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Miller, Juliet V.; And OthersOverview on Excellence. ERIC Digests Nos. 31-35.ERIC Clearinghouse on Adult, Career, and VocationalEducation, Columbus, Ohio.National Inst. of Education (ED), Washington, DC.84400-81 3512p.Information Analyses - ERIC Information AnalysisProducts 171) -- Reports - Research/Technical (143)

EDRS PRICE MF01/PC01 Plus Postage.DESCRIPTORS Academic Achievement; *Back to Basics; Basic Skills;

*Career Education; Career Planning; EducationalAttitudes; Educational Benefits; EducationalCooperation; Educational Improvement; EducationalNeeds; Educational Practices; Educational Quality;Educational Research; Educational Strategies;Employer Attitudes; Fused Curriculum; Guidelines;Models; Needs Assessment; Outcomes of Education;Postsecondary Education; Research Utilization;'School Business Relationship; *School Effectiveness;School Holding Power; Secondary Education; *Time onTask; *Vocational Education

IDENTIFIERS ERIC; *Excellence in Education

ABSTRACTThis set of five digests provides an overview of the

issue of attaining excellence in vocational education. The firstdigest deals with effective schools research, characteristics ofeffective schools, implications of effective schools research forhigh school vocational education, and strategies for improving schooleffectiveness. Covered in the second digest are the following aspectsof the effects of career education on student achievement andretention: excellence and career education goals; career educationmodels; and the effects of career education on school achievement,school retention, and career and educational planning skills. Thenext digest, which examines time on task in vocational education,discusses the nature, importance, and use of time on task insecondary and postsecondary vocational education as well as factorsrelated to efficient use of time and strategies teachers can use toimprove time spent on task. Included in the digest on employers'expectations of vocational education are discussions of thefollowing: how employers grade vocational education, why they hirevocational graduates, what vocational programs should emphasize, whatare some barriers to cooperating with vocational education, and howthese barriers can be overcome. The final digest addresses the natureand importance of the new basics; acceptable basic skills attainmentlevels for vocational students; and strategies, resources, and modelsavailable for use in teaching the new basics through vocationaleducation. Each digest includos a bibliography of resources, most ofwhich are available from the Educational Resources Information Center(ERIC) system. (MN)

.OVERVIEWon XCELLENCE

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Clearinghouse on Adult, Career,Vocanalue Eaucatim

ERIC DIGESTS NOS. 31 -35

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RESOURCES INFORMATION

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OVERVIEWon EXCELLENCE

EgIC

EFFECTIVE SCHOOLS RESEARCHAND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION

Effective Schools Research

Effective schools research focuses on identifying charac-teristics of and conditions in schools that are more suc-cessful in achieving important educational outcomes. Mostof the effective schools research has centered on elemen-tary schools and has used the acquisition of basic skills(asmeasured by standardized tests) as the criterion for identi-fying effective schools (Edmonds 1982 1. 1). However.some research has been conducted at the secondary level.and vocational education research provides informationabout criteria that can be used to determine vocationaleducation effectiveness. This ERIC Digest relates effectiveschools researct\to vocational education.

Charabter IstIcs of Effective Schools

In identifying characteristics of effective schools,researchers have recognized the importance of using theschool as the unit Of study. rather than the entire schooldistric. Jr the individual program or classroom within theschool. This is predicated on the aissumption that theschool building is e distinct social unit. having its ownsocial climate and being influenced by the leadershipcharacteristics of t e principal, thetotal staff group com-position, and the n ture of the student body.

Edmonds (1982) ha summarized the following fivecharacteristics of e ective schools:

The leadership of the principal is notable for substantial0:attention to the uality of instruction.

There is a sch I-wide emphasis on basic skills instruc-tion, with the staff viewing this as a primary goal.The school cliniate is conducive to learning (i.e.. it issafe and orderlTeacher behavi

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rs convey the expectation Ow; all stu-dents will obtain at least minimum mastery o, learningcontent. .

There is a sys m for measuring pupil achievement asthe basis for rogram evaluation, thus tying studentprogress to performance evaluation.

\The study of the effectiveness of high schools presentspecial problems not evident at the elementary level. Rut-

t r et al. (1979) point to the fact that high schools havemany purposes for all students as well as different pur-

Pt:2 e47eflf

for differentof studying high school effectiveness are

fferent sets of students. Other factors that add

the racking of students, the freedom of student choice ofcur ulum options, a subject orientation rather than pupilorien ation of teachers, and the limited time.that eachteach r has contact with students.

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DIGEST NO.31Clearinghouse on Adult, Career,and Vocational Education

Even with the differences between elementary and secon-dary schools, characteristics of effective schools overlapbetween these two levels. Brookover and Lezotte (1979)found the following characteristics descriptive of effectivesecondary schools: a belief that students can learn andthat teachers can teach. high expectations for student suc-cess and high acadeMic standards, clear norms of approp-riate behavior, a manageable school size. a principal whois an assertive instructional leader, clear and sought-afterschool goals and objectives, reinforcement (rewards andpraise) for students, increased time on task. and regularmonitoring or assessment of student learning and schooleffectiveness.

Implications of Effective School Researchfor High School Vocational Education

Effective schools research stresses the importance of cleargoals for programs. Since the comprehensive high schoolhas diverse programs. specific goals (criteria for success)need to be established for each program. Research hasbeen conducted on'the outcomes (effetta) of vocationaleducation. Two recent reports (Mertens at al 1980:National Institute of Education 1981) present lists of crite-ria that have been used to judge vocational educationeffectiveness.

Mertens et al. (1980) suggest three broad classes. includ-ing employment. education/training, and ancillary criteria.Employment outcomes include employment/unemploy-ment, occupation related to training, earnings. employeesatisfaction. employer satisfaction. attitudes toward work.and work habits. Education/training outcomes includebasic skill attainment. academic abilities, attendance andretention, occupational skill attainment, continuing educa-tion, and satisfaction with training. Ancillary outcomesinclude aspirations. attitudes and values, feelings of suc-cess. and citizenship.

The National Institute of Education's Vocational EducationStudy (1981. p. V11-3) lists the following outcomes asso-ciated with participation in Secondary vocationaleducation:

Gainful employment, as indicated by employment sta-tus, hours and weeks worked, wages -and earnings.occupational status, relatedness of job to training, self-employment, and job satisfaction /

Occupational knowledge and skillsOccupational advancementYears of secondary school attained.CtizenshipCredentials for postsecondary enrollment

ERIC is sponsored by the National Instituteof Education.

Although outcomes are specific to programs, school effec-tiveness research supports the necessity of recognizingthe influence of the total school on the achievement ofspecific outcomes. Student achievement in vocationaleducation may well be influenced by the characteristicssuggested by effective schoolsTesearch, such as principalleadership in instructional planning, school-wide endor-sement of program goals, positive school climate, teacherexpectations for student performance. and the availabilityand use of measures of student achievement.

A study of factors relating to job placement of secondaryvocational education students (McKinney et al. 1981) sup-ports the notion that the characteristics of effectiveschools are related to vocational education program effec-tiveness. Schools having effective vocational educationprograms (using the criteria of number of students placedin jobs related to the training they received) had the fol-lowing characteristics:

Administrators, counselors, and teachers agreed thatthe primary purpose pf vocational education in theirschool was the placement of students in jobs related totheir training.Principals were committed to the placement of students.Teachers assumed responsibility for placing their stu-dents in jobs related to their training.Frequent use was made of needs assessment surveysfor planning and evaluating vocational educationprograms.

Improving School Effectiveness

Neufeld, Farrar. and Miles (1983) caution that effectiveschools research does not provide quick answers forschool improvement. Improving school effectivenessshould be viewed as an "ongoing, long-term process thatwill alter beliefs, relationships and emphases within theschoor (p. 12). As schools have initiated improvementefforts, they have found that the following processes sup-port the effort:

Build Staff CommitmentSchool improvement is a totalbuilding effort that requires staff commitment as well astime for staff to meet and develop understanding andcommitment. Voluntary commitment seems to be moreeffective than mandatory commitment.Develop High EapectstionSpecial activities need tobe conducted to help ali staff understand and believethat all students can learn and that teacher expectationsinfluence student achievement. The opportunity to dis-cuss ways of communicating expectations to students ishelpful.Rodeo El Nat** Classroom RessarcliThere is a largebody of research on effective classrooms (Good 1982)that describes how teachers' behaviors influence stu-deM achievement, and how teacher behaviors tend tovary according to the nature of the student. This infor-mation can be used by staff to evaluate their currentteaching practices and to develop ways of Improvingtheir instructional behavicmt.Salmi Outcome Measures School ordectivertessrequires clearly stated instructional goals and measuresto monitor student progress on those goals. The schoolstaff needs to select measures and to use the amiss-ment results for instructional planning and revision.

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REFERENCES

Brookover, W. B., and Lezotte, L. W. Changes in SchoolCharacteristics Coincident with Changes in StudentAchievement. East Lansing: Institute for Research onTeaching, Michigan State University. 1979. (ERICDocument Reproduction Service No. ED 181 005)

Edmonds, R. "Programs of School Improvement An Over-view." Educational.Leadership 40 (December 1982)4-11. (ERIC No. EJ 272 633).

Good. T. L. "How Teachers' Expectations Affect ResultsAmerican Education 18 (December 1982): 25-32(ERIC No. EJ 273 938).

McKinney, F.: Franchak. S. J.; Halasz-Salster, I.; Morrison.I.; and McElwain, D. Factors Relating to the JobPlacement of Former Secondary Vocational Educa-tion Students. Columbus: National Center forResearch ir. Vocational Education, The Ohio StateUniversity, 1981. (ERIC Document ReproductionService No. ED 209 477).

Mertens, D. M.; McElwain, D.; Garcia, G.; and Whitmore. M.Effects of Participating in Vocational Education:Summary of Studies Reported Since 1968. Researchand Development Series no. 202. Columbus: NationalCenter for Research in Vocational Education, TheOhio State University, 1980. (ERIC Document Repro-duction Service No. ED 199 435).

National Institute of Education. The Vocational EducationStudy: The Final Report. Vocational Education StudyPublication no. 8. Washington, DC: U.S. Departmentof Education,1981. (ERIC Document ReproductionService No. ED 205831).

Neufeld, B.; Farrar, E.: and Miles, M. B. A Review of Effec-tive Schools Research: The Message for SecondarySchools. Cambridge. MA: Huron Institute, andWashington, DC: U.S. Departmentof Education,National Commission on Excellence in Education.1983. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED228 241).

Rutter, M.: Maughan. B.: Mortimore, P.: Ouston. J.; andSmith, A. Fifteen Thousand Hours. Cambridge, MA:Harvard University Press, 1979.

This ERIC Digest was developed by Juliet Miller. ERIC Clearing-house on Adult, Career. and Vocational Education, with fundingfrom the National Institute of Education, U.S Department of Edu-cation. under Contract No. NIE-C-400-81-0035. The opinionsexpressed in this report do not necessarily reflect the position orpolicies of NIE or the Department of Education.

IRE MAL CENTERFOR RESEARCH IN VOCATIONAL EIRICATKII

THE OHIO STST__kie_RSITY!MO KENNY ROW UPOLUM3US MO 43210

ERIC,OVERVIEWon EXCELLENCE

DIGEST N0.32Clearinghouse on Adult, Career,and Vocational Education

EFFECTS OF CAREER EDUCATION ONSTUDENT ACHIEVEMENT

AND RETENTION

Epee and Career Education Goals

The report of the National Commission on Excellence inEducation (1983). A Nation at Risk, stresses the impor-tance of teaching basic skills, as well as ensuring that stu-deals have the ability to apply these skills to everyday lifesituations. The report further acknowledges the impor-tance of programs that support students' personal, educa-tional, and occupational goals.

Career education programs are designed to enhance thecareer development and career - relatedness skills of stu-dents. Campbell at at. (1983) found the following relevantcriteria for evaluating career education program's:

Academic and basic skills performanceSchool retention and attendanceCareer and cducational planning skills

The first two of timse criteria support student achievementin the content areas, as outlined in A Nation at Risk. Thethird criterion relates to the stated need for students tohave successful learning experiences to su their per-sonal, educational. and occupational ucationaland career planning skiffs are needed if students are todevelop realistic educational and occupational plans thatcan increase their motivation to learn and enhance theirachievement through appropriate educational placement.This ERIC Digest reviews the evidence of dareereduca-tion's effect on these three areas related to educationalexcellence.

Career Education Models

Before reviewing the effectiveness of career education inachieving these goals, one must understand career educa-tion program models so that results can be equated withthe program model that produced them. Three broad pro -gram'models are evident in career education programs.

Classroom-based Career Education ModelThis modelstresses the delivery of career education within theexisting curriculum structure. Curriculum infusion isused to develop the dual objectives of the learningexperience: the subject-oriented oblectives and thecareer-related objective. Classroom-based programsalso emphasize learning activities that help studentsunderstand the application of basic skills In occupa-tional and other real-life situations.

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Career adduce and Counseling ModelThis modelstresses individualized guidance and counseling activi-ties designed to help the students understand them-selves better and set educational and occupationalgoals that are realistic and personally satisfying. Thoseactivities may be provided to individuals. small groups,of even classes of students. They are guided by =hootcounselors with assistance from other school staff, suchas teachers and media specialists.Experience-based Career EducationThis career edu-cation model is an academically oriented, community-based program in which students learn basic skills incommunity work sites. A learning coordinator helpsstudents develop individual learning plans that specifyboth subject matter and career-related objectives. Stu-dents are then placed in coo nunity work sites. wherethey participate in learning activities under the directionof a resource person who is employed at the site

Effects of Career Education on School Achievement

A Evaluations of the effects of career education on academicand basic skills achievement have revealed the following:

Forty-three studies of career education's impact onreading and mathematics achievement indicate thatthere is little or no change in academic achievementwhen career education is introduced into the curricu-lum. Since, in selected instances, the evidence of posi-tive impact of career education is strong, it would seempremature to conclude that career education has nopotential for stimulating basic skills (Bonnet 1979).In general, signifk 'Women in academic achieve-ment and in mails oice of courses of study arefound to favor groups exposed to guidance and coun-seling. as compared with those not so exposed. Also,guidance and counseling procesaes integrated withremedial instruction in mathematics and reading havebeen found to increase academic. achievement signifi-cantly (Herr 1983).Educationally disadvantaged students who participatedin an integrated program of vocational, compensatory,and career education experienced significant changesin achievement levels (Campbell et al. 1083).A study of experience-based career education thatmeasured math and reading achievement both stateend of the program and after a 3-month follow -up foundthat math achievement was Iiiwer during the learningperiod for the experience-based learning sturients.thanfor traditional learning students. However. It was higherfor the experience-based students during the follow-upInterval. There were no differences found for reading.This may Indicate that eirrience-based career educe-non has a positive effect on the retention of learning(Crowe and Harvey liffM).

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Effects of Career EduaMion on School Retentkin

The review of evaluation studies by Campbellet al. (1983)reported the following effects of carter education on stu-dent retention and attendance:

Counseling programs specifically combined with sup-portive instruction have been found to' e successful inmotivating truant. low-income bays to Attend schtiol,regularly.Potential dropouts who received individual and groupcounseling, took field trips to employment sites, heardguest speakers, and saw relevant films experienced asignificant decrease in their dropout rate.A study of 10th- and 11th -grade Indian youths who par-ticipated In counseling and career exploration activitiesrevealed a significant decrease in Melt dropout rate.The use of vocational counseling to help students selectvocational `programs proved to be a significant factor in .completion rates for selected vocational programs.

Effects of Career Education onCweer and Educatiomi Pfamdng

Career and educational planning skills can help studentsmake appropriate personal. educations!, and occupationalplans that can increase the perceived relevance of theireducation. Results of evaluations of career education indi-cate the following:

In 34 studies of the effects of career guidance on careerand educational planning skills, 27 studies found a posi-tive effect. Thelma! frequently mentioned types ofinterventions were experience-based career education

qt* and career counseling (Campbell et al. 1983).In 19 studies that examined career decision-makingskill's. 18 studies showed positive effects in this area.These effects on career decision-Making skills wereevident at both thelnigh school and Junior high levels(Bonnet 1979).Guidance programs do appear to help students becomemore competent decision makers, select high schoolcourses, and make high school plans that are morecongruent with their abilities than those students notexposed to these programs (Herr 1983).

**Counseled students in middle schools have been foundto make more realistic choices in high school coursessad in part-time work (Herr 1983).Men and women students with identifiable educationalgoalsreasons that are related to why they are doingwhat they are doingseem consistently to be betterprepared for college than students-who have no suchreason for being in college (Herr 1983).

Summary of Career Education Effects

Career education (including career guidance and counsel-ing, experience-based career education. and career -related classroom activities) has been shown to supportseveral educational excellence goals. In some cases, theseprograms increase basic skills achievement, particularly inthe areas of skills application and long-term retention ofskills. Students with tow Motivation have shown improve-ment in school attendance and retention after participatingin career education experiences. Also, vocations! studentswho have participated in career education are more likely

to complete the programs they have selected. Finally.career education consistently demonstrates its effective-ness in increasing students' career lanning skills. thuspsupporting the development of rea she personal. educe-

1 Pons!. and occupational goals .

REFERENCES

Sonnet. D. G. "A Synthesis of Studentfrom Forty-Seven Career EducatJournal of Research and Develop12 (Spring 1979) 75-83 (ERIC NO.

mpact EvidencePrograms."nt in EducationJ 209 050).

Campbell, R. E.: Connell. J B . Boyle. K. and Bhaer-man, R. D. Enhancing Career Development: Recom-mendations for Action Columbus: National Centerfor Research in Vocational Education. he OhioState University. 1983 (ERIC Documen Reproduc-tion Service No. El, 227 303)

Crowe, M. R.. and Harvey. R J Learning and tention ofBasic Skills through Work: Summary and iscussion.Columbus: National Center for Research i Voca-tional Education. The Ohio State Univers' , 1980.(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 198293).

Pkirr, E. L. Why Counseling? Alexandria. VA: Ameri\canAssociation for Counseling and Development, 1983.

National Commission on Excellence in Education. ANation at Risk: The Imperative tar EducationalReform. Washington. DC: U.S. Department of Edu-cation. 1983. (ERIC Document Reproduction ServiceNo. ED 228 006).

This ERIC Digest was developed by Juliet Millet. ERIC Clearing-house on Adult. Career. and Vocational Education. with fundingfrom the National Institute of Education. U.S. Department of Edu-cation, under Contract No NiE-C-400-111-0035. The opinionsexpressed in this report do not necessarily reflect the positionpolicies of NIE or the Department of Education,

THE NMIONAL CENTER

FR IMAM Of VOCATION.NE am ST4tg i*=T!!MO KENNY LAMM. OM

OVERVIEWon EXC CE

ERIC DIGEST NO.33Clearinghouse on Adult, Career,and Vocational Education

TIME ON TASK INVOCATIONAL EDUCATION

Why Is Time an Important Factor?

The concept of time is a critical topic in education. Time inrelationship to learning generally Is viewed from two per-spectives. First, from an economic perspective, time is aresource that. along with other resources, affects the pro-ductivity of schooling. Second, from a psychological per-spective. time is a mediating factor In the teachingileam-ing process (Karwelt 1983). Both views suggest that time Islinked to educational achievement or learning outcomes.

The amount of time available for educational purposes islimited and stems from legal, institutional, and individualdecisions. Kanveit (1983) notes ;ever& points about thesources of teaming time:

State laws prescribe the number of school days peryear, with an average of approximately 179 days.State laws prescribe the minimum length of the schoolday. In elementary schools, an average range is 4 to 8hours. In secondary schools, the school day may besomewhat longer.The institution schedules the school day for instruc-tional and noninstructional activities. For example, of a8-hour school day, only 4 hours may be scheduled forinstructional purposes.Individual classroom teachers schedule the use of theavailable instructional time.

There are. however, numerous factors that influence thescheduled Instructional time. The time allocated for learn-ing is the maximum amount of time that can be used forinstructional purposes. Maximizing the available instruc-tional time is of key importance to educators whendifficult-to-control influences are considered. Some of Ciekey influences that serve to reduce alkweed time are asfollows:

Student absenteeism. teacher strikes, and school clos-ings because of inclement weather or financial crisesreduce the scheduled number of school days per year.The school day may be shortened as a result ofscheduling double shifts.The actual number of hours used for instruction areaffected by factors external to the classroom. Specialschool assemblies, standardized testing programs, andclassroom transitions are examples that limit the oppor-tunity for learning. (Ibid.)

Time, unlike many other such significant variables as fam-ily background and sex. can be controlledat least tosome extent. This is the major reason for focused attentionon the use of time as a means of improving the quality ofeducation. 7

What is Time on Task?

Additional aspects of learning time are associated with thestudent or an entire class of students. The amount of timea student is actively engaged in learning activities is timeon task. Most recent research studies looking at time U afactor in the learning process examine the influence oftime on task for student achievement. The results of thesestudies indicate positive achievement as a result of time ontask and very few negative effects. A reasonable doubtremains. however. about the magnitude of the effect thattime on task has on achievement (Karweit 1e83). It isbelieved learning depends on necessary classroom condi-tions that influence the effect of time on task. inon-task behavior may be explained by such di asthe following:

The nature of the curriculum studiedThe extent of diversity of student characteristics withinthe instructional groupThe skills of teachers

How is Time Used in SecondaryVocational Education?

Although the majority of studies of time on task have beenconducted with elementary students fuming basic skills,findings from two exploratory studies (Haiasz and Behm1983: Halasz, Bohm, and Fisch 1984) report the averageproportions of time spent by secondary students inselected vocational education classes as follows:

Students spend 56 to 83 percent of instructional time ontask/content (i.e., basic skills, technical skills, endemployability skills).Students spend 9 to 13 percent of instructional time ontownoncontent (ie., set up. clean up, and othernoncontent-related tasks).Students spend approximately one-fourth of theinstructional time socializingtime off task.Students spend about 5 percent of the instructional timeon scheduled breakstime off task.

In secondary vocational education classes, how time isspent differs among service areas as well as among theindividual classes. Of the three ice areas observed (i.e.,agriculture, business and office. and trade and industrial),Halasz, Behm, and Fisch (1984) found that the agricultureclasses had the highest proportion of time on task (84 per-cent) in comparison to business and office classes (75percent) and trade and industrial classes (71 percent).Variations among classes within the same area were found,as well. The largest differences were in the trade and

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Industriat service area. Although a machine shop classspent 79 percent of time onask, an auto mechanics classspent only 45 percent of instructional time on task. Overall,students in secondary vocational education classes spendslightly more than two-thirds of instructional time on task.

How is Time Used In PostseccmderyVocational Education?

Several differences between postsecondary and secondaryvocational education students suggest that student time ontask may differ in the two settings. Postsecondary enrol-lment is voluntary, and as a result, students are likely to bemore highly motivated. Also, postsecondary students areolder. Preliminary findings (Heinz, Behm, and Fisch1984) show the following Vendee

Postsecondary students spend 72 percent of instruc-tional time on task/content (i.e., basic skills, theorY,employability skills. and practice).Postsecondary students, spend approximately 11 per-

, cent of instructional time on task/noncontent.Postsecondary students spend about 17 percent ofinstructional time off task (i.e., socializing and breaks).

These findings appear to be consistent with the premisethat postsecondary students will be on task a greater pro-portion of time than secondary students because of theirmaturity (83 percent versus 70 percent of instructionaltime). At the postsecondary level, total time on task doesnot vary much among the service areas or classes.

What Factors Are 'Waled to Efficient Use of Time?

The available minutes and the time used for instructionare. in part. dependent upon such factors as studentgrouping. cline size, instructional strategies. and teacherskills. Primarily, what is done in the time and how approp-riate it is affects the learning taking place (Karweit 1983).The relationships between key teacher behaviors and timeon task, and between key classroom variables and time ontask are summarized by Halasz. Bohm, and Fisch (1984) asfollows:

At the secondary level, teacher with-it-ness (i.e., behav-iors communicating that the teacher knows what isgoing on in the classroom) is associated positively withthe amount of student time on task.The pattern of relationships' between teaching methodsand student use of time indicates that certain methods(e.g., one-to-one instruction, observation, demonstra-tion) are more conducive than others to eliciting studenttime on practice, theory. or other on-task behavior.Most of the teachers at the secondary level do notappear to maximize class time deliberately, whereasmost postsecondary teachers do. That is, secondaryteachers do not appear to try to use all of the class timeavailable for relevant tasks.Teachers who define class goals clearly and who planand organize the curriculum elicit greater amounts ofstudent time on task. In fact. definition of class goals isthe most important variable related to student time ontask at both secondary and postsecondary levels.Grouping (i.e., students' physical location and numberof tasks performed) is the most Important classroomvariable in relation to student time on Wt. 8

What Can Vocational Education Teachers Doto improve Time Spend on Task?

"Learning time results from the conversion of the numberof days allotted to the number of days attended, from thereduction of the length of the school day to the fraction ofthe day used for instruction, and from the shrinkage ofallocated instructional time in a subEect to the timeengaged in learning or time on task" (Karweit 1983, p. 18).

Behm. ana Fisch (1984) conclude that vocationalteachers, especially in secondary classes (but also in post-secondary classes), can increase time on task by doing thefollowing:

Define goals clearlyConsider time an important resourceEnsure that students' tasks are meaningfulimprove and diversify teaching methodsDecrease time for breaksDecrease interruptionsEncourage student independenceHave positive expectations of studentsProvioe positive reinforcementServe as emit: model of good work habits

REFERENCES

Halasz, I. M., and Behm. K. S. Time on Task in SelectedVocational Education Classes. Columbus: NationalCenter for Research in Vocational Education. TheOhio State University. 1983. (ERIC Document Repro-duction Service No. ED 229 528).

Halasz. I. M.; Rehm. K. S.: and Fisch. M. R. Influences onSecondary and PostSecondary Vocational-TechnicalStudent Time on Task. Columbus: National Centerfor Research in Vocational Education, The OhioState University. 1984.

Mimed, N. L. Time on Task: A Research Review. ReportNo. 312. Baltimore. MD: Center far Social Organiza-tion of Schools. Johns Hopkins University, 1983.(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 228238).

This ERIC Digest was developed by Vallia Axelrod. ERIC Cleary-house on Adult. Career. and Vocational Education. with fundingfrom the National Institute of Education. U.S. Department of Edu-cation. under Contract No. NIE-C-400.111-0035 The opinionsexpressed in this report do not necessansy reflect the position orpolicies of NIE or the Department of Education.

C*IE.NATINIAL CENTER

FOR RESEARCH IN VOCATNNIAL MCAT=THE CHs0 STATE UNtERsitb960 KENNY 11040 COLUMBUS 00 432 10

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OVERVIEWon EXCELLENCE

ERIC DIGEST NO.34Clearinghousie on Adult, Career,and Vocational Education

EMPLOYERS' EXPECTATIONSOF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION

How Do Employers Grade Vocational Education?

The growing interest in the effectiveness of vocationaleducation has spurred efforts to elicit opinions about voca-tional education from key groups. Employers are one ofthe publics whose opinions are of prime interest to voca-tional education. Only by working together with employerscan vocational education program staff hope to meetemployers' needs for trained personnel. The focus on pre-paring students for productive participation in the labormarket dates back to the 1917 Smith-Hughes Act (Fran-chak and Smiley 1981).

In our educational system, students often receive grades todenote the quality of their work. The letter grades of A. B.C. I), and F (fail) frequently are used to judge the student'soverall performance. The Gallup Poll introduced the prac-tice of asking community members to grade the publicschools themselves. In order to determine employers'overall rating of vocational education, a survey (Nunez andRussell 1982) asking respondents to grade both secondaryand postsecondary vocational educatfon was distributed to2.000 randomly selected members of the National Associa-tion of Manufacturers. Analysis of surYlnis from tflo nearly40 percent of the sample responding resulted in the follow-ing findings:

A grade of C was given most frequently to secondaryvocational education.A grade of B was given most frequently to postsecon-dary vocational education. .

More than half of the respondents gave an A or B gradeto postsecondary vocational education.Lees than 5 percent of the respondents gave a failinggrade to vocational eduCation. Only 4 percent gave an Fto secondary vocational education, and 1 percent gavean F to postsecondary.

Overall, employers had a more favorable view of emu,.condary vocational education than of secondary voca-tional education. Nunez and Russell (1992) posit that tr.,-higher rating for postsecondary vocational education mresult from postsecondet vocational students fittingimmediately into the employment structure. Students gdusting from the two settingssecondary andpostsecondaryenter the job market with somewhat ditferent skills and levels of maturity.

Why DoE Hire Vocational Graduates?

Satisfaction of employers with vocational graduates isimportant to the overall success of vocational education.Eigrity-live percent of the employers surveyed in this studysaid they would rather hire a Yocritienal education (poop-

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ate than a nonvocational graduate for a job not requiring a4-year *free. Specific benefits of vocational education tothe employer included the following:

Thirty-nine percent of the manufacturers identifiedtower training costs as a major benefit of vocationaleducation.Sixty percent of the manufacturers stated that leas train-ing was required for the same type of job as a result ofvocational education.

what Should Vocational Programs Emphasise?

The National Association of Manufacturers survey furtherrevealed that 73 percent of the employers valued theteaching of both employability and occupational skills as ameans of preparing youth for employment. Further, thesurvey showed that the teaching of basic skills was consi-dered of first importance for improving secondary voca-tional education and second most important for improvingpostsecondary vocational education.

A study by Starr at al. (1983) revealed that there is consis-tency between what respondents in the National Associa-tion of Manufacturers survey said vocational educationshould emphasize and the role it has played in preparingindividuals for employment. Starr at al. identified tht, fol-lowing five roles for vocational education:

Employability skills developmentOccupational skills developmentProvision of work experiencePlacement of program completers in jobsBasic skills development

In their secondary analyses of data from five studies(ibid.), they found that the combined opinions of four pub-lics (i.e., students. school personnel, community represen-tatives. and policymakers) about each role were as follows:.

Employability skills development is important for allstudents. but is a more important process the secon-dary level that it is at the postsecondary level.Occupational skills development is an important role forboth secondary and postse. ndary vocationaleducation.The provision of work experience is considered impor-tant for both secondary and postsecondary vocationaleducation.Training-related placement is not seen as the mostimportant role for either secondary or postsecondary ;

vocational education. However, it is considered to bemore important at the postsecondary level.Basic skills development is an important role at bothsecondary and postsecondary levels. However, it isconsidered to be more important at the secondary level.

ERIC is sponsored by the National instituteof Education.

What Ara the larders to Cooperatingwith Voaegonal ittitioagon?

The are numerous was In which vocational educatorand employers can work together to Improve the quality ofeducation. For example, employers can provide work*perkiness for vocational students and teachers. Voca-tional educators, on the other haml, can help employersretrain workers. Survey 'results (Nunez And Russell 1982)showed that employers perceived providing work wipe-r/Nonce for students as the most acceptable form of invol-varmint and allowing equipment to be used at the work siteas the least acceptable form. Larger companies were moreinvolved with vocational education than smaller ones. Thelarger companies also awarded higher grades to vocationaleducation. Although increased involvenont with vocationaleducation was associated with more positive opinionik themanufacturers noted problems that they had encounteredin working with vocational education. The problems identi-fied by the manufactures', are listed in order of importance:

inflexible schedulesinadequate planningQuality of trainingConflicts or disagreements on goalsLeadership problemsSchools not interested in working with business andindustryConflicts or disagreements on policies or regulations

What Improvements Can se Made?

Feedback from employers can serve a variety of purposes.Franchek and Smiley (1981) include the following reasonsfor obtaining employer opinions:

Information on employer satisfaction can be used foraccountability purposes.Employer input can be used to heighten interest invocational education.Gathering employer opinions can be an effective meansof setting priorities for ?rogram improvement.Employer assessment can result in improved under-standing between vocational education and industry.Information from employers on Job skills and attitudesexpected of mnployees can be very helpful for the gui-dance and counseling furktion.Employer feedback can assist vocational educators inProviding a capable labor force.

The Manufacturers' survey of vocational education (Nunezand Russell 1982) (rimrporates suggsAions for programimprovement. At the secondary level. it is most importantfor vocational education to do the following:

Stress the teaching of the basics (reading, writing, andarithmetic)Ensure that individuals who do not go on to collegehave access to vocational educationUpdate vocational education programsProvide work experiences for vocational studentsinvolve employers more in vocattonal programming

According to the manufacturers, the top five priorities atthe postsecondary level are for vocational education to dothe following:

Provide work expo/Wass forirocatkmal ambits10

Stress the teaching of basicsinvolve employers more in vocational programmingUpdate vocational programsEnsure that individuals who do not go on to congashaves to vocational education a

The manufacturers (ibid.) also identified changes for voca-tional education in order of importance as follows:

1. !AMMO employability skills training at the high schoollevel

L increase vocational education courses in community orJunior colleges

3. Increase employers' involvement in the evaluation ofvocational programs

4. Ensure that adults have access to training for reentryskills for the4ob market

5. 'Expand ihe use of private sector personnel as resourcesfor vocational education classes

REFERENCES

Franchak, S. J., and Smiley. L. L Evaluating EmployerSatisfaction: Measurement of Satisfaction withTraining and Job Performance of Former VocationalEducation Students. Research and Development Ser-

no. aux Columbus: National Center for Researchin Vocational Education. The Ohio State University.1981. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED201 793).

Nunez. A. R.. and Russell, J. F. As Others See VocationalEducation. Book 1: A Survey of the National Aasoci-alien of Manufacturers. Research and DevelopmentSeries no. 225A. Columbus: National Center forRestarch in Vocational Education, The Ohio StateUniversity, 1982. (ERIC Document Reproduction,Service No. ED 227 208).

Sti;Irr, H.; Fraser. J.; Russell. J.: and Orth, M. Opinionabout tire Roles of Secondary and PostseccintftrYVocetional Education-Columbus: National Center forResearch in Vocational Educatio9, The Ohio StateUniversity. 1. (ERfC Document ReproductionService ED 227 307).

This ERIC tftest was developed by Valli. Axelrod. ERIC Clear-inghouae on Adult. Career. and Vocational Education. with hold-hvg from the National instituNi of Education. U.S. Department ofEducation. under Contract No. NIE-C-40041-0035. The caimansexpressed in this report do not necessarily reflect um position orpolicies of ME or the Department of Education.

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FINI RESEARCH IN TOWN& EDUCATIONde antrunsamms

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.OVERVIEWon EXCELLEKCE

ERIC DIGEST 140.35Clearinghouse on Adult, Career,and Vocational Education

LEARNING THE NEW BASICSTHROUGH VOCATIONAL EDUCATION

What Are the New Basics?

The report A Nation at Risk (1983) identifies English.mathematics, science, social studies. and computerscience as the "new basics." and recommends that stateand lobehigh schOol graduation requirements be streng-thened to include a foundation in these five subjects.Vocational educators have also been concerned about theneed to provide students with a good foundation in basicskills. For some time, they have been invere'of a markeddecline in both the quality and quantity of basic skillsachievement by students in vocational programs (Weberand Slivani-Lacey 1983). This ERIC Olgsst reviews the roleof vocational education in developing basic skills and sug-gest strategies and resources for learning basic skillsthrough vocational education.

Why Are Basle BIM an ImpotentPart of Vezattenel fithmetioni.

A good foundation in basic skills is considered essentialfor successful participation in toddy's society. For exam-ple, individuals need basic skills if they wish to do thefollowings

Demonstrate employability and occupationalcompetencyAttain upward mobility (Lotto 1983; Weber and Silvani-Lacey 1953)

Basic skills play an important rote in ensuring job success.Employers expect their employees to be able to use basicskills to find solutions to *ork- related problems. Thus,basic skills are viewed as tools for achieving increasedproductivity (Campbell-Thrane at al. 1983).

Because basic skills are essential to functioning in today'ssociety, they represent a critical area of lemming thatneeds to be addressed in all areas of the co Triculum. Sincea number of research studies report that I' 'her payoffsfrom vocational training can be expected w Ten basic skillsinstrubtion and vocational skills acquit to.i are related,rational educators need to look for ways to incorporatebasic skills instruction into their curricula (Campbell-Thrarte et al. 1983).

What Ant the BOW Seal Atlektoient La v for Voeitlooidpludints?

A large number of studies have examiner he relationshipbetween participatien in vocational basicskills attainment This body of ifteratut. at been reviewedand synthesized in two recent research r opr.rts developedby staff at the National Center for Restue.e .a VocationalEducation (Lotto 1988; Weber at al. 1984 2,..tnei of thefindings from these reports are summEr.zed 'mow:

11.

in comparison to academic students, secondary voca-tional students are less proficient in basic sLills, butthey are about the same as general track students(Lotto 1983; Weber at al. 1982).The basic skills attainment of secondary vocational stu-dents varies according to the service area or program inwhich they are enrolled (Weber et a1.1982).The basic skills levels of potential and actual dropoutsusually increases substantially when they participate invocationally co- tented programs with basic skills compo-nentsIt appearrthat basic skills proficiency is significentlyreirewito such outcomes as employment level, salary,and employment in area of training (Lotto 1983; Weberat al. 1952).

What StrateOes Can Ile Used to Learnthe New Bastes through Vocational Ethic:Alen?

A number 9f strategies that can be used to incorporatebasic skills instruction into the vocational curriculum areavailable to vocational educators. Three models fordelivering basic skills instruction in conjunction with voca-tional education are described below. The modelsintegrated, nonintegrated. and combinationprovide arange of options for vocational education personnel whoare deciding how best to deliver basic skills instruction(Campbell-Thraneet al. 1983).

Nedntegrated Model

The nonintegrated model is traditional in approach andemphasizes teaching basic skills in &classroom settingseparate from vocational training. The-instruction is deli- ivered by Wesel matter specialists, that is, mathematicsteachers teach math. science teachers teach science prin-ciples, and so forth. An important assumption underlyingthe adoption and use of the nonintegrated model is thatbasic skills acquisition can be taught separately from stu-dents' vocational and academic interests and that atransfer of skills will occur later. Disadvantages of the non-integrated model include the followieg:

Lack of vocational relevance in basic skills instruction,Scheduling problemsincreased space and personnel costsStudents receiving remedial instruction but missingregular instruction (ibid.)

Integrated Model

The integrated model is designed to deliver basic skillsinstruction as a part of the vocational curriculum. In thismodel, the vocational teacher assumes major responsibil-ity for the following:

ERIC is sponsored by the National instituteof Education.

identification of basic skills requirements for entry intovocationlin his or hot areaDiagnosis of students' basic skills deflchurciesinstruction to rentedlisto any identified basic skillsdeficiencies

A basic assumption underlying the adoption and use of theintegrated model is that there should be a relationshipMasan the vocational area and the kinds of basic skillstaught. Disadvantages of the integrated model include thefollowing:

Diversion of instructor time from vocational content toContent integrating basic skills

' Need to deal with students who have varying levels ofbasic skills proficienciesLack of time for students with serious bask skill dell-cioncfes to "catch up" (Ibid.)

Combhtallon AWES

Because both the integrated and nonintegrated modelscontain major disadvantages, a combination model thatcontains elements of both can be developed. The com-bination model, blending futures of the other two models,would be designed to meet the needs and resources of aparticular School district. Since a combination modelwould be tallorodlo a local situation. It could take anumber of forms. For example. a school district mightchoose to construct a separate classroom ores within thevocational lab or shop area where basic skills would betaught. Although the instruction would be separate fromvocational training (a feature of the nonintegrated model).It would still be designed to relate directly to the vocationalarea (a feature of the integrated system). Combinationmodels can be designed by local districts to minimize whatthey perceive are the disadvantages of the integrated andnonintegrated models (Campbell-Thrane it al. 1983).

What Resources Are Available to Teach theNew Basics duet* Vocational Bilucalleat

A number of resources have been developed that can beused in learning the new basics through vocational educa-tion. The ERIC Malmo is en excellent source of informa-tion in this area. Some examples of motorists availablethrough ERIC are described below.

Saner Lesson Ideas for Basic Skills Instruction inSelected Vocational Programs (Dunn. Gray, and Martini1982a) provides lawn ideas for secondary vocationalprograms in the areas of agricultural, distributive, office,health, occupational home economics, and trade andindustrial education. TInVessons focus on the basicskills of mathomatics, muting, writing, and oralcommunication.Solvated instructional Materials for Toaohing BasicSkills in Vocational Educittion (Minh, Gray, and Martini1902b) gives a list of approrllmately *00 vocationallyrelevant Instructional motorists and sources regarding'casks skiffs development Both teacher. made and com-mercially avaihdlle matistals focusing on basiositllis inmathematics, roman. writing, and OM communicationwithin the context of various vocational programs arelisted.

RaPintoicits

Campbell-Thrane. L; Manning. K.; Okeafor, K.; and Will-em, E. J. Building Basic Skill*: Models for Imple-mentation. Special Partdicallon Banes no. 41.Columbus: National Center for Research in Voca-tional education, The Ohio Stott* University, 1983.(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 232014).

Dunn, J.; Gray, P.; and Martini, E. Sample Lesson Was forBasic Skill Instruction in Selected Vocational Pro-gram& Teaching Basic Skills through VocationalEducation. Technical Wart. Ithaca: Cornell Institutefor Occupational Studies. State University of NewYork, April 1982a. (ERIC Document ReproductionService No. ED 217 181).

Dunn, J.; Groy, P.; and Martini, E, Selected instructionalMaterials for Teaching Basic Skills in VocationalEducation. Teaching Basic Skills through VocationalEducation. Technical Report Ithaca Cornell institutefor Occupational Studios. State University of NewYork, April 10 52b. (ERIC DoOuntent ReproductionService No. ED 217 159).

Lotto, L. Building Basic Skills: Results from VocationalEducation. Research and Development Series no.237. Columtus: National Center for Research inVocational Education, The Ohio State University,1983. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED232 018).

National ComMission on Excellence in Education. ANation at Risk: The Imperative for EducationalReform. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Educa-tion, 1983. (ERIC Document Reproduction ServiceNo. ED 228 008).

Weber, J., and Owl-Lacey, C. Building Basic Skills: TheDropout. Researth and Development Series no. 231I.Columbus: National Center for Reiman* in Voce-doors! Education, The Ohio State University, 1983..(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 232014).,

Weber, J.; Slirani-Ladey, C.; Wilifams, E. J.; Winkfield, P.W.; Manning, K.; Oksafor. KA and Denniston. D. A

Quantitative Study of Basic and VocationalEducation. Columbus: Nation Cutof*, Researchin Vocational Education. Th. hio State Univarsity.1982. (ERIC Documont Service No. ED215 174).

This ERIC Digest was developed byhouse on Adult, Career, and Vfrowthe National Institute ofcation. under Contract No.expressed In this report do notpolicies of ME or the DoPerh000f of

-Intel. ERIC Clearing.

Education. with fundingU.& Copan ilera of jaw-am The ruttlidoni

reflect the position or

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