter will indicate the intensity of theradiation. It is analogous to a speedometer in acar, except that it measures roentgens per hourrather than miles per hour. Thus, an indicationof whether to leave the shelter for a brief periodcan be obtained from a ratemeter reading madejust outside the shelter. The dosimeter can beused to show the total amount of radiation towhich a person has been exposed during anemergency period. It is analogous to a mileageindicator (odometer) in a car, but it measurestotal roentgens rather than miles.

Relation of Federal, State, and LocalMonitoringWind currents determine where fallout would

be deposited as the result of a nuclear attack.The U. S. Weather Bureau, therefore, routinelyprepares and issues wind data that would beused for forecasts and estimates of areas likelyto be covered by fallout to states and territories.These forecasts can be used to predict wherefallout is likely to be deposited and approxi-mately when it will arrive there. The intensityof fallout radiation, however, would not be pre-dicted. Intensity can be determined only afterthe attack when measurements will be madewith instruments.

A federal network of fixed monitor stationsis being developed that uses the facilities ofmany federal agencies. Many facilities of the

15

Weather Bureau, the Federal Aviation Agency,and the Department of Agriculture are alreadyin use. This network, combined with state and

# local monitoring, is designed to provide radi-ation information that can be used to assist inmaking decisions for protective, remedial, andrecovery action.

The federal government is providing equip-ment for radiological monitoring stations andoperators are being trained to use this equip-ment. A total of 150,000 monitoring points arebeing established in protected locations, withcommunications capabilities to the local emer-gency operating center.

Radiological Monitoring in CommunityShelters

A Radiological Defense (RADEF) officer,serving in the local government's emergencyoperating center, directs the technical opera-tions of monitors in his area.

Some community shelters will be selected to

serve as special monitoring and reporting sta-tions. Such stations will evaluate and reportthe radiological situation in the shelter andalso measure and report unsheltered radiationdose rates and dosages.

A radiological monitoring kit is provided thatcontains dosimeters, ratemeters, charging units,accessories, batteries, and instruction manuals.With these instruments, the monitor will be ableto provide information to the shelter managerand the local emergency operating center. Forexample, if dose rates in shelters vary in differ-ent locations, it might be advisable to move per-sons to minimize the dose they would receive.

Note: Further guidance and advice on protectionfrom nuclear radiation will be provided to stateand local governments and their supporting ele-ments as continuing study and experimentation tobring new developments to light. Such guidanceand assistance will enable local governments tomake maximum effective use of fallout protectionfor use by the supporting elements, upon whichtheir operational capability depends.

i21. 17,

ROLE OF THE FIRE SERVICE IN CIVIL DEFENSE

The importance of local and area plans tocope with nuclear fire problems cannot be overemphasized. Such plans exist in many local com-munities, areas, and states.

For example, the fire service may be responsi-ble for controlling of mass fire under nuclearfire conditions. Few fire service organizationshave ever had actual experience with this typeof operation. The problems of fire control inurban areas where a sheltered populace wouldbe located also require detailed local and areaplanning as to manpower use and fire-suppres-sion resources during the unusual conditions ofnuclear attack.

State Fire Defense Plan

The following policies form the basis for onesample state fire defense plan :

a. The basic concepts of Civil Defense areself-help and mutual aid.

b. Civil Defense is a task that must be sharedby all political subdivisions, industries,and individual citizens.

c. The State Fire-Defense Man must form apractical and flexible pattern for the de-velopment and operation of day-to-daymutual aid on a voluntary basis within thefire service. This plan integrates all fire-fighting resources and personnel withinthe state into such a pattern and providesfor mutual aid, radiological monitoring,and decontamination for fire service opera-tions on a mandatory basis during a waror declared disaster. The plan is based onnormal fire department operating pro-cedures, including day-to-day mutual-aidarrangements and agreements developedby local fire officials to deal with disastersthat require aid from outside communities.In addition, because the intensity of radio-

22

d.

e.

f.

g.

h.

CHAPTER THREE

active contamination can only be deter-mined with suitable instruments, this planprovides that the fire service develop andpromote a radiological monitoring capa-bility sufficient to enable it to carry out itsmission without undue risk to its person-nel.In developing the local mutual aid and dis-aster preparedness plans, considerationmust be given to liability and propertydamage and to insurance coverage on ap-paratus and equipment used beyond theterritorial limits of the political subdi-vision. Consideration must also be given tothe, rights, privileges, and immunities ofpaid, volunteer, and support firefightingpersonnel ifi order that they may be fullyprotected while performing their dutiesunder a mutual aid task or a disaster pre-paredness plan.Maximum use will be made of existingfacilities and services within each com-munity.Political subdivisions will reasonably ex-haust local resources before calling foroutside assistance.Political subdivisions will render themaximum practical collective effort andassistance to all disaster and war strickencommunities under the Fire-Defense Plan.

Political subdivisions will : (1) maintaintheir fire-defense organizations substanti-ally in accordance with recognized stan-dards, (2) provide for the annual inven-tory of all fire department personnel,apparatus, and equipment, and (3) pro-vide for receiving and disseminating in-formation, data, and directions affectingthe fire service.

19

Local Fire Defense Plan

As has been shown, fire protection is a gov-ernmental function and, therefore, is only apart of the total survival or restoration effort.One prime objective of the fire service is to planto maintain organized strength capable ofcarrying out the mission of fire control andsuppression. There will be many factors in anuclear attack condition that organizationshave not experienced, and therefore, many com-mand decisions will have to be made at theappropriate levels to determine how an organ-ized fire service can best be used.

20

It becomes important, therefore, that the"Support Assistants" for firefighting under-stand the relationships and interrelationshipsof all governmental and other organizationswith specific roles and assignments to be carriedout in a survival or restoration effort.

It is likewise important that the "SupportAssistants" realize that they are a supplementto and a part of the regularly constituted fireforces and as such are responsible to and underthe control of the regular fire service.

23

11

LOCAL FIRE-DEPARTMENT ORGANIZATIONS

Following are some typical organizationstructures of existing fire-service organizations.In the plans above local level, these organiza-tions become a part of an over-all organizationstructure such as an area mutual-aid district

CHAPTER FOUR

or mutual-aid pact arrangement. Also includedis a sample organization structure up to thestate level. Note in the sample organizationstructures that only the fire function is shownin relation to all governmental functions.

LIMITED F. D. STAFF ORGANIZATION

Chief of Dept.

Dept. Secy. &Administration Staff

IFire MarshalFire Prevention

Assistant ChiefExecutive Officer

MaintenanceSupt.

CommunicationsSupt.

Battalion (1) Chiefs

Fire Companies

Battalion (2) Chiefs

Fire Companies

Chief TrainingOfficer

FULL F. D. STAFF ORGANIZATION:

Chief of Dept.

Asst. 1. hiefExecutive Officer

Dept. Secy. &Administration Staff

Fire Marshal

Fire PreverqionCode Enfordement

Fire RecordsFire lnyestigation

22

Public Education

CommanderFire Force

Platoon DeputyFire Chiefs

I Battalion (1) Chiefs

F ire Companies

Battalion (2) Chiefs

Fire Companies

25

dChief of StaffServices

Chief TrainingOfficer

CommunicationsSupt.

dMaintenanceSupt.

1

Planning &ProcurementWater Supply

COMBINATION VOLUNTEER AND PAID FIRE DEPARTMENT

Chief

President

Social Committee

1st Asst. Chief

2nd Asst. Chief

Training Officer

Co. Ca t. Co. Capt.

Co. Lie t. Co. Lieut.

Members Members

26

Co. Capt.

Co. Lieut.

Members

20

INTELLIGENCE1. FireA. Plans

B. OperationsC. PlottingD. Radiological

II. Non FireA. Civil DefenseB. Public Information

SAMPLE STATE FIRE DEFENSE ORGANIZATION

COMMUNICATIONSI. Dispatch

II TelephoneIII RadioI V Messenger

24

SERVICES & SUPPLYI. Inventory

A. StaticB. Operational

COORDINATING COMMITTEE

ChairmanFire Service

Fire Service

Authority Specialist

INTELL'

COMMUN

SERV &SUPP.

COORD'COMM'

1GOVERNOR

STATE CIVILDEFENSEDIRECTOR

CIVIL DEFENSEADMINISTRATION

CIVIL DEFENSEOPERATIONSOFFICER

STATE FIRECOORDINATOR

DISTRICT FIRECOORDINATOR

COUNTY Fl R ECOORDINATOR

FIELD COMMAND& OPERATIONS

NOTE: This Organization chart shows only the line for the fire function.No other functions are shown.

DEPUTY

CIVIL DEFENSEDIRECTOR

CIVIL DEFENSE

ROLE OF SUPPORT ASSISTANTSIN CIVIL-DEFENSE FIRE EMERGENCIES

Under day-to-day fire conditions, many fire-service organizations find themselves taxed tothe limits of their capabilities. This is the pri-mary reason for establishing area, county, orintra-county mutual aid arrangements. The fireproblems that the fire service may encounterbecause of a nuclear attack could overcomeexisting fire organizations.

NeedIt is obvious, then, that fire-suppression train-

ing should be an integral part of citizens pre-paredness for civil-defense emergencies. A"Citizen Self-Help Fire-Training Program" hasbeen developed. The objective of this program isto train the citizen to suppress incipient andsmall fires when the regularly organized firedepartment is not able to reach him. The Sup-port Assistants for Fire Emergencies would :

(1) give organized support to the full-timeorganization in fire-suppression efforts, (2)assist in defending community shelters fromfire, (3) control or assist in controlling thespread of fires in or near their shelters or intheir neighborhoods. The firefighting Support

CHAPTER FIVE

Assistant will become a very important key inthe entire fire function at the time of maximumneed.

OrganizationThe Support Assistants will be organized to

supplement the existing fire department organi-zation during major emergencies, and they willalways be supervised by the regular fire servicepersonnel. They will be made aware of theorganization structure, the chain of command,and technical information related to the firesuppression so that they can follow experiencedpeople.

The Support Assistant when so assigned byregular fire service personnel will also aidshelter managers and help in Civil-DefenseFire-Prevention efforts. In the absence of theregularly organized fire-suppression organiza-tion, the Support Assistants may well need toprovide the leadership for fire suppression ac-tions. He should, however, realize his responsi-bility to the regular fire forces and make everyeffort to establish contact with such forces.

2825

DISCIPLINE IN THE FIRE SERVICE

Discipline in the fire service means "willingand dutiful submission to control." Disciplinein the fire service goes beyond the conceptwhere a lapse by a team member causes only adelay or a missed score. In firefighting, missedor ignored signals can lead to disastrous conse-quences in terms of lives and property.

Firefighting operations take place in themidst of emergency situations. The operationsmust be carefully planned, well-disciplined, de-signed to stabilize the situation, and not becomein themselves emergency operations. To main-tain discipline in the midst of chaos calls forstrong discipline on the part of the firefighter.

Fire department operations are similar tomilitary operations ; when discipline breaksdown, the battle is lost. Even retreat must be

a disciplined operation.Both fire-department and military operation

call for strategy to be determined, plans to bemade, and operations carried out. Plans oftencall for sequential, carefully-timed operationsand procedures. A sequential fire operation, forexample, might be decision, lines laid, pumphooked up, water turned on, building laddered,building ventilated, fire attacked, and resultsevaluated.

Decisions on the fire ground are made by thehighest ranking officer, and operations arecarried out according to orders sent down thechain of command. If orders are missed orignored or certain procedures delayed, the en-tire operation can be jeopardized.

The chain of command has two purposes:(1) to facilitate successful operations and (2)to protect the individual firefighter. Firefight-

29

CHAPTER SIX

ing is dangerous and can be more so whenattempted in a free-enterprise haphazard man-ner. The chief officer, through his subordinateofficer, must be in touch with all firefighters atall times to assure efficient operations and per-sonnel safety under constantly changing con-ditions. Many firefighters have lost their livesbecause of a break in the chain of command.

The individual firefighter must discipline him-self to keep in touch with members of his com-pany or his immediate superior officer at alltimes. After he is lost or pinned in a buildingon fire it is too late to wonder if anyone knowswhere he is.

Heat, smoke, and fire, especially in confinedsituations, make firefighting a tough, dirty job.Often the individual firefighter is called uponto carry out assignments or hold his groundunder very difficult situations. It requires strongpersonal discipline to stand rather than run ;yet the individual must realize that in manysituations he literally holds the life of his fellowfirefighters in his hands, and vice versa.

Discipline is so important to fire-groundoperations that it must be practiced off as wellas on the fire ground. In training sessions,drills, and meetings, the officers should alwaysbe addressed by their proper titles. This helpsto assure that the "chain of command" will holdduring combat operations.

As a "Support Assistant" you may be calledupon to take part in disciplined fire-serviceoperations. For maximum accomplishment andyour personal safety you must understand theneed for and practice "willing and dutiful sub-mission to control."

27

CHAPTER SEVEN

BASIC CONCEPT OF FIRE BEHAVIOR

In its simplest form the process of combus- The three components necessary for fire aretion or fire can be represented by a triangle, represented by the triangle's legs. These are

fuel, oxygen, and heat.

THE FIRE TRIANGLEWhenever these factors are brought together

in the right form and proportions, a fire results.To understand the process of fire, we will firstreview the three legs of the fire triangle in theirsimplest form and then in somewhat greaterdetail.

FIGURE 11.The Fire Triangle

Fuel

Many of the materials that we encounter ineveryday life can be classed as fuel and willburn under ordinary conditions. Other ma-terials considered as fireproof under ordinaryconditions might be classed as fuels underspecial conditions, and examples of these willbe given later. Natural gas is a common fuelcomposed primarily of carbon and hydrogen.

OxygenUnder ordinary conditions the second leg of

our triangle, oxygen, is supplied by the normaloxygen (0) content of the air, which is 21 percent. Natural gas and oxygen are both gases atnormal temperatures and can be readily mixedto form a combustible mixture; however,nothing will happen to this mixture at normaltemperatures.

HeatHeat is a form of energy evidenced by the

vibration of the molecules of a substance. Thisvery rapid vibration of the molecules of sub-stance is what gives us the sensation of feelingof heat when we touch a hot object. A commonmeasure of the intensity of these vibrations, orheat, is degrees Fahrenheit. If we take the na-tural gas and oxygen mixture just discussedand heat it to ignition temperature (around

30 29

990° F. for this mixture) combustion, or fire,will occur.

Fire

Combustion is the union of oxygen with afuel. Fire is the visible light energy released bythat union. The molecules of the natural gasand oxygen mixture have sufficient vibrationalenergy at 999° F. to literally knock each otherapart and reunite to form new compounds. Thebreaking up and reuniting of molecules in thecombustion process releases heat energyenergy stored in the molecules when they wereformed.

The following illustration gives a more com-plete picture of the combustion process than thefire triangle.

Common Fuels

Most common fuels are compounds of carbon,hydrogen, and oxygen. As with the precedingexample, the products of complete combustionwill be water vapor and carbon dioxide. Whereother elements are present in the fuels, theproducts of combustion will include oxides ofthese elements. For example, if sulphur isburned, the combustion products include sul-phur dioxide.

Fuels may be found in any of the three statesof matter, solid, liquid, or gas. For practicalpurposes combustion can occur only when fuelis in a gaseous form. Since the fuel must be

mixed with oxygen and oxygen is a gas, itcannot be readily mixed with a liquid or a solid.Temperatures at which various fuels changefrom a solid to a liquid and then to a gas varywith the fuel.

The temperature of major importance in firecontrol is the vaporization point or flash pointof a fuel. Technically, there is usually a vari-ation of a few degrees between the flash pointand vapor point of fuel. But, for practical pur-poses in fire control, they may be used inter-changeably. Flash point is important to thefirefighter because this indicates the tempera-ture at which the fuel begins to give off vaporsthat will mix with oxygen in the air and needonly ignition to flash into flame. Gasoline, forexample, has a flash point of 45 degrees belowzero. Therefore it is always giving off flam-mable vapors at normal temperatures and re-quires only a sufficiently hot spark for ignition.Kerosene, on the other hand, has a flash pointof above 110° F. and below that temperaturewould not be giving off flammable vapors andcould not be ignited by a spark that would ignitegasoline. If, however, we heat the kerosene to atemperature above its flash point, it will giveoff flammable vajors ; and these vapors can beignited by the same temperature, about 500° F.,as the gasoline vapors.

Oxygen and Combustion

Since combustion is the union of oxygen with

CARBON

00 CO IGNITION..TEMP.

OD D OXYGEN

HYDROGEN

CARBON MONOXIDE (CO) MO

30

1`4*,"WATER VAPOR

szy

a\\CA.IxtBON DIOXIDE44,

CARBON DIOXIDE (CO21

FIGURE 12.The Process of Combustion

. 31

Ata

a fuel, it follows that combustion cannot occurwithout oxygen. Thus, the intensity of the firewill vary with the percentage of oxygen. Forpractical purposes, when the oxygen content ofthe air falls below 15 per cent, the fire will bearrested. On the other hard, if the oxygen con-tent is raised above the normal 21 per cent, theintensity of combustion will increase. Steelwool, for example, will only glow if heated in aflame in normal air. If, however, this glowingsteel wool is drupped into a container of pureoxygen, it will burn with a flash.

Each of us can probably recall many in-stances where we have observed the, oxygensupply to a fire increasing its intensiti. We fanthe campfire or the charcoal for barbecuing tobring it to life or we may have observed arubbish fire spreading and getting out of handwhen the wind increased.

Amounts of HeatIn the foregoing discussion of heat, we men-

tioned only heat intensity as measured in de-grees Fahrenheit. In fire control, another unitof heat measurement is very important. Thisis the total amount of heat present. A spark, forexample, may have a temperature well above1000' F., but actually would do very little towarm us on a cold day. Amounts of heat aremeasured in BTU's or British Thermal Units.A BTU is the amount of heat necessary to raise1 pound of water 1° F.

In the foregoing discussion of fuels we usedthe example of kerosene as having a flash pointof about 110° F. If the amount of kerosene in-volved was one pint it would take about 40BTU's to bring the kerosene to its vapor point.This could not be accomplished with an ordi-nary kitchen match, which will produce about1 BTU when totally consumed. If, on the otherhand, we dip a piece of paper in kerosene anduse the ordinary kitchen match, it will provideboth the heat necessary to bring the smallamount of kerosene to its flash point and the500`' F. temperature necessary for ignition. Theheat released by the combustion of the keroseneand the paper will bring more of the keroseneand paper to its vapor point to provide morevapors for continuing combustion, and we havea going fire.

The principles just illustrated also apply toordinary fuels such as wood. A finely divided

fuel will be more easily heated to its vapor pointwhere it can be ignited than a solid block. Anordinary kitchen match will easily vaporize andignite wood shavings but not a short section of2 x 4. On the other hand, if sufficient BTU's arepresent the 2 x 4 can be raised to its vapor pointand ignited.

Heat Transmission

Heat released by combustion travels in threeways, radiation, convection, and conduction.

Radiation.Heat travels by radiation likelight. We feel this when we hold our hand nextto a glowing object or move closer to the stoveon a cold day.

Convection.A flame heats the surroundingair (gas) causing it to expand and becomelighter. These lighter gases rise. In fire-pro-tection terminology, this rising column of hotgases is often referred to as the thermal column.

Conduction.Earlier, heat was described asthe vibrations of the molecules of a substance.In solid materials these vibrations will be trans-mitted through the solid. For example, the heatof a fire might travel through a metal partitionand set fire to combustibles cn the other side.

Ways of Producing HeatHeat sufficient for the vaporizing and igniting

a fuel can be produced in several ways. It is notalways necessary to have a flame to ignite fuels.For example, a soldering iron heated to about500° F. will ignite paper. Three of the mostfrequently encountered ways of producing heatwill be discussed here.

Electricity.When more electrical energy isallowed to flow through a wire than the wirewas designed to carry, the wire will heat andeventually melt and separate. If the wire is incontact with the right kind of fuel, ignition willoccur or the wire may ignite its insulatingcover, and this fire may involve other fuel.

Electrical sparks from loose connections,switches, or arcing electrical motors frequentlystart fires where flammable mixtures of air andfuel are present. This frequently occurs aroundgasoline-loading facilities or in situations wherefuels gases, such as natural gas, have leakedinside a structure.

Spontaneous Ignition.The process of com-bustion is often referred to as oxidation. How-

- 32 31

ever, the process of oxidation can occur withoutthe evolution of flame; but the process of oxida-tion always produces some heat. The rusting ofiron, the greying of lumber, the browning ofsliced fruit, and drying of paint are examplesof slow oxidation. If this slow oxidation occursunder circumstances where the heat producedcannot escape or be dissipated, the temperatureof the materials involved will be raised and maybe raised to the point where the fuel will beginto vaporize and eventually ignite. This processof spontaneous ignition can occur with manydifferent materials and under varying condi-tions, but the most frequently encountered ex-ample might be with paint that has a vegetableoil base. If a rag is wet with linseed oil andthen wrapped inside of other rags and placedin a cardboard container, spontaneous ignitionwill frequently occur.

Friction.Primitive man first learned tomake fire by using friction. He accomplishedthis by rubbing two sticks together or spinninga stick in a small hole in a larger block of wood.Dry bearings or rubbing belts on conveyorsoften start industrial fires. A leading cause of

32

fires in the trucking industry is the frictiongenerated with a flat tire on a dual wheel wherethe truck operator may not realize the tire isflat. The tire quite frequently becomes so heatedthat when the truck is stopped the tire burstsinto flame.

Fire Extinguishment

Fires can be extinguished or controlled bytaking advantage of the fires' dependence onfuel, heat, and air.

The fuel can sometimes be removed from thefire or from the path of the fire. Forest andgrass land fires are quite often controlled bythis method. Fire breaks are made by removingthe fuel along a line in the fires' path.

Many fires can best be controlled by smother-ing. For example, fires in containers of flamma-ble liquid can be extinguished by getting somekind of lid over the container.

Fires in ordinary combustibles are most oftenextinguished by cooling. Water is the best andmost frequently used agent for this purpose.Water is used to cool the involved fuel belowits vapor point and thus control the fire.

33

CHAPTER EIGHT

TECHNIQUES OF FIRE PREVENTION AND FIRE LIMITATION

Fire department experience over the yearsleaves little doubt that most fires can be pre-vented if good fire prevention practices are fol-lowed. A few fires will always occur even wheregood fire prevention practices are followed, butgood practices will limit the spread of and helpcontrol the few fires that do start.

Before the Emergency

Eliminating fuel is essential in preventingfires. We cannot limit the air supply to a fire ifpeople are to live and work in the area, andunfortunately, we cannot always control orpredict what heat sources "people" will bringinto an area. Fire protection personnel oftenrefer to the three main fire hazards as man,woman, and child. In this course, we are con-cerned with the heat source from a nuclearweapon over which we may have no control. Soagain our best means of limiting fire orlurrenceand fire spread is by limiting fuel for the fire,especially those fuels that might be most easilyignited by the flash of heat from the weapon.

Rubbish Removal.Within buildings one ofthe most practical ways to limit the fuel avail-able to a fire is to remove the rubbish or storedodds and ends that accumulate. Cast off articles,such as old clothes, draperies, newspapers, andmagazines, are often stored in closets, attics,and cellars. These not only offer a good placefor a fire to start but make firefighting verydifficult. It is difficult to get water to the centerof a pile of clothes or boxes ; also, these ma-terials usually produce large amounts of smokemaking it difficult to locate the fire.

Outdoors, rubbish, dry weeds, grass, brush,and other easily ignited materials would be amajor fire hazard in the event of a nuclear at-tack. A clean neighborhood could make the dif-

ference between success and failure of firecontrol attempts after a nuclear attack.

Storage Precautions. Flammable liquids, suchas gasoline, benzine, naphtha, and similar fluids,generally should not be used or stored indoors.There is danger that these fluids may be spilledor leak from the containers, in which case theyvaporize, mix with the air, and form explosivemixtures. These fluids should be stored in safetycans outside the home.

Rags or paper towels that have been usedwith waxes, furniture polishes or to wipe uppaint thinners or vegetable oils should never bekept in the home even for short periods becausethey are subject to spontaneous ignition.

Tit e rmal-Flash Precautions.Research onthe nuclear fire problem indicates that the mostimportant single fire-prevention action duringperiods of international crisis is for house-holders to shield windows by keeping windowblinds and shades closed, or by painting, coat-ing, or otherwise covering the windows.

There is strong evidence that most ignitionscausing sustained fires would occur in the in-terior of rooms exposed to the heat flash ofnuclear weapons. Ignitions caused by the heatflash would occur before blast damage to blindsor other coverings, and can thus be preventedin large part by covering the windows or closingblinds or shades prior to attack.

Other important fire prevention actions in-clude removing curtains, and removing ignit-able furniture from window areas.

Plans for control of gas and electric utilityservice can reduce the incidence of fires causedby blast damage.

Fire prevention actions of these types mustbe carried out in every building, includingpublic shelters, in the jurisdiction, and requirethe :ooperation of all citizens.

34 3s

Research indicates that the countermeasureof shielding windowsincluding closing blindsor shadescombined with other self-help fire-prevention measures, in an effort requiring 8man-hours per household, could reduce the num-ber of home ignitions by as much as 65 percent ;and that a last-minute prevention program re-quiring only one-half man-hour per householdcould reduce ignitions by as much as 40 percent.

Both from the standpoint of preventingignition of materials in buildings by the thermalflash of the bomb and everyday fire safety, theflammability of the building furnishings shouldbe carefully examined. Curtains and such itemsas furniture slip covers should be of fire re-sistive material or should be treated to makethem fire resistant. Flammable clothing shouldalways be avoided.

When in doubt about the flammability of aparticular item, cut a small slip of the ma-terial from one of the seams and test it. Take itoutdoors and observe how rapidly it burns whenignited with an ordinary kitchen match.

Rayons and cottons can be made fire resistantby dipping them in solution of nine (9) ouncesof borax and four (4) ounces of boric acid to agallon of water. This must be repeated eachtime the garments are washed, and it tends tolose its effectiveness with age. Treating fabricsin this manner will not make them fireproof, butit will lessen their chance of being ignited andwill materially retard the spread of a fire. Fire-resistant drapes could be instrumental in pre-venting the ignition of material inside the homefrom the thermal flash. They might also preventthe occupants from serious burns.

Shutting Down Utilities.Many fires couldbe prevented in buildings damaged by a nuclearattack if utilities such as gas and electricitywere shut down before the attack. However,the wholesale shutting down of utilities cancause major problems. Local utility companieshave instructions in these matters and their di-rectives must be followed.

Postattack Suppression of Fires

As previously discussed, Support Assistantsfor Fire Emergencies may find themselves re-sponsible for leadership in suppressing fires fol-lowing a nuclear attack. Theirs may not be theenvied position. There might be more firesignited than can be controlled in the time span

34

between attack and the arrival of fallout. Post-attack firefighting might have to be carried onwith a limited amount of equipment. Fire-fighters would have to make some carefulchoices. They would have to quickly, yet care-fully, weigh three main factors :

1. The life hazard.2. The chance of success.3. The danger of the fire spreading.

The Life Hazard.The first concern of thefirefighter is the saving of life. Where lives areendangered by fire his first efforts are usuallydevoted to rescue or extinguishing a particularfire to effect a rescue.

In a nuclear fire emergency, the firefighterwould also be concerned with the survival valueof a particular building. Public fallout shelterswould obviously have high value.

Chance of Success.Perhaps the first factorthat firefighters should consider is the chanceof success in extinguishing a particular fire.They must first know what resources they haveon hand and then determine the chance of con-trolling a particular fire with these resources.Fire departments that respond to rural areaswhere the only water they have is in their firetruck have always had to make this type of de-cision. They quite frequently do not use theirwater on the building on fire, but use it to pro-tect the exposures. If they use their water onthe building on fire and are not able to ex-tinguish the fire, they sometimes run the riskof losing an entire group of buildings.

Fire Spread.The third factor firefightersmust weigh is the chance of a particular firespreading to other structures. If the buildingon fire is well isolated from other buildings andthe wind direction is such that the sparks andconvected air currents do not endanger otherbuildings, then, with limited resources fire-fighters decide to let that building burn. If, onthe other hand, it is obvious that the fire willspread to other buildings, the firefighters wouldtake a bigger chance in using available re-sources to extinguish that particular fire.

Shutting Off Damaged Utilities.The shut-ting off or disconnection of damaged utilities,such as gas and electricity, should be done onlyby personnel who know what they are doing.The indiscriminate throwing of valves or

35 D.

switches by uninformed people can createserious problems. The most important utilityfrom the firefighting standpoint is probablywater. Broken water lines in individual build-ings should be shut off if possible. If the linesto individual buildings cannot be shut off andthey are broken, firefighters might want to con-sider plugging the drains in basement areas ofthese buildings. This might provide an invalu-able source of water for firefighting.

Kindling Fuels.Where decisions are madeto leave particular buildings or fires burn, prob-ably the best means of limiting the fire spreadis to remove the kindling fuel in the fire's pathor in the areas where the sparks may fall.Sparks or embers carried with the wind have alimited number of BTU's and fires will notspread in this manner, except where the sparksfall on kindling fuel. Fuel that is easily vapor-ized and ignited should be removed from thefire's path.

Firefighters attempting to extinguish neigh-

borhood fires during the immediate post-attackphase should keep in mind the time limitationbefore the arrival of fallout. If they have noradiological monitoring instruments and can-not obtain information on fallout in the area,they should probably seek shelter not later than30 minutes after the bomb burst. However, somecalculated risks may need to be taken. If theonly available shelter from fallout was threat-ened by fire, it would be folly to seek suchshelter until the threat of fire had been con-trolled. Careful study of the radiation sectionof this manual will help firefighters determinehow quickly they should seek shelter and whatrisks they might take. Also, if they stay out inthe open to fight fires after fallout has begun,they should decontaminate before entering ashelter.

It is not anticipated that "Support Assist-ants" would make the type of decisions con-sidered above as they would if at all possiblebe working under personnel of the regular fireservice.

36 35

FUNDAMENTALS OF

Principles of Fire Extinguishment

A good understanding of combustion princi-ples leads to the understanding of fire controlprinciples. Under this heading we considerspecific means for removing one of the threesides of the fire triangle.

Cooling.That cold is merely the absence ofheat and is accomplished by the dissipation ofabsorption of the heat is fundamental to theunderstanding of fire control. In structure fires,the partial heat dissipation is often accom-plished by ventilation. Ventilation to assist incontrolling structure fires is a detailed subjectand will be considered in the B course for sup-port assistants in firefighting emergencies.

Where fires are small enough that the fire-fighter can approach within range, the mostefficient method of removing heat is cooling thefuel involved. If the fuel involved can be cooledbelow its flash point, the fire will be controlled.

The most efficient agent by far for cooling isordinary water. Water will absorb a substanti-ally larger amount of heat than any other ex-tinguishing agent available.

It was mentioned earlier under "amounts ofheat" that the BTU was the standard for mea-suring heat. BTU was defined as the amount ofheat necessary to raise one pound of water 1° F.It follows, then, that one pound of water heatedfrom 62 ° F. to 212° F. (the boiling point ofwater) will have absorbed 150 BTU's. The lar-ger amount of heat, however, is absorbed inwater vaporization. One pound of water at212° F. will absorb 975 BTU's during vapori-zation. It follows, then, that the most efficientuse is made of the water only when water isconverted to steam. Water left on the floor afterextinguishing the fire was obviously wasted.

Support Assistants attempting to extinguish

CHAPTER NINE

FIRE SUPPRESSION

neighborhood fires following a nuclear attackwould probably be quite short of water, and itis very important that they understand thispoint.

Removing Fuel.One of the most often usedmethods to control forest, brush, and grass landfires is fuel removal. This is accomplished bybuilding fire lines where fuels are removedleaving bare ground or rock. Other types of firesmay sometimes be controlled by this samemethod. For example, some fires may be fed bygas or flammable liquids, and shutting off valvescan starve the fire.

Some of the extinguishing agents, which willbe discussed later, act to form a crust overfuels and can be said to work by removing thefuel side of the triangle.

Removing Oxygen.The simplest example ofextinguishing fire by smothering is placing a lidon a container of flammable liquid on fire. An-other example might be wrapping a personwhose clothing is on fire in a blanket or rug.

Some of the fire extinguishers that will bediscussed later extinguish fires by covering thefire area with a blanket of inert gas such ascarbon dioxide. This blanket replaces the airsupplying the fire with oxygen and therebystarves the fire of its oxygen.

Classification of Fires

For minor extinguishment and the use ofportable fire extinguishers fires are classifiedin four categories.

Class A Fires.This class of fire involvesordinary combustibles, such as wood, paper andtextiles, that leave glowing coals when theyburn. Because of the glowing coals, this type offire is often quite stubborn and is usually bestextinguished by water.

37 37

Class B Fires.This class of fire involvesflammable liquids, gases, greases, and somehomogeneous solids such as wax. In contrast tothe Class A fire this fire does not leave glowingcoals.

Small fires of this class are usually safelyextinguished by using the smothering principal,covering the involved area with a lid or ablanket of inert gas or foam.

Class B fires involving flammable liquids witha flash point above 100 degrees can be ex-tinguished with water by cooling the fuels belowtheir flash point. The great danger, however, inusing water on these fires is that the velocity orforce of the water stream may scatter the fire.

Class C Fires.This class of fire involvesenergized electrical equipment.

Note: It is important to recognize here that thisclassification, as opposed to A and B fires, is not aclassification of the fuel involved but rather aclassification by the hazard involved. If the ex-tinguishing agent conducts electricity, the operatorof the extinguisher may receive a severe electricalshock. Extinguishing agents listed for this class offire must be nonconductors, and every effort shouldbe made to shut off the current before using theextinguisher.

It is also important to know that we only usethis classification where voltages are highenough to be dangerous to the operator of theextinguisher. A fire in automobile wiring, forexample, would not be a Class C fire because thevoltages involved are not sufficiently high.

Class D Fires.This is a relatively newclassification for fires and includes fires ofcombustible metals, such as magnesium andsodium. These materials are often used in in-cendiary bombs and are quite difficult to ex-tinguirth. Using water on these materials canbe dangerous, and special extinguishing agentsor methods should be used.

Precautions in Fire FightingFumes f rom Burning Materials.In addition

to products of complete combustion discussedearlier under basic concepts of fire behavior, avariety of fumes will be given off from burningmaterials. There is seldom enough air flowaround materials involved in fire to completelyoxidize all the vapors given off by the fuel underheat. Also, temperatures may not be hot enoughin certain parts of the fire to ignite some of thevapors or fumes given off by the heated fuels.

38

Consequently, fires will give off a wide varietyof fumes or vapors in addition to the productsof complete combustion. Fortunately, many ofthese fumes have strong odors and are irritat-ing to the nasal membranes. This forcefullywarns the firefighter against breathing themunless he stays in the area long enough todesensitize his nasal membranes. The firefightershould not depend on his sense of smell to tellhim when dangerous fumes are present. Manyof the most dangerous gases are completelyodorless. The most common toxic gas encoun-tered in fire areas is carbon monoxide. It iscompletely colorless and odorless. One half ofone percent breathed for 10 minutes can befatal. To understand why there will always besome carbon monoxide gas present in the firearea, we can reexamine the example of the com-bustion of natural gas given earlier. Recall thatthe products of complete combustion of this ma-terial were carbon dioxide and water vapor. Ifthe oxygen supply is limited, the products ofcombustion will include carbon monoxide in-stead of carbon dioxide.

In the case of natural gas we were consider-ing a Class B fuel undergoing combustion andpossibly giving off carbon monoxide gas. Solidcombustibles often give off much larger amountsof carbon monoxide gas because of their com-position. Wood, for example, is made up pri-marily of carbon and hydrogen, but containsconsiderable amounts of free carbon; that is,carbon not bonded with any other element.Carbon bonded with another element such ashydrogen or natural gas can be vaporized andcan be driven to the wood's surface where itcombines with oxygen and undergoes combus-tion. Free carbon, however, cannot be vaporizedat ordinary temperatures. The glowing coalswe observe in the burning of Class A materialsare made up primarily of carbon, which by it-self cannot be vaporized to mix with oxygenand burn. The carbon in the glowing coals mustdepend on oxygen in the air moving into thecoal, where the carbon can unite with oxygenand form carbon monoxide gas. The carbonmonoxide gas then rises to the coal's surface,where it completes its conversion to carbondioxide gas if sufficient temperatures and ox-ygen are present. The surface of glowing coalscan be below 1000° F., the approximate ignitiontemperature of carbon monoxide gas, and it

38

becomes obvious why the fumes from glowingcoals might contain a very high percentage ofcarbon monoxide gas. The fumes from a dyingbed of charcoal might be a good example of this.

HeatTemperatures above a fire (at ceiling level,

for example) rise quite rapidly. Fourteen-hundred degree temperatures at ceiling levelare quite common in residence fires after threeor four minutes. The human body cannot standtemperatures in excess of 150 degrees, except,perhaps for a short period in very dry air, andair in the vicinity of a fire is not dry air.

Suffocation.Even if a fire produced nosmoke and the combustion products were non-toxic, the oxygen content of the air could betoo low to support life. We can illustrate thisby considering a natural gas space heater oreven the ordinary kitchen range. These appli-ances premix the air and fuel before it reachesthe combustion zone. The combustion process isefficient and complete, producing only watervapor and carbon dioxide. If either of theseappliances were allowed to burn in an air tightroom, occupants of the room might not be awarethat anything was wrong. The room might seemhot and steamy, and wa ter might begin to con-dense on the windows. This process of burningthe oxygen would continue until the oxygencontent reached perhaps 15 percent. At aboutthis point, the burners on the stove would startproducing carbon monoxide gas in place ofcarbon dioxide gas. Still the occupants of theroom might not notice anything wrong andwould simply go to sleep. In other words, theymight be extinguished at about the same timethe fire in the appliance was.

A good analogy can be drawn between peoplein a closed room and a fire in a closed room. Thelife processes by which people live and breatheare almost identical to the principles illustratedby the fire triangle. People eat carbohydrates,compounds of carbon and hydrogen, primarilyin the form of sugar and starch that providesenergy for the life processes. We breath oxygento oxidize these fuels and extract the necessaryenergy from them. The products of this oxida-tion are co., and 1.12,0 and are exhaled throughthe lungs. A number of people in a closed roomwill use the oxygen supply and replace it withcarbon dioxide and water vapor. The room will

become hot and stuffy and the people willeventually be overcome. Civil Defense specifica-tions for shelters provide for a minimumamount of fresh air in the shelter to avoid thispossibility. Where shelter ventilation is at abare minimum, the occupants are advised to beas quiet as possible to conserve the life-sustain-ing oxygen.

There is one exception to our analogy. Peopledo not give off carbon monoxide gas. Indeed,this is the main reason for the toxicity of car-bon monoxide gas. When it is breathed, it goesinto the blood stream, and the blood streamdoes not give it up easily. Carbon monoxideaccumulates in the blood stream until the bloodstream is no longer capable of carrying life-sustaining oxygen to body tissues. People some-times die of carbon monoxide poisoning evenafter they are removed to fresh air because ofthe body's inability to get rid of the carbonmonoxide.

Str"Uctural Weaknesses.Fire may burnthrough wooden members of buildings, or tem-peratures of 1400° F. can soften steel support-ing members and bring about partial collapseof a structure. Structural failures often occurin mercantile and industrial buildings that havelarge open areas without supporting columns.Collapse of residential type structures severeenough to endanger firefighters rarely occur.Perhaps the greatest danger to the firefighterfrom this standpoint is the chance of fallingthrough a weakened roof or floor into the fire.For this reason firefighters who enter buildingsfor the purpose of rescue usually try to stayclose to the walls, especially when the floor hasa somewhat spongy feeling.

Keep Exit Clear.Whenever a firefighterenters a building either for rescue or ex-tinguishment of fire, the exit should always bekept clear behind him. There are two very goodreasons for this. First, he needs an escape route.If the firefighter has entered the building forrescue, he will need a clear exit through whichto carry or drag the victim. If he has enteredthe building for the purposes of extinguish-ment, he will probably stay at the job of fire-fighting until almost exhausted. Many times hewill be forced to seek fresh air almost blind ;that is, with his eyes so full of smoke that hecannot see clearly. Second, a clear exit is neededto provide a flow of fresh air. The air in a

39 39

building, even where a small fire is burning,is never completely clear, and the flow of freshair through the opening where the firefighferentered can help the firefighter complete hisjob. One or two persons standing in the openingwhere the firefighter has entered can cut off hissupply of fresh air and keep him from com-pleting his job.

It is dangerous for one man to go very farinto a burning building. For great distances,firefighters should always work in pairs, and

they should take in with them some trailmarker, such as a hose or a rope, to help themto find their way out in case of trouble.

Falling Debris.Firefighting should not beattempted without some form of protectivehead gear. Even in relatively small fires windowglass may be cracked and fall out. Sections ofthe eaves may be weakened and fall ; or as isquite often the case, large sections of plasterfall. Any of these can cause severe head in-juries.

40

ELEMENTARY FIREFIGHTING TECHNIQUES

Fire Extinguishers

Most fires start small and can be effectivelycontrolled by the proper use of small extinguish-ment equipment. This equipment is light enoughto be carried or moved about on wheeles.

Portable fire extinguishers have some limita-tions with which the operator must be familiar.Not all extinguishers can be successfully usedon the different fire classifications.

Several different methods of expelling theextinguishing agents are used by the manufac-turers of the portable equipment, the operatormust be familiar with the types used in hislocation. Also, some knowledge is necessary ofthe operating characteristics of different ex-tinguishers.

Extinguishing AgentsWater.Over the years water has been the

most commonly used extinguishing agent.Water extinguishes by cooling ; it absorbs largequantities of heat and produces steam for acombination cooling and smothering. Therefore,it is the most efficient agent for Class A fuels.Because it is abundant and readily available,water is also most economical.

Water may also be mixed with various othermaterials that will improve its extinguishingcharacteristics.

Water may be mixed with calcium chlorideand can be stored in freezing temperatures innoncorrosive containers.

Adding a wetting agent in proper quantitiesto water will reduce the surface tension andincrease the penetrating, spreading, and emulsi-fying properties.

Chemical Foam (Water Base) .When wateris mixed with two chemicals, aluminum sulfateand sodium bicarbonate, plus a foaming agent

CHAPTER TEN

and stabilizer in the proper quantities a toughfoam is produced. The foam is capable of bothsmothering and cooling and may be used withsome success on both Class A and B fires. Foamextinguishers will not control as much fire assome other extinguishers of about the samesize. The advantage of chemical foam is itsability to cover and prevent flashbacks of firesin Class B fuels.

Loaded Stream (Water Base) .Water baseis a solution containing water and alkali-metalsalts. It can be used in freezing temperaturesto 400 below zero. The agent may be used onClass A fires ; it seems to extinguish the flamesuddenly and leave a fire-retarding effect.Loaded stream may also be used on Class Bfuels with some success.

Regular Dry Chemical.Regular dry chemi-cal powder is composed primarily of sodiumbicarbonate or potassium bicarbonate. Al-though the etxinguishing action of these pow-ders is not fully understood, they are particu-larly effective on Class B fires. They also maybe used successfully in conjunction with water"fog" streams. In controlling Class B fires thechemical should be applied as if to separate theflame from the fuel. Dry chemical in either ofits forms can be used on Class C fires. Becauseof the clean-up problem in sensitive switchinggear, however, other types of extinguishingagents may be a better choice, if available.

Multi-purpose Dry Chemical.The chemicalmakeup of the multi-purpose dry chemical hasnot been revealed by its manufacturers. How-ever, monoammonium phosphate is believed tobe the principal ingredient. As in the case ofthe regular dry chemical agents, the extinguish-ing action of multi-purpose powder is not fullyunderstood. It can be used on Class A fires be-

41 41

cause it adheres to the surface of Class A fuels,forming a coating which retards combustion ifnot too deeply seated. Multi-purpose powder isalso effective on Class B fuels and should beused in the same manner as the regular powder.The multi-purpose powder is also a non-con-ductor of electricity and may be used on Class Cfires. However, the clean up process may beeven more complicated than that of regularchemical, and other types of extinguishingagents may be preferred over the powder.

Carbon Dioxide.Carbon dioxide was one ofthe early extinguishing agents successfully usedto control Class B and Class C fires. It has manyproperties making it desirable for portable fireextinguishers. It is noncombustible and pro-vides its own pressure for discharge from thecontaining cylinder. There is no cleanup prob-lem, and it may be used successfully on mostClass C fires. Since it is a gas that does notreadily react with most substances, it is a fineagent to use around food stuffs.

It must be noted, however, that carbon di-oxide is not as effective as the dry powders onClass B fires.

Halogenated Extinguishing Agents (Vapor-izing Liquids). These extinguishing agents, be-cause of their highly toxic nature, are notconsidered practical for use in portable fireextinguishers today. Because of some proper-ties, however, they are beneficial where they areused in engineered systems. They are used inaircraft engine fire-extinguishing systems andin explosion-suppression units in closed con-tainers.

Means of Expulsion

Generally there are four methods of expellingextinguishing agents from portable fire extin-guisher : Chemical, Stored Pressure, CartridgeOperated, and Handpump.

Chemical.In portable extinguishers usingthe chemical method of explusion, two chemicalmixtures in the extinguisher must be mixed to-gether to form a gas, usually carbon dioxide,which will pressurize the extinguisher con-tainer. In most cases this is accomplished byinverting the portable extinguisher. The soda-acid and the foam extinguishers are the ex-amples of this equipment.

Stored Pressure. In the stored-pressure type

42

of portable extinguishers, a gas is confinedunder pressure in the same container that holdsthe extinguishing agent. In some cases, as inthe carbon dioxide extinguisher, the extinguish-ing agent supplies its own pressure for dis-charge. In other stored-pressure extinguishersair, nitrogen, or carbon dioxide are introducedinto the container. Usually this extinguisherwill have a pressure gauge on the valve assem-bly to indicate the amount of pressure. In moststored-pressure extinguishers other than thecarbon dioxide, the expelling gas will be air.

Cartridge Operated.In the cartridge-oper-ated extinguishers, a small sealed cartridgeusually 8 ozs. to 12 ozs. in size will contain agas to pressurize the extinguisher. The car-tridge will contain about 1800 psi of either car-bon dioxide or nitrogen. The cartridge willusually be found under the filling cap suspendedin the container holding the extinguishingagent. This type of extinguisher must be turnedupside down and the cap bumped on the flooror ground to puncture the seal releasing the gasfrom the cartridge into the container.

In other types of cartridge-operated equip-ment the cartridge will be found outside of themain container with an operating handle orlever that must be operated to puncture the sealon the cartridge.

Hand Pump Operated.Some extinguishershave a double-action, hand-pump mechanism toexpell the extinguishing agent. The waterpumptank extinguisher of the 21/2- and 5-gallon sizeis the only hand-pump style in general usetoday. With this type of equipment the extin-guishing agent is expelled on both the up anddown stroke. The length of stream and the timeof discharge with this type of equipment istotally dependent upon the action of the oper-ator. Generally with this type of equipment, theextinguisher must be set on the floor duringoperation because the extinguisher shell ofhand-pump operated equipment is not pres-surized.

Maintaining this unit is very simple. Usually,all that is required is to see that the pumpleathers are kept in a flexible condition and thatthe ball-type valves do not stick and are freeto operate.

, 42

FIGURE 13.Chemical Extinguisher

43 43

ft

FIGURE 15.Cartridge Extinguisher

FIGURE 15.Hand Operated Pump Tank

Numerical Ratings of Portable ExtinguishersThe various types of portable extinguishers

may be found in many different sizes. Handextinguishers may range from those containingtwo (2) pounds of extinguishing agent up tounits containing approximately forty (40)pounds. Also, the effectiveness of the variousextinguishing agents per pound varies some-what.

Most of the extinguishers the Support Assist-ant will be called upon to operate will have anUnderwriters' Laboratories label. The Under-writers' Laboratories tests and lists the variousextinguishers according to their effectiveness.This listing may be found on the name plate ofthe extinguisher.

Extinguishers are listed for the class of fire,such as A or B, with a numeral preceding theA or 13 classification. These numerals have adirect relationship to the extinguisher's effec-tiveness on the class of fire for which it is listed.For example, a 48 extinguisher will be twice aseffective for a flammable liquid fire as a 213extinguisher.

Buckets and Miscellaneous ContainersIn certain cases portable extinguishers might

not be available for combating fires; or if fireswere extensive, the available portable extin-guishers might soon be exhausted. In this case,

44

the firefighter would have to make use of whatis available. If the firefighter understands theprincipals of fire extinguishment and the effortis organized, a great deal can be accomplishedwith buckets and other miscellaneous containersto move water, sand, or dirt to the fire.

Many fires have been extinguished by theold-fashioned bucket brigade and many morewould probably have been extinguished if thepersons using the water at the end of the linehad understood what they were trying to ac-complish. As with the water type portableextinguisher, the water should be carefully ap-plied to cool the fuel actually involved in thefire. Merely throwing the water in the generaldirection of the fire will only waste water. Amuch better technique would be to bring thebuckets of water to the scene of the fire andempty them into a larger container, such as atub. The actual firefighter then, with perhaps acouple of smaller containers, could make muchbetter use of the available water. Sizeable ClassA fires could be controlled in this manner.

If water is not available, sand or dirt can bethrown on Class A fuels and, again, if the cor-rect techniques are used, can be quite effective.Dirt can also be used efficiently and effectivelyon Class B, C, or D fires.

Standpipe and Garden HoseSome buildings have standpipes and hose

racks on each floor ; all that is necessary here isto extend the line and open the valve on theriser. A garden hose provides continuous flowsof water if pressure is available and will cor.trolsomewhat larger fires than portable extinguish-ers or buckets o; water.

If the nozzle on the standpipe hose or thegarden hose is of the solid stream type, it willbe effective on Class A. fires only. But if thehose is equipped with a spray nozzle, the spraystream can be used to control some types ClassB and C fires as well.

In some buildings the pressure on the stand-pipe may be high enough to make the hose hardto handle. The riser valve can be partially closedto overcome this problem.

Miscellaneous EquipmentA ladder is an invaluable tool in firefighting.

The extinguishing agent must be applied to thefire, and in many cases, this will not be possible

46 -

CartridgeWater

AntiFreeze

Dry Chemical Purple K

FIGURE 17.Fire Extinguishers

47

LoadedStream

MultipurposeDry Chemical

47

without a ladder. The ladder is also an invalu-able rescue tool when persons are trapped onupper floors.

The firefighter should also have availablesome sort of ax. He may have to open up wallsto complete the extinguishing of fires.

Shovels, rakes, and brooms can be usefultools in controlling brush and grass fires. Heavybrooms and wetted-down sacks or rugs all canbe used to beat back a grass or leaf fire alongits edges. The burning fuel is raked or beat:back into the burned area. Shovels and heavyhoes can be used to construct fire lines some-what ahead of the fire.

EvacuationIn all firefighting situations perhaps the most

important factor is cool deliberate action on thepart of the firefighter. "Heroic" impulsive ac-tions have no place in firefighting. They aremost likely to lead the individual into situationsfrom which there is no escape. All actionsshould be planned with alternate plans in mindbecause conditions change. This does not mean

48

that the firefighter does not take certainchances. Such risks as he does take are carefullycalculated and always weighed against the im-portance of the job to be done. For example,the firefighter takes somewhat greater riskswhen lives are involved than when only materialitems are endangered.

These. considerations are very importantwhenever a building is entered for the purposeof rescue or firefighting. Perhaps the most im-portant thing for the firefigKer to remember isthat fire travels upwards, sometimes with greatrapidity. It is especially dangerous to enter abu:Iding above a fire, and in rnost cases thisshould not be attempted except possibly forrescue. Fires above grade level should usuallybe approached from below. Basement and otherbelow-grade level fires present special problems.Care should be taken during firefighting oper-ations to maintain an exit from these areasdu ring operations.

Whenever one is in a fire building, the cardi-nal principle of safety is KEEP LOW. Theupper levels will be filled with hot air and the

FIGURE 18.Use Care When Opening A Door

. 48

products of combustion. If there is fresh airentering the building, it will be at low levels,sometimes within a few inches of the floor. Eventhough one may be able to "take it" standingup, the question might be how iong. The indi-vidual may need to be in the area long enoughto get a particular firefighting job done orsimply long enough to make good his escape.The individual who keeps low will have a betterchance to spot the clear areas (that is, areaswhere the fresh air is moving into the room)and take advantage of these areas.

All movements within a fire building shouldbe cautious and planned ; especially if the indi-vidual has entered areas above the fire for pur-pose of rescue. In general, the firefighter shouldkeep away from the center of the floor becauseit may cave in first because of the fire below.It is usually safer and easier to follow along thewall to a door. In moving about in a fire build-ing be especially careful of opening a door. Heatand fire may have accumulated on the otherside of a door, and if the door is opened, theindividv...4l would be met with a blast of hot air.Always fc.!el doors with the hand and open themcautiously.

Another very important consideration whenmoving about in a building involved in fire isbreath control. A few deep breaths of fresh airbefore entering the building will allow the indi-vidual to be more cautious about his breathingupon entering the building. Inside the buildingwatch for and take advantage of charnels orpockets of fresh air. Also, smoke will tend todcsensitizc the nasal membranes and you maylose your sense of smell. This could cause a falsesense of security and lead you to stay in thearea too long. Do not stay in a contaminatedatmosphere any longer than necessary.

Although it does not by any means providebreathing protection, a wet rag or handkerchiefover the nose can in many cases be very helpful.Not only does it remove some of the larger par-ticles from the smoke, but in case of a flash offire, it may save the individual from a lungfull of hot gases. When the situation warrantsit, do not hesitate to wet down your clothing orthe clothing of the victim you are attempting torescue.

Whether you enter a building for the pur-poses of fire control or are attempting to escapefrom a building, always consider alternate

means of escape. Never take a chance on movingthrough the fire area if you can escape throughwindows, especially on the ground floor. Onupper floors many times it is much safer to useblankets, sheets, ropes or similar items tiedtogether with square knots to lower yourselfto the ground rather than try to get out throughthe fire. If the door to the room you are at-tempting to escape from is closed, there shouldbe no great haste. It takes fire a considerabletime to burn through even a wooden door, andtime should be taken to tie the knots carefullyand secure them to a heavy object such as a bedor a dresser. If you have nothing from whichto improvise a rope, open window from top andbottom, keep your head out in the fresh air,call for help, and wait as long as possible beforedrorming to the ground. If forced to drop to theground, lower yourself as far as possible byhanging to the window sill. Look over theground beneath you carefully and try to pushyourself in the direction where the chance ofinjury will be the least. For example, you maybe able to drop into some ornamental shrubbery.If there are individuals on the ground below youwithout the means to help you, listen to theiradvice. They are in a much better position toestimate your danger from the fire below; theymay be able to remove dangerous objects suchas stakes, from your intended landing point.

RescueThe Support Assistant may in some cases be

responsible for organizing search and rescueefforts. Here again he may have to make somedifficult decisions. He may have to decidewhether to devote his efforts to search andrescue in demolished buildings or fighting firesin other buildings. In spite of lives immediatelyendangered, he will need to determine the pri-orities. Remember that it would do little goodto rescue one or two individuals if the onlyfallout shelter in the area was allowed to burn.In certain cases, the Support Assistant may becharged with responsibility of rescuing peoplefrom burning buildings. Here too he may haveto choose between immediate firefighting andresc e. Rescue is usually considered of first im-portance in firefighting, but in many caseswhere a fire might spread rapidly, rescues canbe best effected by first extinguishing the fire,if the necessary fire extinguishment equipmentis at hand.

- '49 49

All search and rescue efforts should be care-fully organized in order that all areas aresearched systematically and time is not wastedsearching certain areas over and over again andneglecting others. This is of utmost importancewhere the building is involved in fire because ofthe limiting time factor and the difficulty of thesearch. Searching a building charged withsmoke is a very difficult job, especially whenthe firefighter does not have mask equipmentavailable.

The firefighter should attempt to get all theinformation he can from other people who haveescaped from the building. Determining wherecertain individuals were last seen could savevaluable minutes. Firefighters have learnedfrom experience not to place much confidencein information volunteered by individuals whocome from outside the building. Many times asmall crowd gathers, rumors fly thick and fast,and almost inevitably some well-meaning indi-vidual steps out of the crowd to inform thefirefighter about the specific location of a num-ber of people in the fire building.

Whenever possible, search by pairs of fire-fighters, keeping in close touch and searchingeach room systematically. They should have arope, garden hose, or some similar item laid outas they enter in order that they can follow thisback to safety or follow the walls. In the totaldarkness of buildings heavily charged withsmoke, firefighters have been known to panicand lose themselves in areas as small as one ortwo 9 x 12 rooms.

All building corners must be searched care-fully. Children will often crawl under beds,behind dressers or into closets in a vain attemptto escape smoke. During the search, the rescuershould always be alert for any sounds, such asthe groans of a semiconscious person or thewhimpering of a child.

In some cases, people may simply be confusedlost rather than trapped in the building. Inthese cases, they can often be led to safety bysimply calling to them from the doorway andcontinuing to talk to them so that they can movetoward your voice.

When victims are located, various techniquesmay be used for removing them depending upontheir condition and the circumstances. Severalcarries and walking assists are illustrated.

In many cases in fire situations the preferred

50

method of removing victims is the drag. It getsboth the rescuer and the victim out of thesmoke and fire area in the shortest possibletime, and at the same time, it keeps both ofthem low near the floor where the best air isavailable. Several different drags are illustratedhere.

First Aid

The Support Assistant for Fire Emergenciesshould have as a minimum the basic first aidcourse or the training coure in "Medical SelfHelp." However, in post-attack situations in-volving nuclear weapons, the Support Assistantshould be able to turn first aid duties over tosomeone else after the individuals have beenrescued. He should request volunteers that havehad basic first aid or medical self help training.

There are five basic first-aid rules that every-one should know. They are :

How to stop bleeding.The average adultbody contains only six quarts of blood. The lossof one quart is serious; so bleeding has priorityover all other emergencies. Apply pressure tothe wound at oncewith your hand, if nothingelse is available, although a bandage, cleancloth, or sanitary napkin will help prevent in-fection. But don't wasth time looking for them.Don't wash the wound. Apply pressure hard andfast bringing the edges of the wound togetherif you can. You may have to continue the pres-sure for 30 minutes.

Apply a tourniquet only as a last resort. Itmay cost the patient his limb.

Breathing difficulties.Getting air into thevictim's lungs fast is vital. Remove throat ob-structions, such as mucus, debris, or a jarred-loose denture. If he is breathing, place him onhis side so that blood or secretions will not flowinto air passages. If he is not breathing, applymouth-to-mouth respiration. Tilt victim's headback to "sword-swallower" position (a blanketor billow under shoulders will help), pinch hisnose shut (see drawing), seal your open mouthover his, inhale deeply through your nose, andexhale deeply into his mouth 12 to 16 times aminute for an adult, 20 for a child. Contimethis for two hours, even if life seems extinct,before giving up. As he revives, adjust yourbreathing rhythm to his.

If the pat:ent has a chest wound, cover it withan airtight dressing.

50

FIGURE 19.Moving Victims

51 51

41,1

4-y ((INV/1'17'111'ric 1,0

4104o:76

52

FIGURE 20.First Aid Methods

52

If the patient has stopped breathing becauseof smoke exposure, he is probably sufferingfrom carbon monoxide poisoning. To survive,he is in urgent need of pure oxygen. Give mouthto mouth respiration, and get oxygen to thepatient as quickly as possible. If it is not possi-ble to get oxygen to the scene, move the patientto where oxygen is available continuing mouth-to-mouth respiration enroute. Even wherebreathing is only partially impaired, victims ofsmoke poisoning should have pure oxygen asquickly as possible. Pure oxygen has the effectof working carbon monoxide from the bloodstream and restores the ability of the bloodstream to carry oxygen to the body tissues.

Handling Fractures.Simple bone fracturesshow themselves by being tender to touch or bythe unnatural shape of the affected part or byswelling and change in skin color. Compoundfractures are indicated by broken skin, some-times with the bone protruding. Splint the frac-ture wherever the patient lies before movinghim, firmly supporting the broken limb.

Burns.Light burns (reddening of the skin)need not be covered, and can be treated withpain relievers or left alone. Deeper burns,where blisters and especially destruction of tis-sue under the skin occur, should be covered witha clean dressing. No ointments or salves shouldbe used. Fluid that oozes from the burn andforms a crust is a good dressing in itself. Don'tpuncture blisters unless they are likely to break;in this case, make a small slit at the edge.

If the burns are severe, get the victim todrink a salt solution if possible (one level tea-spoon salt to one quart of water) in smallomounts. A gallon during the first 24 hours isnot too much.

Shock."Shock" as used in this section re-fers to a condition that frequently comes withserious injury, such as severe wounds, burns,bleeding, and broken bones. It is due to a short-age of blood in various parts of the body. Thiscauses the heart to beat faster to pump moreblood, resulting in a rapid pulse. Lack of enoughcirculation through the brain causes uncon-sciousness.

Obviously, a large amount of bleeding in-

creases the danger of shock. In severe burns theoozing of blood fluids from the burned areas in-creases the danger. Shock may (1111F1P desth ifnot treated promptiy even though the injury

53

causes it may not itself be enough to causedeath.

The state of shock may develop rapidly ormay be delayed and manifest itself hours later.Shock occurs to some degree after every injury.It may be so slight as not to be noticed, but it isa serious condition in many injuries.

Shock is easy to recognize. The skin gets paleand clammy, with small drops of sweat particu-larly around the lips and forehead. The personmay complain of nausea and dizziness. His pulsemay be fast and weak and his breathing shallowand irregular. His eyes may be dull with en-larged pupils, or he may be unconscious. A per-son may not be aware of the seriousness of hisinjury, and then suddenly collapse.

All seriously injured persons should betreated for shock even though all these symp-t oms have not appeared and the person seemsnormal and alert. Treatment for shock mayprevent its development.

FIGURE 21.Shock Treatment

Treatment for Shock

1. dave the injured person lie down.

2. Elevate his feet and legs 12 inches ormore. This helps the flow of blood to his heartand head. Exception : If the person has receiveda head or chest injury or if he has difficultybreathing, elevate his head and chest ratherthan his feet.

53

3. Keep the person warm, but not hot. Placea blanket under him. Depending on the weather,place a sheet or blanket over him. Avoid gettinghim so hot that he perspires because this drawsblood to the skin and away from the body in-terior where it is needed. On warm days or ina hot room no covering will be necessary.

4. Give him liquid, about a glassful of saltand soda solution every 15 minutes, if his con-dition permits. If he is unconscious, do not at-tempt to give anything to drink. If he vomits

54

or is nauseated, postpone giving liquid until thenausea disappears.

5. Keep the person quiet. See that bleedingis controlled and injured parts are kept still.Assure him that he will get the best care youcan give. Reassurance is a potent medicine.

6. A person who has recovered from shockneeds to be kept in bed. This is usually not diffi-cult to accomplish because he will feel weak andexhausted. Sleep and rest will hasten hisrecovery.

54

SHELTER DUTIES

At the time of a nuclear burst, occupants offallout shelters will be subject to several po-tential types of fire exposure.

Those shelter buildings located within thecritical ignition energy range of the weapon'sthermal pulse wili be immediately subject to thepossible occurence of one or more incipient fireswithin the shelter area itself. Also, secondaryweapon-related fires due to broken gas mains,broken power lines, etc., are possible althoughnot too probable in areas where shelters arestill able to retain their structural integrity.

During the postattack confinement period,shelters will be subject to two additional po-tential sources of fire. Shelter buildings locatedsufficiently near to one or more adjacent build-ings lace the possibility of ignition throughradiation from fires that have developed in thesurrounding structures. These fires may or maynot have been originally weapon-related. Inaddition, the possibility exists in varying de-grees of a nonweapon-related fire originatingin unattended portions of the shelter buildingor within the shelter area itself because ofoccupant activities.

Shelters locitted beyond the ignition energyrange of the weapon's thermal pulse will besubject only to ignitions from accidental causesduring the confinement period, and again, thesecan occur within the shelter building, the shel-ter area itself, or can spread from adjacentstructures to the shelter building.

The Support Assistant for Fire Emergenciesmay be called on to act as a fire guard in a shel-ter. Local Fire authorities may assign theindividual to a specific shelter, or in othercases, he may be appointed as a fire guard bythe shelter manager after the shelter has beenoccupied.

riot)

CHAPTER ELEVEN

Fire Guard FunctionsFire prevention would be very important for

the shelter occupants, both during the preat-tack and the postattack period. The most im-portant single fire prevention action uponoccupying shelter buildings is to shield windowsby keeping window blinds and shades closed, orby painting, coating, or otherwise covering thewindows. There is strong evidence that mostignitions causing sustained fires would occur inthe interior of rooms exposed to the heat flashof nuclear weapons. Ignitions caused by theheat flash would occur before blast damage toblinds or other coverings, and can thus be pre-vented in large part by covering the windows orclosing blinds or shades prior to attack.

Other important fire prevention actions in-clude removing curtains, and removing ignit-able furniture from window areas. Plans forcontrol of gas and electric utility service canreduce the incidence of fires caused by blastdamage.

It was pointed out earlier in this manual thatpeople themselves are also fire causes and witha number of people confined in a shelter, theiractivities might tend to introduce fire hazardsthroughout the shelter stay. Periodic inspec-tions of both the shelter area and areas externalto the shelter would also need to be made to re-move fire hazards. These fire prevention activi-Ves would need to continue during the shelterstay.

Since fire suppression equipment within theshelter would probably be limited, it would beessential that fires be discovered in their in-cipient stage either in unoccupied areas of theshelter building or in buildings immediatelyadjacent to the shelter building. Periodic pa-trols of fire guards would need to be establishedto assure that fires were discovered early.

55

Fire guards would be responsible for the sup-pression of fires within the shelter area as wellas suppression of fires external to the shelterarea that might threaten shelter security.

Selection of Fire Guards

Shelter fire guards would be needed as thecadre or nucleus to direct the fire defense ofeach public shelter, and they should, if possible,be trained during crisis periods. Shelter fireguard teams should be organized from amongshelter occupants, with fire guards or any regu-lar fire personnel present taking the lead in or-ganizing the team. Shelter occupants who hadcompleted the Self-Help Emergency Firefight-ing course would provide a good source for teammembers. Shelter fire guard teams would oper-ate under the shelter manager.

When enough individuals with fire trainingwere not available the Shelter Fire GuardLeader would need to select individuals withgood physical capabilities to serve under thosetrained people who wlere available.

The number of personnel selected as fireguards would depend on the many factors in-cluding the size of the shelter. The minimumorganization would consist of one fire guard(leader) and two fire guards.

Beside shelter size a number of other factorsmight affect the number of fire guards needed.Sufficient fire guards would need to be selectedto man the fire-suppression equipment avail-able in the building. Because people themselveshitroduce fire hazards into the building, thenumber and type of people occupying the shelterwould be an important factor in determiningthe number of fire guards.

The area of the shelter would be an importantconsideration in determining the size of theguard force. Some shelters in tall buildingsmight have shelters on several different floors.Here it might be necessary to assign a fireguard for each floor. In addition, in this type ofbuilding fire guards and fire prevention meas-ures would need to be stressed on the lowerfloors since even a small rubbish fire on one ofthe lower floors might make the entire buildinguntenable because of smoke.

Besides the area of the shelter itself, the un-sheltered parts of the building would need to beconsidered in determining the size of the guard

56

force since the entire area of the building wouldneed to be regularly patrolled.

Another factor to consider is the shelterbuildings resistance to fire. Buildings con-structed of entirely fire-resistive material withclosed stairwells would require fewer fireguards than buildings with open stairwells andperhaps some combustible interior finishes. Insome areas persons might have to be shelteredin buildings which might be classed untenablewith regard to fire. This could be buildings con-structed largely of combustible materials orsome areas of the building might contain con-siderable amounts of combustible material.

Other factors to consider would be the radi-ation level outside, the protection factor of theshelter itself, and the protection factor in theareas of the building that would need to bepatrolled. Careful records would need to bekept of the radiation exposure of fire guardsoperating outside the immediate shelter area.If the radiation level was sufficiently high inunsheltered areas of the building, additional fireguards might need to be assigned to keep theradiation exposure of any one individual at asafe minimum. The radiation exposure of fireguards during patrol would need to be kept ata minimum to provide them with a reserve ofradiation exposure time to enable them to sup-press fires if and when they occur.

The criteria below are recommended as astarting point of establishing local requirementsfor shelter fire guards. Note that shelter theguardsto direct the fire defense of each publicsheltershould be oriented or trained duringcrisis periods. Fire guard team members wouldbe secured from among shelter occupants, afterpopulation movement to shelter.

Shelter Capacity(persons)Up to 100100 300300 800800-1500

1500-5000Over 5000

Shelter Fire Guards(leaders required)

23457

10, plus 10 for every additional5,000 persons

Preattack Fire-Prevention PreparationsThe entire shelter building should be in-

spected for kindling fuels that might be exposedthrough windows or other openings to heatradiation from a nuclear explosion. These ma-terials should either be removed from locations

56

where they would be exposed to heat radiationor the windows through which the radiated heatmight enter should be covered. Aluminum foilwould be ideal material, but if this is not avail-able, other materials of a noncombustible naturemight be used. If there are windows throughwhich radiant heat might enter the shelter area,these should either be covered or shelter occu-pants should be moved to locations in the shel-ter area where they would not be exposed tothe radiant heat.

To insure the safety and maximum comfortof all the shelter occupants, careful in-shelterfire discipline would be needed. Some aspectsof the shelter discipline would probably be en-forced by shelter police, but the rules with re-gard to fire would probably be established bythe tire guards in consultation with the fireguard supervisor.

Smoking regulations would need to be estab-lished. In shelters where the ventilation waslimited, smoking might have to be entirely pro-hibited since smoking not only would pollutethe atmosphere but would consume valuableoxygen. In other shelters, separate areas mightbe set aside for smoking. Perhaps in less wellshielded portions or areas of the building.

People entering a shelter might bring withthem materials that could result in a rathersubstantial accumulation of rubbish of a com-bustible nature. An area would need to be setaside for the disposal or containment of flam-mable items. It might also be necessary to re-move certain combustible items for the shelteredarea to a safe storage area.

Regulations would need to be established withregard to cooking and heating fires. If heatingappliances are well vented, these might beallowed to burn. Cooking fires of the gas typeare often unvented, and it should be remem-bered that these would compete with the shelteroccupants for oxygen when they were used.The use of charcoal for heating or cookingshould not be permitted because this couldresult in the accumulation of deadly carbonmonoxide gas.

Fire Equipment LocationPre-attack fire control preparations should

include the collection and assembly of as manyfire extinvuishers as possible during the timeallowed. These extinguishers might be collected

from areas of the shelter building or from build-ings immediately adjacent to the shelter.

The fire guards should locate standpipe con-nections and hoses in the shelter building andfamiliarize themselves with their operation.They should also locate any controls for auto-matic firefighting systems and familiarize them-selves with their operation.

The fire guards should also locate the valvesto shut off the water mains into the buildingespecially where such valves may be located in-side the building. If after the attack it becomesobvious that water pressure was being lostbecause of breaks outside the shelter building,closing the water valves could trap and holdvaluable amounts of water in the system of thebuilding for later use.

Utilities Shut-OffFire guards should check to see that all cook-

ing and processing equipment used within theshelter building is safely shut down. Theyshould also shut down all heating, electrical,and gas service within the building except thoseportions that must be maintained in connectionwith the initial operation of the shelter areaand or the approaches thereto.

The process of shutting off utilities during anemergency and of restoring them to serviceafter the emergency has passed requires carefulconsideration. Each type of utility has chnrac-teristics that can contribute to the danger anddiscomfort of shelter occupants.

GasAll gas equipment and appliances that are not

essential to shelter occupancy should be turnedoff at each burner control. The pilot light mustremain lighted. However, if the supply linesshould be ruptured within the shelter facility,shut off the closest valve between the break andthe source. The main supply valve should onlybe turned off.as a last resort.

If the gas supply to the shelter facility hasbeen interrupted for any reason, turn off themain gas valve and leave it off. When theserice is interrupted, all pilot lights go out. Ifthe main gas supply should be restored withoutthe knowledge of the shelter occupants, theleakage from the pilot light burners could ac-cumulate and cause an explosion.

57 37

BRANCHLINE VALVES

APPLIANCEBURNER

>i<FIGURE 22.Gas supply valves

The various points for shut-off of the gas sup-ply are illustrated in this schematic diagram.

Electricity

Turn off all nonessential electrical equipmentand appliances. It is not necessary to inactivatea whole circuit unless it is the quickest way toshutdown a group of nonessential equipmentor there is damage to the circuit.

Water

Water supply should not be shutdown unlessthere has been damage to the supply line. How-ever, restrictions on the use of water may re-quire the temporary shutdown of Fame branchlines. AVOID WATER WASTE.

Pre-Plan

The relatively short interval that may beavailable between the alert and the time of at-tack, as well as the critical need for prompt sup-pression of all incipient ignitions, make it im-perative that a detailed pre-attack operationalplan be established within the shelter building.This plan, which should be implemented by theshelter fire guard (leader) and the fire guards,would be an invaluable aid in completing thenecessary steps before attack. The time avail-able for carrying out these steps might be as

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short as 20 to 30 minutes. Obviously, one of twofire guards could not complete this work and in-coming shelter occupants should be screened forpersonnel to assist the fire gr 1rds in these pre-attack preparations. When pre-attack prepara-tions have been completed, these same indi-viduals should be organized into firefightingteams and available firefighting cquipment is-sued to the team members.

If time permits after completion of the pre-attack preparations, the Fire Guard Leadershould hold detailed pre-planning and trainingsessions with the fire guard teams.

Postattack Operations

Following a nuclear burst certain segments ofthe fire control pre-plan should be put into effectat once. The 30-minute time period before thearrival of fallout has been mentioned earlierand should be considered in postattack fireoperations.

If fires have been ignited within the shelteror the shelter building itself, these should beattacked at once. Speed is essential in respond-ing to the nuclear fire threat.

It is of vital importance to promptly suppressignitions in occupied structures. Removal orextinguishment of ignitions is not difficult ortime-consumingbut this must he done within

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5 to 10 minutes after the nuclear burst, beforethe whole room is afire.

During this period fire guards should verycarefully monitor the use of extinguishingequipment and agents. At best, these will be inshort supply and should not be wasted. Somematerials, such as overstuffed furniture, mat-tresses, and pillows, can require relatively largeamounts of water to completely extinguish firesin them. With such materials, the surface fireshould be controlled and the materials torn apartor separated to locate the remaining pockets offire. In some cases after the surface fire is con-trolled. these kinds of materials can be takenoutside. This should not be attempted unless itcan be done without spreading the fire. A strongwarning note must be sounded here in connec-tion with moving burning fuels to the outside.Do not under any circumstances attempt tomove containers of flammable liquid involved infire; this almost always results in the containersbeing spilled and the fire spread beyond control.

As soon as possible, shelter fire guard teamsshould be dispatched to survey adjacent build-ings to locate and extinguish incipient fires thatmay have been ignited from the weapon or non-related causes. These teams should first inspectand extinguish fires in structures upwind fromthe shelter building. As with inshelter firefight-ing, the extinguishing agents should be care-fully preserved. Fires that can be safely allowedto burn out should be left to do so under carefulsupervision.

If postattack inspection and fire suppressionoutside the shelter building extends beyond the30-minute period, close coordination with theradiation monitoring teams will be required.Continuing fire control operations outside theshelter will depend on the radiation level, theexposure time of the individuals involved, andthe probable benefits of such activities to allconcerned.

During the inspection and fire control effortsoutside the shelter, the teams should also in-spect for utility damage. If during the screen-ing of shelter occupants persons are found tohave special capabilities in the area of utilitymaintenance, these persons should be assignedto accompany firefighting teams on inspectionsoutside the shelter.

Fire Patrol

Within the shelter building regular fire patrol

schedules should be established. The frequencyand routes of these fire patrols would be set upafter considering two main factors. The needfor the patrul and the radiation exposure toindividuals making the patrol. The need forthe patrol and the frequency of the patrol willdepend on the fire-hazard potential and con-struction of the shelter building.

In a fire resistive building with small amountsof fuel, it would be folly to expose individualsto radiation in frequent patrols of such areas.On the other hand, if the fire potential of thebuilding is high, then it must be inspectedfrequently and the risks of radiation exposureaccepted.

When the frequency and the routes of the pa-trols are established, personnel should be as-signed to make these patrols on a regular basis.Radiation exposure levels of all personnel mak-ing patrols should be carefully recorded. Ade-quate rest periods should be allowed for,especially where radiation exposure is high.Radiation exposure places additional stress onthe body processes to repair the radiation dam-sge. Personnel exposed to radiation damagewould need more rest than during normalpeacetime activities.

Restoration of Utility Service

As soon as possible following the attack,necessary utility services should be restored inthe shelter area. This would of necessity 'ae con-tingent upon the postattack inspection ofutility damage.

Gas

Gas service that has been turned off at anypoint other than at the appliance burner shouldonly be returned to service by qualified andauthorized personnel. The hazards of incorrectgas service restoration are explosion, fire, orasphyxiation.

ElectricityBefore returning inactivated circuits to serv-

ice check for obvious physical damage. If noneexists, reactivate the circuit. If the fuse shouldblow or the circuit breaker kick off, it is a signthat the circuit has been damaged. Do not at-tempt to reactivate the circuit again untilqualified and authorized personnel have re-paired the damage.

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Water

The return to service of damaged water sup-ply lines depends upon the degree of damage.Obviously, a completely broken pipe cannot beput into service. Pipes that have minor cracksor punctures may be packed or plugged and usedby turning on the supply valve only whenneeded.

Shelter Emergence and Damage Assessment

Shelter emergence or stay outside the shelterbeyond the initial 30-minute period would de-pend primarily on the radioactivity present. Asdiscussed earlier in this manual, radioactivitydepends on the type of burst and the wind pat-terns at the time of attack. Radiation monitor-ing teams assigned to the shelter should be ableto make some determinations in this matter.Early emergence of special teams for specificpurpose.; would also be governed to a certainextent by fallout forecasts made by local andstate authorities. If the forecasts indicate thatradiation levels outside the shelter will gohigher, rather than decrease by decay, certainmissions outside the shelter might need to beundertaken as quickly as possible.

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Teams might be sent out some distance fromthe shelter to determine blast damage and thenumber of fires in the vicinity. This informa-tion would be vital to governing officials to helpthem formulate over-all strategy.

Reports from special teams operating outsidethe shelter would be returned to the shelterfire-guard supervisor. He, in coordination withthe shelter manager, would make requests tolocal authorities for outside help in rescue andfire fighting situations if necessary. He mightalso make requests through proper authoritiesto utility companies for damage-repair teams.

Special areas and crews should be set up inthe shelter building to assist special surveyteams coming back into the shelter with decon-tamination. Some decontamination procedureswere explained earlier in this manual.

Additional guidance on the organization andfunctions of the shelter fire guards is containedin the Fallout Shelter Fire-Defense Manual.

Distribution:OCD RegionsStaff CollegeState CD Directors

* U.S. GOVERNMENT PR:NTING OFFICE, 1571 0-425-473

ERIC Clea ri r house

MAY 2 4 1972

on Adult Education