DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 205 496 SP 019 678

TITLE A Handbook for Public Playground Safety. Volume I:General Guidelines for New and ExistingTlaygrounds.

INSTITUTION Consumer Product Safety-Commission, Washington,D.C.

PUB DATE 91NOTE 21p.: For related document, see SP 018 679.

!DRS PRICE Mr01/PC01 Plus Postage.DESrPIPTORS *Accident Prevention: *Construction Materials:

Outdoor Activities: Physical Activities:*Playgrounds: *Safety:.*Structural Elements(Construction)

ABSTRACTThis handbook presents some general guidelines that

may be used to increase the safety of public playgrounds. Informationis provided about hazards associated -with the use of publicplayground equipment, and suggestions are made to reduce thefrequency and severity of inluries. A discussion is presented onplavground-related iniuries and the common accident patternsassociated with children's play. Measures are suggested for designingplaygrounds which take into account children's use of equipment. Asection is included which :offers ways to make existing playgroundssafer. The handbook concludes with .a Series of checklists, which maybe helpful in maintaining playground safety. 6,701

************************************************.**********************4Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can bemade 4

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A HANDBOOK FOR

PUBLIC PLAYGROUND SAFETYVolume I: Gen-eral Guidelines for

New and Existing Playgrounds

1"1

U.S. CONSUMER PRODUCT SAFETY COMMISSIONWASHINGTON, D.C. 20207

a

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION `NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION

ED CATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATIONCENTER IERICI

This document has' been reproduced asreceived from the person or organizationoriginating it.

] Minor changes have been made to improvereproduction quality.

Points of view or opinions stated in this docu-ment do not necessarily represent officialNIEposition or poky.

For sole by the Superintendent at Doenmente, U.S. Government Printing °Mee, Weshinston, D.C. ROM

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CONTENTS

SECTION PAGE

1. introduction 1

2. Background 2

3. Playground Injuries 3

4. Planning a New Playground 4

Surfacing 4Layout and Design 5Equipment 6

5. Making Existing Playgrounds Safer 10

6. Summary 11

7. Playground Safety Checklists 12

Selected Bibliography 15

1. IntrockictIOnThere are many kinds Of public play-

grounds in use today, and a wide variety ofequipment available. Playgrounds with tradi-tional slides, swings, and jungle gyms havebeen used and enjoyed for years. The mostrecent trends toward innovative play spacesadventure or developmental playgrounds, forexamplehave inVired unique and uncon-ventional equipment. Some communities haveconstructed playgrounds with componentssuch as railroad ties and tires; others havechosen new equipment from manufacturers'catalogues-,

While this handbook does not cover all thedifferent types of equipment which exist, itdoes present some general guidelines that re-sponsible officials and parents may use to in-crease the safety of public playgrounds for ourchildren. The handbook is intended to provideinformation about hazards associated with theuse of public playground equipment and sug-gestions for helping to reduce the frequencyand severity of injuries.

Children use playground equipment inmany diverse, yet predictable, ways. ThiSbooklet begins with a discussion of play-ground related injuries aad the common acci-dent patterns associated with children's play.

1

The next section, devoted to planning newplaygrounds; suggests measures for design-ing playgrounds which take into account chil-dren's reasonably foreseeable use of equip-ment. In addition, we have included a sectionwhich suggests ways to make existing play-grounds safer. Because the life of equipmentcan range from 15-20 years, updating andmaintaining playgrounds and equipment areessential for continued safety. The handbookconcludes-with a-series-of checklists- whichmay be helpful in maintaining 'playgroundsafety.

The Consumer Produpt Safety Commis-sion (CPSC) has also deviMoped a companionhandbook that suggests technical guidelinesand test procedures to help manufacturers andinstallers assure the structural integrity andsafety_of the equipment. Manufacturers, play-ground planners and designers, installers, andequipment purchasers, such as ,.park -andrecreation and school system officials, may beinterested in the more technical guidelinespresented in companion Volume II: Technical.Guidelines. for Equipmerii and Surfacing.Copies of both volumes can be obtgined-bywriting the Consumer Product Safety)-Com- -mission, Washington, D.C. 20207.

2. Background'The CPSC has been studying public play-

ground equipment for a number of years in anattempt to reduce playground injuries. In 1977alone, for example, an estimated 93,000 inju-ries associated with public playground equip-ment were-Treated in hospital- emergencyrooms.

The Commission first became invollied withplayground safety in 1974, when a consumerpetitioned CPSC to develop mandatory safetystandards for public playground equipment.The National Recreation and Park Association(NRPA) was selected by the Commission todevelop a draft standard. In 1976, when theNRPA draft standard was completed, the Corn-mission contracted with the National Bureauof Standards for additional technical workneeded to revise the NRPA recommended

,standard. Because surfaces under equipment,appeared to play a major rote in equipment in-juries, --the Commission also asked NBS todevelop a method for testing various surfacescommonly used under playground equipment.The results of the NBS studies and' researchprovide the basis for this two-volume hand-book for public playground safety.

While the Commission's initial work wasclearly oriented toward devAlopino mandatorysafety standards for equipment, the Ccmmis-sion decided not to issue such a mandatorystandard. Over the years, its evaluation of play -groundsafety fed the Coo..;nission to concludethat a mandatory specification rule by itselfwould not adequatFly address thrtproblem ofplayground injuries. Such factors as the di-verse ways equipment is used, the varyingquality of supervisicin on equipment,' equip-ment placement, and equipment-maintenanceall play a part in playground injuries. In addi-tion, most injuries associated with playground

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equipment involved falls, which would not beaddressed by equipment specifications alone.

The Commission believes, however, thatthe results of the studies and research con-ducted by the NRPA and NBS can serve asguidelines for the design of public playgroundequipment, and can be used by people in-volved with playground safety to help reducethe frequency and severity of injuries associ-ated with equipmenECTechnical rationale isprovided to explain each guideline. The guide-lines are not a CPSC standard and are notmandatory requirements.

Since the guidelines are not a CPSC stand-aitl, the Commission is not endorsing them asthe exclusive method of safe playgroundequipment construction. The Commission be-lieves, however, that the safety features inmany of the guidelines, such as those address-ing protrutions, slip- resistant surfaces, dura-bility and stability, and so forth, will contributeto greater equipment safety, and that publica-tion of the guidelines as a whole will promotegreater safety consciousness among manu-facturers and purchasers of equipment.

The guidelines are recommended for play-ground equipment intended for use in playareas of parks, schools, iristitutions,'mUltiplefamily dwellings, private resorts and recreation

'developments, and other areas of public insti-tutional use. The guidelines are not intended toapply to amusement park equipment,.equip-ment normally intended for sports' use or tohome playground equipment Components ofequipment intended solely for useTh3r thehandicapped and necessarily modified to ac-commodate such users safely are also notcovered by these guidelines.

3. Playground injuriesThe Commission became concerned

about the safety of public playground equip-ment after examining the number and kinds ofinjuries associated with use of the equipment.A DeceMber 1978 CPSC Hazard Analysis, forexample, estimates that in 1977 about 93,000people were treated in hospital emergencyrooms for injuries associated with public play-ground equipment. Children 10 years of age oryounger suffered 4 Out of 5 of the injuries.Some of these injuries were caused when chil-dren were struck by moving pieces of equip-ment such as swings and gliders. Other chil-dren were injured when they caught an ex-tremity such as a finger at a pivot or pinchpoint, or ran or fell against protruding bolts,screws or other hardware on the equipment.Seven out of every ten injuries, however, werecaused by fallsthe most common play-ground accident.

The type of surface on the playground wasa major factor affecting the number and sever-ity of injuries associated with falls. Falls ontopaved surfaces resulted in &disproportionate-ly high number of severe injuries. While pro-tective surfaces such as wood chips, shreddedUri's, sand, etc. may not have reduced the num-ber of injuries from falls, these materials mayhave reduced the severity of the injuries.

The.following table' presents the estimated"percentage of public playground equipmentrelated injuries according to the manner in

:which the injuries occurred: '

Falls to surface

Falls - struck same piece of equipment

Falls - from one piece of equipment andstruck another piece of equipment

Falls-subtOtal .

Impact with moving equipment

Contact with protrusions, pinch point',sharp edges and sharp points

Fell against, onto or into stationaryequipment

Unknown

59%

11%

2%72%

7% -,

5%

8%

8%

Total 100%,

(1) Source: NEISS emergency room based special studyApril10, 1978=MaY1,-1978, U.S. ConsumerProduct Safety. Commission, Directorate forHazard Identification and Analysis.

Hazards Relating tt. the Most Common. Types of Public Playground

Equipment

Traditional categories of playgroundequipment swings, slides, seesaws, climb-ers, and, merry-go-rounds are used in manyplaygrounds throughout the country. Thefollowing table/ compares the estimated per-ceptage of injuries related to a particular typeof equipment with the percentage of thatequipment in use:

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INJURIES EQUIPMENTIN USE

Climbers 42% 51%

Swings - 23% 20%

Slidos 16%- 12%

Merry-go-rounds ' 8% 5%

i. .

Seitaacrs 5% . 6%

All other 694) , 6%

100% 100%

Typical accident patterns associated withthese conventional types of public playgroundequipment are described below.

Climbing Apparatus. Falls accounted for 72percent of the injuries from climbing apparatussuch as monkey bars, chinning bars, etc. Vic-tims fell when they slipped, lost their grip orlost their balance. Falls occurred when chil-dren were swinging from rung to rung, per-0forming stunts and jumping on, or from, bars.

Swings. Sixty7nine percent of the injuries e-lated to swings occurred when children fell orjumped from the swings. Twenty-six percent ofthe injuries resulted when the children werestruck by a moving swing.

Slides. Seventy-eight percent of the injurieson slides were the result of falls over the side,from the platform, and from the ladder. Fallswere caused by roughhousing, walking up and,down the slide, losing one's grip, slipping, and

(2) Source: NEISS emergency room based special study,April 10, 1978 - May 1, 1978 and ConsumerDeputy Study of Playground Surfaces, Sep-tember 1%1978-- October16;1978; U.S -Corgisumer Product Safety Commission, Director-ate for Hazard Identification and Analysis.

losing balance. Other victims hit protrudingbolts, struck the slide rim and edge, or slippedon the ladder and struck,the steps.

Merry-go-rounds. Most of the injuries 'associ-ated with merry-go-rounds resulted from fallswhen children either lost their grip and werethrown from the merry-go-round, fell downwhile pushing it, or fell While riding it. In someinstances those who were pushing were struckby the device. Those who fell while on themerry-go-round either struck or were struckby other gripping bars, or struck the'base it-'self.

Seesaws. Although about one out of every sixinjures occurred when the victim was hit by amoving seesaw, most injuries resulted fromfalls. In some cases, the victims were punc-tured by long ,splinters from worn, poorlymaintained or damaged wooden seesaws.

Other. Other types of equipment involved ininjuries were spring action riding equipment,rope or tire swings, etc. Typically, falls contri-

° buted to over half of the injuries associatedwith this equipment.

4. Planning a New. PlaygroundSurfacing

As indicated in the preceding chapter onplayground injuries, falls are,the most com-mon type of playground accident. Commis-sion studies show that the majority (from 60 to70 percent) of playground-related injuries arecaused when children fall from the equipmentand strike the underlying surface. Nearly halfthe injuries that result from falls are to thehead, and range severity from minor bruisesto skull fractures, concussions, brain damage,and even death.

Until recently, little information was avail-able on the relative ability of surfacing materi-als to protect children from head Injuries re-suiting from falls. Therefore, the Commissionsponsored research by the National Bureau ofStandards to develop a method for assessingthe energy absorbing characteristics orplay-ground surfaces and to test several commonlyused surfaces.

Analyses of the test results indicate that,while they may require little maintenanceor re-pair, hard surfacing materials such as awhaltand concrete do not provide injury protectionfrom accidental fail impacts and are thereforeunsuitable for use under pub& playgroundequipment. More resilient surfacing materialssuch as bark, Wood chips, or shredded tires, forexample, appear to provide greater protectionto a child in the event of a fall. However, thesematerials require continuous maintenance toretain their optimum cushioning effectiveness.

The choice of surfacing material will, ofcourse, be based in part upon local conditionsand financial considerations. The followingdescriptions of some surfacing materials andThe environmental conditions which affectthem are offered to help planners in weighingthe advantages and disadvantages of varioussurfaces.

Organic Loose Materials (Pine. Bark Nuggets,Pine Bark Mulch, Shredded Hardwood Bark,Cocoa Shell Mulch). The cushioning potentialof these materials depends upon the air\trapped within and between the individual par-ticles. Therefore, if materials decompose and13a;ome pulverized over a period of time, orrr.':-; with, dirt, they will tend to lose their cush-iwring properties.. Cushioning protection isAlso decreased in rainy or humid weather whenthe materials absorb moisture and tend to packdown, or if the temperature drops and the wet

Pol

materials freeze.' Moisture can also promotethe growth of various types of microorganismswhich might allow transmission of communi-cable diseases.

protection that the materials provide againstinjuries from falls, however, makes the 'extracare worth the effort.

Inorganic Loose Materials (Sand, Pea Gravel,Shredded,Tires, etc.). Like organic loose ma-_,terials, these materials also require frequentleveling to replace material that is pushed orblown away from fall areas, and grading or siftling to remove foreign matter. Under conditionsof constant use, the material; may combinewith dirt or other matter, -thus reducing theircushioning properties. Again, moisture tendsto make the materials more cohesive, thereforeless cushioning. When sand, for example, isthoroughly wet, it loses its resiliency. In wet,freezing conditions, some materials solidify,into hard, packed ice. Other types, such as peagravel, may be difficult to rumor walk on. In-organic, like organic loose fill materials, maybe blown or thrown into children's eyes. Sometypes of rock.can also release dust which canirritate the skin or nose and mouth.

Because strong winds can erode thesematerials, reducing the thickness required toprotect against injury, and because the playingaction of children can push the protective ma-terials away froth fall areas, frequent gradingand leVeling are necessary to maintain a sug-gested 6 inch depth. Careful maintenance isalso necessary to eliminate insects, animalexcrement and other trash or lifter such asbroken glass, nails, metal tabs from cans,pencils or other sharp objects which' can beconcealed by loose material. The cushioning

. Compact Materials (Outdoor Rubber Mats, In-door Gym Mats, Synthetic Turf, etc.). While thecushioning properties of these materials willdepend upon the foundation or surface overwhich the material is installed, unitary or wholematerials such as rubber mats generally doprovide proteCtion from falls from 5 feet or less.The materials should always be used on essen-tially level, uniform surfaces. Compact mate-rials require little maintenance; however, theymay be attractive targetS for defacing, ignition,or other vandalism.

Soli. In general, soils appear to offer more pro-tection from injuries than do asphalt or con-crete, but less than do loose surfacing materials. Grass may provide additional cushion-ing, but is difficult to maintain in areas of heavy

use. Soil will be Influenced by many of the en-vironmental factors desoribed above.

Concrete, Asphalt and Paved Surfaces. Al-though paved surfaces require little or nomaintenance, they are major contributors toplayground injuries. Concrete, asphalt andsimilar materials are not recommended for useunder playground equipment because of theirhard, unyielding characteristics.

Layout and Design

To encourage a child's perceptual andmotor development, a well-planned play-ground should offer a wide variety of playopportunities. Activities which involve run-ning, walking, climbing, dodging, swinging,sliding, catching and -throwing, or pulling andpushing, for example, help children learn tomove confidently, gain muscle strength and

1 control, and refine' their coordination. Ofcourse, many playgrounds are used by differ-ent age groups whose interests and abilitiesvary greatly. To allow the space appropriate to,both the child and the activity, therefore, someplanners set atide sections of the playgroundf6r special use.

5

For example, playgrounds might include:

" frrda ri open e ,for ball games, tag, kite-flying,: -etc. Where' c dren will have the freedom to

run W4Ficit the safety of othersp ayi Lig nearby;

U----an ,area for pre-school, children, equippedwith appropriately sized swings, low slides,sand boxes, etc.;

an apparatus area for conventional play-ground equipment;

a free play area for activities such as tethertennis or hopscotch;

a paved, multiple use area for court games,dancing, general play;

an area for quiet activities or individual playsuch as arts and crafts, music, drama, soli-tary games; and

other options such as wading pools, shelterhouses, and landscaped areas.

Apart from the creative play op portunitieswhich these special use areas can provide, theseparation of play spaces will contribute toplayground safety. Young children can be pro-tected from the more active play of older chil-dren. Thought may also be given to separate

but adjoining play areas for handicapped chil-dren. Because of their disabilities, handi-capped children may respond more slowly,either phys'cally or mentally, to hazardous sit-uations. Some newer playgrounds have beendesigned to provide activities which all chil-.dren can share, and equipment which all canuse safely and creatively.

No matter how play areas are organized,however, it is essential to provide adequatespace around each piece of playground equip-ment. Planning should take into account theequipment's "use zone," that is, any activity ormovement which can be expected around theequipment. For example, sufficient spaceshould be allotted for swing sets to accommo-date the largest arc through which the swingtravels, including a child's extended legs. Ade-quate room must also be provided-for childrento exit slides, Jump from swings,.and "spin-oYf"from merry-go-rounds. Buildings, paths andwalkways, gate% fences, and other play areassuch as sand boxes should be located at least 8feet away from the estimated use zone,associ-

, ated with a piece of playground equipment.

Equipment should also be arranged to ac-commodate the traffic of children.at play. For

. example, playground apparatus -should beplaced away from ball fields or other reas

where running children, intent 'upon theirgames, may accidentally ,move in front ofswings, exit areas of slides, etc. Also, equip-ment should be placed so that one area is notovercrowded- while another area remainsunderused. Poorly placed equipment can leadto misuse And accidents.

Generally, mapping out playground spacebefore purchasing or installing permanentpieces of play equipment car?, encouragevaried and safe activity. As areas are mappedout, planners should consider the traffic pat-terns which will result. Ample pathways shouldlink activity areas, provide easy access fromone piece of equipment to another and offerunobstructed vision' from a child's height.lSmoothly flowing traffic will eliminate manyaccidents such as collisions between childrenand equipment and between, children andother children.

Planners should try to keep the site freefrom major( visual barriers which wouldhamper supervision of the entire space. Afence or a relatively impenetrable border suchas shrubbery or trees should enclose the entiresite to keep children within the grounds and

prevent them from running Into the street, Theplayground should be designed to permit max-imum drainage so it can dry out as quickly aspossible.

Whenever space and resources permit,con-sideration should be given to providing rest-room facilities and pay telephones- with per:-manently posted emergency numbers.Benches or other seating are usually appreci-ated by both-children and adults.

Equipment

While manufacturers of public playgroundequipment.conduct extensive tests of designand structural integrity, purchasers of equip-ment can help further playground safety bycarefully 'reading and following informationsupplied with the equipment. Instructions forproperly assembling equipment, includingdrawings, photos and other illustrations pro-vided with each piece of playground equip- 'ment, should be followed carefully. To assurethat equipment is properly installed, all direc-tions, such as specifications for tightening ,

nuts and bolts, must be adhered to.Equipment selected should be constructed

of materials which have proved durable in aplayground or other outdoor setting. Metalsshould be painted or galvanized. to preventrust, and wood surfaces treated to preventwood, rot. No substances should be used in thematerial or treatment processes that, if re-leased from equipment, could injure children ifingested, inhaled, or absorbed through -theskin.

Purchasers should heed the manufac-turers' recommendations for equipment spac-.Ing, as well as any warnings which cautionagainst Installing playground equipment overHard or unyielding surfaces. Many promotion-al materials, and installation instructions willwarn againgrplacing equipment over pavedsurfaces such as concrete and asphalt be-cause -falls to these surfaces result in moresevere injuries than do falls to more resilientsurfaces.

Manufacturers should also provide instruc-tions for anchoring equipment securely to theground and directions for maintenance andgeneral upkeep. Whenever possible, a perma-nent, durable label should appear on each unitidentifying the manufacturer, unit model,month and year of manufacture. This data willallow purchasers to reach the manufacturer foradditional information or to order parts for re-pairs.

The following guidelines for equipmentsafety were suggested by studies conductedby the National Bureau of Standards for theCPSC. These guidelines are not mandatory re-quirements for the design and construction ofpublic playground equip-tient, and the Com-mission is not endorsing particular specifica-tions in the guidelines. However, the Commis-sion believes that publishing guidelines irf thisfashion will promote safer equIpMent.

General Hazards

Entrapment. No component or group of com-ponents should form angles or openings thatcould trap any part of a ehIld's body or a child'shead. If part of an accessible opening is too,small to allow children to withdraw their headseasily and the children are unable to supporttheir weight bypeans other than their heads ornecks, strangulation may result. Swinging ex-ercise rings (See Figure 1) with diameters of 5to 10 inches, for example, could present suchan entrapment hazard ayid should be removed.

FIGURE.1

Similarly, children might become caught while'trying to climb between narrowly spaced horkzontal bars. If the distance between the bars isless than the height of a child's head, childrenwill have difficulty rotating their heads back-ward to free them.

Clothing ntanglement. In general,' accessi-ble parts of moving apparatus and compo-nents xt to sliding surfacesladders and.uprights, protective barriers, handrails, etc.should be designed so they cannot catch achild's clothing. If clothing is entangled, the

7

equIpMent's or child's momentum is oftengreat enough to cause losi of balance or an In-Jury.

Sharp points, corners, and -edges; pinch and(thigh points; protrusions and projections. -7,

Playground equipment should present no ac-cessible sharp edges or protruding points orends,that could cut orpuncture children's skinor-batch their clothing (See Figures 2 and 3).

FIGURE 2

a

FIGURE 3 1

Manufacturers usually provide self-lockingnuts or Other devices to prevent nut and boltassemblies from coming 'apart; these fastenersand exposed ends of bolts should be covered.with smoothly finished 'protective caps which,

when correctly Installed, are not removable byhand, Similarly, exposed ends of tubing whichcan lacerate or puncture a child's akin on im-pact should to covered with cape or plugs.Open ended "S" hooks (See Figure 4) thatcancatch clothing should also be avoided, If thereare such open hooks, pinch the ends tightlyclosed, ,

THIS NOT THIS

FIGURE 4

Whenever possible, avoldequIpment with ac-cessible .vinch, crush.; or scissor-like areascaused by adjacent mewing components. Un-protected moving parts on gliders, merry-go-rounds, or seesaws, for example, could crushor pinch a child's lingers.

Guidolines for Specific Equipment

Climbing- Equipment. Jungle gyms, monkeybars, geometric domes, and horizontal' andarch ladders are popular types of climbingequipment. Other pieces may be designed torepresent animalsr ships, trains, etc. Regard-less of configuration; the spacing of supportmembers and climbing bars should be closelyexamined to ensure that it is neither too widenor too tall to match children's arm or legreaching abilities: Rungs of horizontal ladders,climbing bars; handrails, and other compo-:nenta intended to be gripped by the handsshould be designed to be easily,,grasPedby achild's hands. Preferably the componentsshould be cylindrical and approximately 1%inches in diameter, a size which average five-year-old children can grip comfortably and se-curely.

Climbing equipment should not lure a childto make an easy climb to the top without pro-viding a way for the child to descend as easily,or furnishing a way out to another platform orpiece of eqUipment for descent. A simple archladder, for example, may not offer an easy"way out" option. A child who beginethisity is forced to complete it, especiallyjf others,are waiting alum to use the equipment.

c,

P.

Using bright, contrasting colors on rungsort steps of climbing equipment can help chil-dren nerceive distances more accurately,thus improving their spatial Judgment. Highlytextured, slip resistant materials may enhancea child's gripping ability while at the same timeIncreasing the amount of sensory feedbackreceived while climbing,

Swinge. Frequently swinga,stand as separateu ts on a playground. There may be from twoto ix or more swings in a series. A minimumclearance of 18 incheads. recommended be-tween the outside edges of swings and be-tween the Aings and nearby componentssuch as frames or supponing structures.Clearance may need to be greater for tireswings or other swings that move in more thanthe traditional foSward-backward direction. Ifthe clearance Is insufficient, swings may acci-dentally bump one another or other pieces qt.equipment. On the "other hand, too wide a .

clearance night encourage a hazardous flowof traffic. Swings onewing gets should be lo-cated away from other activities or equipmentto help prevent. children from running intomoving swings while chasing balls or whendistracted by other activities.

A free swinging, empty ,,swing seat cancause serious Injury lilt hits a child's head.Such an in-tpact can result when childrenwander into the pathof a swinging seat. To re-duce the risk of seriou' injury, seats should be,constructed of 'lightweight material such asplastic, canvas, or rubber. To help prevent buts

'or scrapes, all seats should have smoothlyfinished or' rounded edges. Tire swings are

. popular because they Permit multiple occu-pancy and may provide less potential for harm-ful.impact. Support frames for all swing setsshould be designed to discourage climbing

Slides. Sliding boards range from 4 to 16 feetin height and may be straight, piral, wave ortubular (totally ,enclosed). S me short slidesare wide enough to permit hildrenjo slideside by side.

To reduce the possibility of excessivespeed, the average incline of the sliding sur-face should not exceed 30 degrees. Mqst slidesavailable iOday have slide beds that pare twiceas long as they are high; with 'a resulting aVer-agelncline of- about 26 degrees. This designprovides for a reasonably safe sliding speed.

Slides over 4 feet high should be equippedwith sides at' least 2% inches in height for the

entire length of the sliding surface, These bar-riers also serve as hand and foot guides to helpprevent falls off the edges of the slide,

Protective barriers for the area at the top oftha slide help prevent falls while the child is:hanging from a climbing to a sliding position.

AP a safety precaution, slides over 4 feet highshould have barriers at least 38 Inches high,Solid barriers, or barriers with vertical ratherthan horizontal cross pieces, may discourageclimbing, A horizontal platform at least 10inches in length and as wide as the sliding sur-face at its entrance will help children easilymake the transition from climbing to sliding.

Exit surfaces at the bottom of slides over 4feet high should be at least 16 Inches long andessentially parallel to the ground. To help chil-dren regain their upright ,posture and balancewhen their feet touch ground, the height of theexit should be between 9 and 15 Inches abovethe ground. All slide exits should be located inuncongested areas out of the way of other playtraffic.

'2" Steps and rungs on slides and other equip-ment should be evenly spaced with at least 7and not more than 11 inches between them toaccommodate the arm and leg reaches of chil-dren. Steps and rungs should be at least 15inches wide and horizontal to within plus orminus 2 degrees and corrugated, grooved orcovered with a permanent slip resistant finish\

. that is effective under both wet and dry condi-tions..

Stairways and ladders with steps shouldhave continuous handrails on both sides. Thehandrails should be plaad at a height whichwill blow the child to stand erect over eachstep.

. To prevent unnatural or unusual climbingangles, ladders with rungs should have a slopebetween 75 and 90 degrees when measuredfrom the horizontal, Ladders with steps shouldhave a slope between 50 and 76 degrees andstairways should have a slope no greater than35 degrees (See Figure 6).

Because metal slides left in the sun cancause burns, they should be placed in shadedareas or Installed so that the sll'ding surfacefaces north whenever possible. Placing metalslides in 'a shaded location will also preventthem from reflecting the'glare of the sun andinterfering with children's vision.

Merry-Go-Rounds. The rotating portions ofmerry-gb-rounds (the platform or base onwhich children stand or sit) should have an ap-proximately circular shape.. Handrailsattached to the base-to help prevent falls fromthe equipment should not protrude beyond theedge of the base. Such a design will reduce therisk of IhjUry resulting from children walkinginto the path of the moving equipment. To en-sure that no part of a child's body could passthrough an opening and contact a stationaryobject beneath the apparatus, the rotatingbase of the equipment should have no spacesor openings that would permit penetration by arod 3/10 of an inch in diameter.

FIGURE 5(SIDE VIEW)

w 1 0

5. Making Existing PlaygroundsSayer

Public playground equipment can general-ly be expected to last from 10 to 15 years. Al-though manufacturers continue to redesignequipment to make it more enjoyable andsafer, many years may pass before new equip-ment reaches the nation's playgrounds andmakes a substantial impact on playground in-juries.

Thus retrofitting and maintaining existingplaygrounds and equipment play a vital role inimproving playground safety. While some ofthe following suggestions for retrofitting ormodifying playgrounds have been discussedearlier in this handbook, they are worth repeat-ing here:

Remove equipment from asphalt or concretesurfaces. Vacated areas can then be usedfor other activities such as hopscotchbasketball. If removing equipment is not fea-sible, cover the areas under equipment withheavy duty mats, etc., or add shock absorb-ent surfacing material in trouble areas; espe-cially around high slides or areas where fallsfrequently occur.

if equipmentis crowded together causing anuneven distribution of children, consider .,moving some pieces out of the densely pop-u lated _area, to ease. traffic.

Do not hesitate to eliminate a piece of equip-ment which has been associated with fre-quent injuries. Take special note of slidesmore than 10 to 12 feet high; they present thepotential for serious injury in the event of afall.

Equipment should be firmly anchored in theground by concrete. Place concrete footingsbelow ground level (See Figure 6) TO Preventtripping and to protect a child in case of afall. -

If any exposed concrete footings do exist,cover them with earth or padding. Also con-sider recovering worn surfaces where rocksor'other hazards may protrude.

Consider installing fences or other barriersbetween areas for active-pilaw-such as ballfields, and the immediate playground_ reawhere equipment is installed. Areas forrun -ning games may be separated from areas for'passive play, picnicking, etc. Playgroundsshould always be separated from roadwaysby a fence, wall) or other barrier.

10

. .

- -. _ ,..

... , ,- may'

A

FIGURE 6

1111111111110

Barriers may also be installed between tradi-tional apparatus and discovery or adventureplaygrounds where children may be using .tools and similar equipment.

Remove one or two swings to reduce over-crowding of swingsets.

Replace heavy swing seats with lightweightseats, 'e.g. canvas or plastic. Add tire swings,because they permit safe use by several chil-dren at one time, and their safety record ap-pears to be better than that of conventionalswings. Drill holes in tire swings to assurewater drainage.

Remove single cables, wires, ropes, or simi-lar obstructions between play units which a.child might accidentally run into or trip over.(This recommendation is not intended toeliminate 'items such as guard railings orseries of ropes and cables such as cargo netsand climbing grids.)

Install, or paint on, slip resistant surfaces onclimbing and gripping components.

Consider -color coding equipment for differ-ant age groups .and posting explanatorysigns in prominent locations. Bright coloredpaint or tape can:also make a potentially haz-ardous protrusion on a piece of equipment,more Visible.

When a playground leader is not present,consider restricting children aged 1 to 5 fromplayground equipment ---,less they areaccompanied by an adult.

Provide clearly' marked pathways and en-

1.11

courage children to keep to the paths ratherthan cutting through areas where swings,merry`` -go- rounds, etc. are in motion.

Homemade or community built equipmentmade of logs, railroad ties or landscape tim-tier should receive special inspection andmaintenance for splinters, rough edges,sharp corners, and loose or protruding nails,nuts: bolts, etc. Because cedar, redwood,and pressure treated lumber tend to resistdeterioration, these materials are recom-mended in areas where the wood comes incontact with soil or in humid climates.

Knowled0 of first aid and accident preven-tion is very useful. In order to get help fastwhen needed, post emergency numbers in aprominent locationnear a telephone, if oneis available.

Clean playgrounds regularly, being alert forhazards such as broken glass or sharp metalobjects. Whenever possible, provide trashreceptacles and empty them frequently.

A regular inspection and maintenanceschedule is essential to ensure the safety ofthe equipment and surrounding area. (Seechecklist on page 12 for suggestions.)

6. SummaryThis handbook has provided some general

guidelines for playground equipment and sug-gestions for the design, layout, surfacing andoperation of public playgrounds which canhelp to make children's play safer.

Because children will use playgroundequipment in ways for which the equipmentnot intended, however, even after design andmechanical hazards have been addressed andinformation and education programs under-taken, public playground equipment may stillbe associated with some accidents and inju-ries.

Thus, close supervision of children as theyplay and intensive classroom and home In-struction about safe behavior on playgroundequipment make an important contribution toplayground safety. Through the attention andcare of parents, schools, and community or-ganizations, the number and severity of play-ground injuries can be further reduced.

4;.

7. Playground Safety ChecklistsSuggested Public Playground

Maintenance ChecklistInspections shouldrbe conducted on a fre-

quent, regularly scheduled basis. Followingare some of the danger points that should bechecked on each tour:

Visible cracks, bending, warping, rusting, orbreakage of any component.

Deformation of open hooks, shackles, rings,links, etc.

Worn swing hangers and chains.

Missing, damaged, or loose swing seats;heavy seats with sharp edges or corners.

Broken supports/anchors.

Footings exposed, cracked, loose in ground.

Accessible sharp edges or points.

Exposed ends of tubing that should becovered by plugs or caps.

Protruding bolt ends that do not havesmooth.finished cap6 and covers.

Loose bolts, nuts, etc.

Splintered, cracked or otherwise deterio-rated wood.

Lack of lubrication on moving .parts.

Worn bearings.

Broken or missing rails, steps, rungs, seats.

Surfacing material worn or scattered (inlanding pits, etc.).

Hard surfaces, especially under swings,slides, etc.

Suggested Public PlaygroundLeader's Checklist

Prepare written guidelines for playgroundoperation, defining goals and procedures.

Insist on first aid and accident training forplayground leaders.

Provide for constant supervision by estab-lisithig a written schedule.

Instruct children and playground supervi-sors on how to use equipment. (Playgroundequipment. safety should be taught in theclassroom.)

Conduct daily cleaning and check forbroken glass and other litter.

Do not permit children to use wet or dam-aged equipment.

Do not permit too many children on thesame piece of equipment at the same time;suggest that children take turns, or directtheir attention toward other equipment oractivities,

Constantly observe play patterns_ to notepossible hazards and suggest appropriateequipment or usage 'changes.

Make periodic, checkups, and request thatworn or damaged pieces of equipment be re-placed.

, Prepare written accident reports withspecial attention to surface conditions, typeand extent of injury, age\ and sex of child,how the accident occurred, and weather,conditions.

-Chipped -or-peeling- paint--

Vandalism (broken glas, trash, etc.).

Pinch or crush points (exposed mecha-nisms, junctures of moving components,e.g., axis of seesaw).

-Tripping --hazards'4Erchat roots, rocks orother environmental obstacles.

Poor drainage areas.

12

Suggested Public PlaygroundPlanners' and installers' ChecklistSeparation of equipment for different agegroups.

Placement of swing(s) or swing sets awayfrom other activities or equipment.

Adequate space for children to exit equip-ment such as slides or merry-go-rounds.

Layout designed to promote a safe flow oftraffic between areas.

Fencing or other barriers to separate theplayground from adjacent streets.

Clearly marked "danger" zones (e.g., thoseareas covered by swinging seats from swingsets and areas in front el sliding boards).

No equipment installed over hard surfacessuch as concrete or asphalt.

Accessible components of equipment adja-cent to sliding surfaces shaped so that achild's clothing cannot be caught as thechild uses the slides.

No component or group of componentsforming angles or openings that could trap achild's head or any part of a child's body.

Protective barriers on surfaces which areelevated more than 30 inches from an under-lying surface, assuring that the barriers donot create another hazard (i.e., horizontalcross pieces on which children can climb).

Handgripping components of size andshape to make them easy for a child to grasp.

Climbing and gripping surtaces whth areslip resistant under both wet and dry condi-tions.

Explanation signs where needed, e.g., incolor coded areas.

16

13

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

The listing which follows represents only a small number cf the'resou roes available on children'splay and on playgrounds. For further reference and to obtain materials published since this listingwas compiled, readers may wish to consult their local libraries.

1. Aaron, David, and Bonnie P. Wine Wer.Child's Play. New York: Harper and Row,1985.

2. Allen, Marjory, Lady of Hurtwood. Plan-ning for Play. Cambridge, MA: M.I.T.Press, 1968.

3. Becker, Franklin D. "Children's Play inMultifamily Housing." Environment andBehavior (December 1976): 545-574.

4. Beckwith, Jay. Make Your Own BackyardMore Interesting Than T. V.. New York:McGraw Hill, 1980.

5, Beckwith, Jay. Playground Planning andFund Raising Guide. 1979. (Available fromBigToys, Northwest Design Products, 16.Inc., 3113 South Pine St., Tacoma, WA98409).

6. Bengtsson, Arvid. Adventure. Play-grounds. New York: Praeger Publishing, .17.1972.

7. Bergner, L, and Harris D. Mayers. "Falls 18.From Heights: A Childhood .Epidemic inUrban Areas." -A;M.--Journal of- Public

. Health 61 (January 1971): 90-96.

8. Bowers, Louis. "Play Learning Centers forHandicapped Children," Summary of le-search and demonetration prollect, Profes-sional .Physical Education, Program,College of Education, University of SouthFlorida, August 1978.

9. Bowers, Louis, "Play Learning Centers for. PreschoolHandicapped_Children,f. ect summary, Professional Physical Edu-cation Program, College of Education,Universky'of Smith Florida, August 1975:

10. Butler, George D. Introduction to Com-munity Recreation:-2nd-ed. Prepared bythe National Recreation Association. NewYork: McGraw Hill, 1949.

11. Butler, George D. 'Recreation Areas-Their Design and Equipment. 2nd ed. NewYork:.:The Ronald Press Co., 1958.

12. :Cohen, Donald J., and Ada S.- Brandegee."Day Care Center 3, Serving PreschoolChildren." Publication No. (OHD)74-1057.

Washington, D.C.: Office of Child Devel-opment, Office of Human Development,U.S. Department of Health and HumanServices, 1974.

13. Dattner, Richard. Design for Play. NewYork: Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., 1969.

14. Ellis, M.J. "The Rational Design of Play-grounds." Educational Product Report 3(May-June 1970): 3-6.

15. Engstrom, Georgianna, ed. The Signifi-cance of the Young Child's Motor Devel-opment. Washington, D.C.: The NationalAssociation for the Education of YoungChildren, 1971.

15

Equipment for Outdoor Play. Ottawa,Canada:. Canada Department of NationalHealth and Welfare, Physical Fitness Di-vision, 1954.

Friedberg, ,Paul. Handcrafted Play-grounds. New York: Vintage Press; 1975.

Frost, Joe L. "The American PlaygroundMovement." Childhood :Education 54

-19. Haering, Franklin C. "Recreation and ParkProgram Safety," Urban Data Services Re-ports. Vol. 12, No. 3. (Washington, D.C. In-ternational City Management Association,March 1980.)

20. Hayward, Geoffrey D., Marilyn Rothen-berg, and Robert R. Beusiey. "Children'sPlay and Urban Playground Environ-ments_Com vironmentand--Behavior (June 1974): 131-168.

21. Herron, R.E.,`and Brian Sutton-Smith, eds.Child's Play. New York: John Wiley andSons, 1971.

22. Hewes, Jeremy Joan. . Build Your OwnPlayground! A Sourcebook of Play Sailp-tures, Des/9ns and Concepts from theWork of Jay Beckwith. Boston, MA:Houghton Miffin; 1975.

23. Illingworth, Cynthia, et al. "200 InjuriesCaused by Playground Equipment."British Medical Journal 8 (November1975): 332-334.

24. Johnson, Marguerite. Wilker. "The Effecton Behavior of Variation in the Amount ofPlay Equipment." Child Development(June 1935): 56-68.

25. Kionoff, Harry. "Head Injuries in Chil-dren: Predisposing Factors, AccidentConditions, Accident Proneness andSequelae." American Journal of PublicHealth 61:12 (December 1971): 2405-2417.

26. Kritchevsky, Sybil, Elizabeth Prescott, andLee Walling. Planning Environments forYoung Children: Physical Space. Wash-ington, D.C.: The National Ass6ciation forthe Education of Young Children, 1977.

27. Levitt, Sophie. "A Study of the GrossMotor Skills of Cerebral Palsied Childrenin an Adventure Playground for Handi-capped Children." Child Care Health andDevelopment VI:1 (1975): 29-43:

28. Miller, Peggy L. Creative Outdoor PlayAreas. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1972.

29. National Safety Council. "PlaygroundApparatus," Educational-Data Sheet No.69. Chicago: National Safety COUncii,1956.

30. National Safety Council. "Playground__Surfacing," Educational-bata- Sheet-No:

74. Chicago: National Safety Council,1973.

31. Owings, C.L., R.H. Norcutt, R.G, Snyder,D.H. Golomb, and K.Y. Lloyd. GrippingStrength Measurements of, Children forProduct Safety Design.,, Final report No.014926-F, preparettfor the U.S. ConsumerProduct Safety Commission. Ann Arbor,MI: University of Michigan; September1977

32. Parks, Jerry T., William McConnell,,andL.W. Knapp. Public Playground. Equip-

7nent. Product. investigation Report pre-pared for the U.S._ Consumer ProductSafety Commission under Contract FDA73-6. Iowa City: University of Iowa,OctOber15, 1973.

grounds That Work?"'Industrial uesign 25(May 1978): 48-52.

35. Singer, Jerome B., and Dorothy G. Singer.Partners in Play. New York: Harper andRow, 1977.

36. Smith, Melvin D., John D. Burrington, andAlan D. Woolf. "Injuries In Children Sus-tained in Free Fall: An Analysis of 66Cases." Journal of Trauma 15 (November11, 1975): 987-991.

37. Snyder, R.G., L.W. Schneider, C.L.Owings, H.M. Reynolds, D.H. Golomb,and M.A. Schock. Anthropometry ofInfants, Children and Youths to Age 18 forProduct Safety Design. Highway SafetyResearch Institute Report No. WM-HSRI-77-17, prepared for the U.S. ConsumerProduct Safety Commission. Ann Arbor,MI: University of Michigan? 1977.

38. Spinseller, Doris, ed. Play as a LearningMedium. Washington, D.C.: National As-sociation for the Education of Young Chil-dren, 1974.

39. Stone, Jeannette Galambos. Play andPlaygrounds, A Report. Washington, D.C.:National Association-for the Education ofYoung Children, 1970.

40.-Sutton-Smith r-Brianred;-play-anding. New York: Gardner Press, 1979.

41. U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commis-sion, Bureau of Epidemiology. HazardAnalysis of "Playground Equipment.August 1979.

42. U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commis-sion, Division of Human Factors, HumanFactors Analyses of Injuries Associatedwith Public Playground Equipmeht_Octo-

33. Peterson, George L., Robert L. Bishop;Richard M. Michaels, and Gustave J. Rath."Children's Choice of Playground Equip-ment." Journal -of -Applied Psychology58:2 (1973):°233=238.,

34. Saville, Brent. "Why Can't,We Build Play-

ber 1978.

43. U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commis-sion. "Play Happy, Play Safely" A Look atthe' Playground Education' 'Materials.Washington, D.C.: Government PrintingOffice, 1978:

44. U.S. Consumer. Product Safety Commis-sion: "Play Happy, Play Safely" Big BigKids. Washington, D.C.:. GovernmentPrinting Office, 1978.

45.- U.S. Consumer -Product Safety- Commis-sion. "Play Happy, Play Safely" Bro-chure. Washington, D.C.: GovernmentOrinting Office, 1978.

16 1 r-,-r, Ci

46. U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commis-, Sion. "Play. Happy, Play Safely" Coloring

Book. Washington, D.C.: GovernmentPrinting Office, 1978.

47. U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commis-sion. "Play Happy, Play Safely" Little BigKids. Washington, D.C.: GovernmentPrinting Office, 1978.

48. U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commis-sion. "Play Happy, Play Safely" Medium 52.Big Kids. Washington, D.C.: GovernmentPrinting Office, 1978.

49. U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commis-sion. "Play Happy, Play Safely" Play-ground Curriculum Approach. Washing-ton, D.C.: Government Printing Office,1978.

50. U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commis-sion. "Play Happy, Play Safely" Play-ground Equipment Guide. Washington,D.C.: Government Printing_Office, 1978.

51. U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commis-sion. "Play Happy, Play Safely" Play-ground Equipment Handbook. Washing-ton, D.C.: Government Printing Office,1978.

U.S. CcAsumer Product Safety Commis-sion. "Play Happy, Play Safely" Poster.Washington, D.C.: Government PrintingOffice, 1978.

53. Werner, P.H. and R.A. Simmons, Inexpen-sive Physical Education Equipment.Minneapolis, MN: Burgess Publishing Co.,Inc., 1976.

171r1

U.S. CONSUMER PRODUCT SAFETY. COMMISSIONREGIONAL AND DISTRICT OFFICES

ATLANTA REGIONAL OFFICEConsumer Product Safety Commission800 Peachtree Street, N.E., Suite 210Atlanta, Georgia 30308404-881-2231(Ala., Fla., Ga., Ky., Miss., N.C., S.C., Tenn.)

BOSTON REGIONAL OFFICEConsumer Product Safety Commission100 Summer Street, Room 1607Boston, Massachusetts 02110617223-5576(Conn., Mass.. Me., N.H., R.I., Vt.)

CHICAGO REGIONAL OFFICEConsumer Product Safety Commission230 S. Dearborn Street, Room 2945Chicago, Illinois 60604312-353-82(III., Ind., Minn., Wis.)

TWIN CITIES DISTRICT OFFICEConsumer Product Safety CommissionMetro Square, Suite 5807th and Robert StreetsSt. Paul, Minnesota 55101612-725-7781 '

CLEVELAND REGIONAL OFFICEConsumer Product Safety Commission1404 East-NinttrStreet-,-61trFlobr--BancOhiO BuildingCleveland, Ohio 44114216-522-3886(Mich., Ohio)

DALLAS, REGIONAL OFFICEConeumw Product Safety Commission1100 Commerce Street, Room 1C 10ballasTexas 75242214-767-0841(Ark., La., N.M., Okla., Tex.)

KANSAS CITY REGIONAL 01:FICEConsumer Product Safety CommissionMidland Building, Suite 10001221 Baltimore AvenueKansas City, Missouri 64105.816-374-2034(Is., Kan., Mo., Nebr., Colo., Mont.,N.D., S.D., Ut., Wyo.)

DENVER DISTRICT OFFICEConsumer Product Safety CommissionGuaranty Bank Building, Suite 93881.7 17th StreetDenver, Colorado 802C2303-837-2904

LOS ANGELES RE1,11:014AL OFFICEConsumer Product Safety Commis3ior-3660 Wilshire Boulevard. Suite 1100Los Angeles, California 90010213 -P&, -7272(Ariz., So. Cal.)

-NEW YORK RECOONAL OFFICEConsumer Product Safety Commission8 World Trade CenterVesey Street, 6th FloorNew York, New York 10048212-264-1125(N.J., N.Y., P.R., V.I.)

PHILADELPHIA REGIONAL OFFICEConsumer Product 'Safety Commission.400 Market Street, 10th Floor,Philadelphia, Pennsylvania"19106215-697-9105(Del., D.C., Md., Pa., Va., W. Va.)

`SAN FRANCISCO REGIONAL OFFICEConsumer Product Safety CommissionU.S. Customs House -

555 Battery Street, Room 416San Francisco, California 94111415-556-1816 ,7

(Hi., Nev.,,No. Cal., Alas., Ida.; Ore., Wash.)

SEATTLE DISTRICT OFFICE.Consumer Product Safety Commission3240 Fedenif Building -

915 Second AvenueSeiittle, Washington 98174 -

208-442-5274'

The U.S. Consiimer Product Safety Commission (CPSC) lien independent regulatory agency charged with reducingunreasonable risks of injury associated with consumer products. CPSC is headed_by_tivilCommissioners-appointed by

--the-Piesident with the advice and consent of the Senate. The Commissioners are Stuart M. Statler; Sam Zagoria; R. DavidPittle; and Edith Barksdale Sloan. There is one vacancy.

PRODUCT SAFETY, IT'S NO ACCIDENT.

-In the continental United States, call the toil-free CPSC hotline 800-638-8326..Maryland only, 800 - 492 -8363. Alaska, Hawaii, Puerto Rico, Virgin Islands; 800-638-8333..A teletypewrifer'for the deaf is available on the following numbers: National(including Alaska and 1-aWall) 800- 638 -8270, Maryland residents only 800492-,8104:During:non 'working 'hours, messages_ are iecorded and answered on thefollowing working day. , .

_

tt U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFIFK:E : 1981 720-013/4210