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Doctorate 1

Doctorate

A doctorate is an academic degree or professional degree that,in most countries, qualifies the holder to teach at the

university level in the specific field of his or her degree, or to work in a specific profession. The research doctorate,

or the Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) and its equivalent titles, represents the highest academic qualification. While the

structure of U.S. doctoral programs is more formal and complex than in some other systems, the research doctorate isnot awarded for the preliminary advanced study that leads to doctoral candidacy, but rather for successfully

completing and defending the independent research presented in the form of the doctoral dissertation (thesis).

Several first-professional degrees use the term doctor in their title, such as the Juris Doctor and the US version of

the Doctor of Medicine, but these degrees do not universally contain an independent research component or always

require a dissertation (thesis) and should not be confused with PhD degrees or other research doctorates.[1] In fact

many universities offer Ph.D followed by a professional doctorate degree or joint Ph.D. with the professional degree

(most often Ph.D. work comes sequential to the professional degree): eg. Ph.D. in law after J.D. or equivalent[2][3][4][5] in physical therapy after DPT,[6][7] in pharmacy after DPharm.[8][9] Often such professional degrees are

refereed as entry level doctorate program [10][11][12] and Ph.D as postprofessional doctorate.

In some countries, the highest degree in a given field is called a terminal degree, although this is by no means

universal (the term is not in general use in the UK, for example), practice varies from country to country.

The term doctorate comes from the Latin docere, meaning "to teach."

The "licentiate" degree shortened from the full Latin title licentia docendi, means "teaching licence".

History

The doctorate (Latin: doctor, "teacher," from doctum, "[that which is] taught," past participle of docere, "to teach")

appeared in medieval Europe as a license to teach (Latin: licentia docendi) at a medieval university. Its roots can be

traced to the early church when the term "doctor" referred to the Apostles, church fathers and other Christian

authorities who taught and interpreted the Bible. The rightto grant a licentia docendi was originally reserved to the

Catholic church which required the applicant to pass a test, to take oath of allegiance and pay a fee. The Third

Council of the Lateran of 1179 guaranteed the access by that time largely free of charge of all able applicants,

who were, however, still tested for aptitude by the ecclesiastic scholastic. This right remained a bone of contention

between the church authorities and the slowly emancipating universities, but was granted by the pope to the

University of Paris in 1213 where it became a universal license to teach (licentia ubiquie docendi). However, while

the licentia continued to hold a higher prestige than the bachelor's degree (Baccalaureus), it was ultimately reduced

to an intermediate step to the Magister and doctorate, both of which now became the exclusive qualification for

teaching.

At the university, doctoral training was a form of apprenticeship to a guild. The traditional term of study before newteachers were admitted to the guild of "Masters of Arts" was seven years, which was the same as the term of

apprenticeship for other occupations. Originally the terms "master" and "doctor" were synonymous, but over time the

doctorate came to be regarded as a higher qualification than the master's degree. A hypothesis by George Makdisi

that the doctorate has its origins in the Islamic Ijazah, a reversal of Makdisi's earlier view that saw both systems as

being of "the most fundamental difference," has been rejected by Tony Huff as unsubstantiated.

It is not until recently that Universities began to accept female students in their Doctorate programs. In the year

1785, Complutense University became the first University to grant a Doctorate to a female student, Mara Isidra de

Guzmn y de la Cerda.[13] In comparison, University of Oxford did not accept female scholars until the year 1920,

and the University of Cambridge did not grant a Ph.D. to a female student until the year 1926.

The usage and meaning of the doctorate has changed over time, and it has also been subject to regional variations.

For instance, until the early 20th century few academic staff or professors in English-speaking universities held
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doctorates, except for very senior scholars and those in holy orders. After that time the German practice of requiring

prospective lecturers to have completed a "research doctorate" became widespread. Additionally, universities' shifts

to "research oriented" education increased the importance of the doctorate. Today such a doctorate is generally a

prerequisite for pursuing an academic career, although not everyone who receives a research doctorate becomes an

academic by profession. Many universities also award "honorary doctorates" to individuals who have been deemed

worthy of special recognition, either for scholarly work or for other contributions to the university or to society.

Although the research doctorate is almost universally accepted as the standard qualification for an academic career, it

is a relatively new invention.

The older-style doctorates (now usually called "Higher Doctorates" in the United Kingdom) take much longer to

complete, sincecandidates mustshow themselves to be leading experts in their subjects. These doctorates are now

less common in some countries, and are often awarded honoris causa. The habilitation is still used for academic

recruitment purposes in many countries within the EU and involves either a new long thesis (a second book) or a

portfolio of research publications. The habilitation demonstrates independent and thorough research, experience in

teaching and lecturing and, more recently, the ability to generate funding within the area of research. The

"habilitation" is regarded as a senior post-doctoral qualification, many years after the research doctorate, and can be

necessary for a Privatdozent (in Germany) or professor position.

A similar system traditionally holds in Russia. Already in the Russian Empire the academic degree doctor of the

sciences (doktor nauk) marked the highest academic degree which can be achieved by an examination. This system

was generally adopted by the USSR/Russia and many post-Soviet countries. A lower degree, candidate [doctor] of

the sciences (kandidat nauk), is, roughly, the Russian equivalent to the research doctorate in most other countries.

Types

See Doctor (title) for more information.

Since the Middle Ages, there has been considerable evolution and proliferation in the number and types of doctorates

awarded by universities throughout the world, and practices vary from one country to another. While a doctorateusually entitles one to be addressed as "doctor," usage of the title varies widely, depending on the type of doctorate

earned and the doctor's occupation.

Broadly speaking, doctorates may often be loosely classified into the following categories:

Academic doctors gather before the April 2008

Commencement exercises at Brigham Young

University

Research

Research doctorates are awarded in recognition of academic research

that is (at least in principle) publishable in a peer-refereed academic

journal. In many countries, including the United States, earning a

research doctorate also requires successful completion of a regimen ofcoursework beyond the masters level. The best-known degree of this

type, in the Anglophone world, is that of Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.,

or sometimes D.Phil) awarded in many countries throughout the world.

Others include the degree of Doctor of Arts, Doctor of Education,

various doctorates in engineering, such as the US Doctor of

Engineering[14] (also awarded in Japan and South Korea), the UK

Engineering Doctorate[15] and the German Engineering Doctorate

Doktor-Ingenieur and the German nature-science degree of Doctor rerum naturalium (Dr.rer.nat.). The Doctor of

Theology, often stylized Th.D., is also a research doctorate, in theology, awarded by universities such as Harvard

Divinity School and the University of Toronto among many others. Likewise, the Doctor of Sacred Theology is alsoa research doctorate in theology, but particular to Catholic Pontifical Universities and Faculties.
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Criteria for award of research doctorates vary somewhat throughout the world, but typically requires the submission

of a substantial body of original research undertaken by the candidate. This may take the form of a single thesis or

dissertation, or possibly a portfolio of shorter project reports; see also Thesis by publication. The submission will

usually be assessed by a small committee of examiners appointed by the university, and often an oral examination of

some kind. In some countries (such as the US) there may also be a formal component of classes that are taught,

typically consisting of graduate-level courses in the subject in question, as well as training in research methodology.

The minimum time required to complete a research doctorate varies by country, and may be as short as three years

(excluding undergraduate study), although it is not uncommon for a candidate to take up to six years to complete.

In the UK, an equivalent formation to doctorate is the QCF 8.

Higher

In some countries, especially the United Kingdom, Ireland, Australia and some Scandinavian nations, or former

USSR and other Eastern Bloc countries, there is a higher tier of research doctorates, awarded on the basis of a

formally submitted portfolio of published research of a very high standard. Examples include the Doctor of Science

(DSc/ScD) and Doctor of Letters (DLitt/LittD) degrees found in the UK, Ireland and some Commonwealth

countries, and the traditional doctorates in Denmark and Norway, including Dr. Theol. (Theology),Dr. Jur. (Law),

Dr. Med. (Medicine) and, after Denmark and Norway introduced the Ph.D. at a lower level, Dr. Phil(os).. The

Danish and Norwegian titles should not be confused with German doctorates.

The French, German and Polish habilitation (a formal professorial qualification with thesis and exam) is commonly

regarded as belonging to this category. However, in some German states, the Habilitation is not an academic degree,

but rather a professorial certification ("facultas docendi") that the person concerned holds all the qualifications

needed to teach independently at a German university. In other German states, the "Habilitand" is awarded a formal

"Dr. habil." degree. In some cases where such degrees are awarded, the holder of the degree may add "habil." to his

or her research doctorate such as "Dr. phil. habil." or "Dr. rer. nat. habil." The French academic system used to have

a higher doctorate, called "State doctorate" (doctorat d'tat

), but it was superseded by the habilitation in 1984.In Sweden, a title roughly corresponding to the Habilitation is Docent. This was also commonly used in Poland but

as of 2005 was changed to a formal "Dr hab." (doktor habilitowany) degree. See below (Poland section) for more

details.

Higher doctorates are often also awarded honoris causa when a university wishes to formally recognize an

individual's achievements and contributions to a particular field.

Professional

Professional doctorates are awarded in certain fields where scholarly research is closely aligned with a particular

profession, such as law, medicine, or psychology. Examples include the US and Canadian degrees of Doctor of

Medicine (M.D.), Doctor of Optometry (O.D.), Doctor of Chiropractic (D.C.), Doctor of Pharmacy (Pharm. D.),

Doctor of Psychology (Psy. D.) Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine (D.O.),Doctor of Nursing Practice (DNP), Doctor of

Dental Surgery (D.D.S.), Doctor of Dental Medicine (D.M.D.), Juris Doctor (J.D.), and Doctor of Ministry (D.Min).

Professional doctorates originated in the United States, with the introduction of the MD at Columbia University in

1767,[16] almost 100 years before a research doctoratethat is, a PhDwas awarded in that country, at Yale in

1861.[17] The JD was introduced in 1870, just a few years after the PhD.[18]

The termProfessional Doctorate is used to refer to research doctorates with a focus on applied research, or research

as used for professional purposes.[19] Among others, these include the degrees of Doctor of Business Administration

(DBA), Doctor of Strategic Leadership (DSL), Doctor of Public Administration (DPA), Doctor of Social Work

(DSW), Doctor of Biblical Studies (D.B.S.), Doctor of Law and Policy (Lp.D), Doctor of Practical Theology(DPT),[20]Doctor of Professional Studies (DPS or DProf), Doctor of the Built Environment (DBEnv)[21] and some
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others in various specified professional fields. Also included in this area is the Doctor of Education (Ed.D.).

In Australia, the term is on occasion applied to the SJD,[22][23][24] and on other occasions that degree is also

categorized as a research degree.[25][26]

Honorary

When a university wishes to formally recognize an individual's contributions to a particular field or philanthropicefforts, it may choose to grant a doctoral degree honoris causa (i.e., "for the sake of the honor"), the university

waiving the usual formal requirements for bestowal of the degree.[27][28] Some universities do not award honorary

degrees, for example, Cornell University,[29] the University of Virginia,[30] the California Institute of Technology,

and Massachusetts Institute of Technology.[31]

Professor as a higher degree

An extreme rarity among degrees are theProfessorial degrees.

In modern times, the status of professor is awarded as a recognition of sustained academic excellence, equivalent in

standing to an honorary doctorate, but this is not a degree per se. However, in past times, Professor was sometimes

awarded as a degree.

One example of this is the degree of Sacrae Theologiae Professor (STP), which was awarded by the Pontifical

University. This degree is now titled Sacrae Theologiae Doctor (STD) in keeping with usual modern practices.

Practice by country

Argentina

In Argentina the doctorate (doctorado)[32] is the highest academic degree. The intention is that candidates produce

true and original contributions in a specific field of knowledge within a frame of academic excellence.[33] The

doctoral candidate's work is presented in a dissertation or thesis prepared under the supervision of a tutor or director,

and reviewed by a Doctoral Committee. The Committee is composed of examiners external to the program, and at

least one examiner external to the institution. The academic degree of Doctor is conferred after a successful defense

of the candidates dissertation.[34] Currently, there are approximately 2,151 postgraduate careers in the country, of

which 14% were doctoral degrees. Doctoral programs in Argentina are overseen by the National Commission for

University Evaluation and Accreditation,[35] which is a decentralized agency in Argentinas Ministry of Education,

Science and Technology.[36]

Denmark

In Denmark, there are four levels of degrees: 1) a three-year Bachelor's degree (e.g. Bachelor of Arts = B.A.); 2) atwo-year Candidate's degree (e.g. candidatus/candidata magisterii = cand.mag.), respectively a three-year extended

research graduation, leading to the Magister's Degree (e.g. magister/magistra artium = mag.art.), the latter of which

has recently been phased out in order to meet the international standards of the Bologna Process both the

cand.mag. and the mag.art. are generally compared to a Master's Degree (MA); 3) a Ph.D. Degree (ph.d.), which

replaced the licentiate in 1988, and finally; 4) a Doctor's degree (fx doctor philosophiae = dr.phil.), which is the

higher doctorate.

For the Ph.D., the candidate writes a major thesis and has to defend it orally at a formal disputation. In the

disputation, the candidate defends their thesis against three official opponents as well as opponents from the

auditorium (ex auditorio).

For the higher doctorate, the candidate writes a major thesis and has to defend it orally at a formal disputation. In thisdisputation, the candidate (called prces) defends this thesis against two official opponents as well as opponents
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from the auditorium (ex auditorio).

Egypt

In Egypt, the Doctorate degree abbreviated as MD is equivalent to the PhD degree.[37] To earn an MD in a

specialty of science, one must have a Master degree (M.Sc.) (or 2 diplomas before the introduction of MSc degree in

Egypt) before applying. Earning the MD degree involves studying a course in the specialization, and presenting anddefending a dissertation thesis. It usually takes on average from three to five years. Many postgraduate medical and

surgical specialties students earn a Doctorate degree in their specialties. After finishing a 6-year medical school and

one-year internship (house officer), doctors and surgeons earn M.B. B.Ch. degree, which is equivalent to the MD

degree of medical schools in the US. They can then apply to earn a Master degree or a speciality diploma then an

MD degree in a specialty. The MD degree in Egypt is written with the name of one's specialty afterward. For

example, MD (Geriatrics) means a Doctorate Degree in Geriatrics, which is equivalent to a Ph.D degree in

Geriatrics.\ Academic sciences like Microbiology earn a PhD degree.

Finland

In the Finnish education system, the requirement for the entrance into the doctoral studies is a Master's degree orequivalent qualification. All universities have the right to award doctorates in their assigned fields.[38] The

ammattikorkeakoulu institutes (institutes of higher vocational education that are not universities but often called

"Universities of applied sciences" in English) do not award doctoral or other academic degrees. The aim of the

studies for the doctoral degree is threefold:

1.1. The student must obtain sublime understanding of their field and its meaning to the society, while becoming

prepared to use the methods of scientific or scholarly study in their field, creating new scientific or scholarly

knowledge.

2.2. The student must obtain a good understanding of development, basic problems and research methods of their

field

3.3. The student must obtain such understanding of the general theory of science and letters and such knowledge of

the neighbouring research field that they are able to follow the development of these fields.

The way to show that these general requirements have been met is also threefold:

1.1. The graduate coursework required by the university.

2.2. a show of critical and independent thought in the research field

3. preparation and a public defence of a dissertation, which may be a monograph or a compilation thesis, i.e. a

collection of peer-reviewed articles with an extended summary. In the area of fine arts, the dissertation may be

substituted by artistic merits and performances as decided by the degree-awarding faculty.

In Finland, the entrance into the graduate studies is not as controlled as in undergraduate studies, where a strict

numerus clausus is applied. Usually, a prospective graduate student discusses his plans with a professor of hischoice. If the professor wishes to accept the student, the student applies the faculty for a study place. Nonetheless, in

some cases, the professor may recruit the student to his group after a successful completion of a master's thesis, for

instance.[39] In any case, a formal graduate study place does not guarantee funding. The student must obtain funding

either by working in a research unit or through scholarships handed out by private foundations. Typically, it is easier

to obtain funding for graduate studies in natural and engineering sciences, while graduate studies in letters are more

difficult to finance. Sometimes, it may be possible to combine normal work and research activity.[40]

Prior to introduction of Bologna process, Finland required at least 42 credit weeks (1800 hours) of formal

coursework of doctoral students. The general requirement was removed in 2005, leaving the decision on the scale of

coursework needed to individual universities, which may delegate the authority to faculties and even to individual

professors. In fields of Engineering and Science, the required amount of coursework varies between 60 and 70

ECTS.
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Doctorate 6

The time for the completion of graduate studies varies, as there are no fixed time limits written into the law or to

most university regulations. It is possible to graduate even in three years after the master's degree, while much longer

periods are by no means uncommon. In any case, the study ends with the completion of a dissertation, which must

make a substantial contribution to the field by presenting new scientific or scholarly knowledge. The dissertation can

either be a monograph or it can be edited from a collection of 3 to 7 journal articles, including an introduction tying

together the individual parts. If a student is unable or unwilling to write a dissertation, he may qualify for licentiate

degree of his field by completing the coursework requirement and writing a shorter thesis, usually worth of one year

of research.

After the dissertation is ready, it is submitted to the faculty, which names two pre-examiners with doctoral degrees

from the outside of the university. These pre-examiners must be noted experts of the field. Their acceptance of the

work is necessary for the permission to defend the work. During the pre-examination process, the student may

receive comments on the work and if necessary, requirements to modify it. [41] After the pre-examiners approve, the

doctoral candidate applies the faculty for the permission to print the thesis. Simultaneously with the printing

permission, the faculty names the opponent for the thesis defence, who must also be an outside expert of the field,

with at least a doctoral degree. In all Finnish universities, an archaic tradition requires that the printed dissertation

must hang on a chord by a public university noticeboard for at least ten days after the printing permission has beengiven in order for the defence of the dissertation to be possible.[42]

The doctoral dissertation takes place in public, usually in a university auditorium, with the opponent and the

candidate conducting a very formal debate, usually wearing white tie, under the supervision of the thesis supervisor.

It is customary for the family, friends, colleagues and the members of the research community to attend the defence

proceedings. After a formal entrance, the candidate begins the proceeding by a c. 20-minute popular lecture ( lectio

praecursoria), which is meant to introduce the laymen present to the topic of the thesis. After this, the opponent

gives a short talk on the topic of the defence, after which the pair critically discusses the dissertation. The

proceedings take two, maybe three hours. At the end of the proceeding, the opponent presents his final statement on

the work, and reveals whether he/she will recommend that the faculty accept it. After the opponent has finished, any

member of the public has an opportunity to raise questions on the dissertation, although such opponentsextraordinary are rare. Immediately after the defence, the supervisor, the opponent and the passed candidate drink

coffee with the public. Usually, the attendees of the defence are handed out the printed dissertation and leave with

it.[43] In the evening, the passed candidate is obligated to host a dinner (Finnish: karonkka) in the honour of the

opponent. Usually, the candidate invites his family and colleagues and collaborators.[44]

France

In France, the doctorate (doctorat) is always a research-only degree. It is a national degree and its requirements are

fixed by an official text of the minister of higher education and research. Except for a very small number of private

institutions, only public institutions of higher education and research can award the doctorate. It can be awarded in

any field of study. The master's degree is a prerequisite for pursuing a doctoral program. The official normal duration

of the doctoral work is three years. The redaction of a comprehensive thesis constitutes the bulk of the doctorate's

work. While the length of the thesis varies according to the discipline, it is rarely less than 150 pages, and often

substantially more. There are ~15000 new matriculations for the doctoral program every year and ~10000 doctorates

awarded.[45]

Doctoral candidates can apply for a three-year fellowship, the most well known being the allocation de recherche du

ministre de l'enseignement suprieur et de la recherche (4000 granted every years, gross salary of 19,740 euros in

December 2012).

During the preparation of the doctorate, the candidate has had, since 2002, to follow a limited number of courses, but

there is no written examination for the doctorate. The candidate has to write an extensive thesis which is read by twoexternal reviewers designated by the head of the institution. According to the reports of the reviewer, the head of the
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Doctorate 7

institution decides whether the candidate can defend his thesis or not. The members of the jury are designated by the

head of the institution and must be composed of external and internal academics. The supervisor of the candidate is

generally a member of the jury, as well as the reviewers of the thesis. The maximum number of members in the jury

is 8. The defense lasts generally 45 minutes in scientific fields and are followed by 1h 2h30 of questions from the

jury or other doctors present in the assistance. Defense and questions are public. At the end of the series of questions,

the jury deliberates in private for 2030 min and comes back to declare the candidate admitted or "postponed".

"Postponement" is very rare. The admission of the candidate is generally followed by a distinction: "honourable",

which is not highly considered, "very honourable", which is the usual distinction, and "very honourable with the

congratulation of the jury" (Trs honorable avec flicitations). Because there exist no national criteria for the award

of this last distinction, many institutions have decided not to award it. New regulations concerning this distinction

were set in 2006. Many institutions have decided not to award any distinction, as it is now permitted by the law.

Confusingly the title of doctor (docteur) is used only by the medical and pharmaceutical practitioners who hold not a

doctorate but a doctor's state diploma (diplme d'tat de docteur), which is a first-degree and professional doctorate

obtained after at least 9 years of studies. As they do not pursue research studies, they are not awarded a doctorate.

Before 1984 three research doctorates existed : the state doctorate (doctorat d'tat, the old doctorate introduced in

1808), the third cycle doctorate (doctorat de troisime cycle), created in 1954 and shorter than the state doctorate,and the diploma of doctor-engineer (diplme de docteur-ingnieur), created in 1923, for technical research. Since

1984, there is only one type of doctoral degree, simply called "doctorate" (Doctorat). A special diploma has been

created called the "accreditation to supervise research" (habilitation diriger des recherches), which is a

professional qualification to supervise doctoral work. (This diploma is similar in spirit to the older state doctorate,

and the requirements for obtaining it are similar to those necessary to obtain tenure in other systems.) Before only

professors or senior full researchers of similar rank were normally authorized to supervise a doctoral candidate's

work.[46] Now the habilitation is a prerequisite to the title of professor in university (Professeur des Universits) and

to the title of Research Director (Directeur de recherche) in national public research agency such as CNRS, INRIA,

or INRA.

Germany

In Germany, a doctorate is usually a research doctorate and is awarded in the context of the so-called promotion. Its

duration depends strongly on the field in which it is taken. While a doctorate in medicine may take less than a

full-time year to complete, it takes between three and six years in engineering. In Germany, most doctorates are

awarded with specific designations for the field of research instead of a general "PhD" for all fields, the most

important ones being: Dr. rer. nat. (Doctorate in Natural Sciences, i.e. Physics, Chemistry, Biology, Maths,

Psychology often also Computer Science and Information Technology), Dr. phil. (Doctorate of philosophy, i.e. the

humanities like Philosophy, philology, History, and social sciences like sociology or Psychology), Dr. iur.

(Doctorate in Law), Dr. oec. (Doctorate in Economics), Dr. rer. pol. (Doctor Rerum Politicarum, aka Doctorate in

Political Science),Dr. med. (Doctorate in Medicine),Dr.-Ing. (Doctorate in Engineering). There are over fifty such

specific designations, many of which are highly specialized and rarely awarded. The degree can be written in front of

the first name for addresses (within texts, the abbreviations "Dr." and "Dr.-Ing." are common) and accompanies the

person's name (unlike in German-speaking Switzerland, where some doctoral programs issue a PhD[47]). Although

the "Dr." does not become part of a person's name one can demand naming the title in official documents. However,

naming the title even in these documents is not mandatory. The "Dr." (but not the specification of the field) is

commonly used to address someone with this title for instance in formal letters. If someone holds other titles, as in

"Prof. (Professor) Dr. Dr.-Ing. [Surname]", it is common to use only the highest title in formal letters, as in "Prof.

[Surname]".

Upon the completion of the habilitation thesis (Habilitationsschrift) a different type of a doctorate (Dr. habil. or only:habil.) is awarded. This doctorate is known as the Habilitation. It is not considered a formal degree but an additional
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Doctorate 9

The first institution in Italy to create a doctoral program (PhD) was Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa in 1927 under

the historic name "Diploma di Perfezionamento".[49][50] Further, the research doctorates or PhD (Italian: Dottorato

di ricerca) in Italy were introduced with law and Presidential Decree in 1980 (Law of February 21, 1980, No. 28 [51]

and the Presidential Decree No. 382 of 11 July 1980 [52]), referring to the reform of academic teaching, training and

experimentation in organisation and teaching methods.[53][54]

Hence, the Superior Graduate Schools in Italy (Grandes coles)[55]

(Italian: Scuola Superiore Universitaria),[56]

alsocalled Schools of Excellence (Italian: Scuole di Eccellenza)[57] such as Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa and

Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies still keep their reputed historical "Diploma di Perfezionamento"PhD title by

law[58] and MIUR Decree [59].[60][61]

Japan

By dissertation

Until the 1990s, most doctorates in the natural sciences and engineering in Japan were earned by industrial

researchers in Japanese companies. These degrees are awarded by the employees' former university, usually after

many years of research in industrial laboratories. No matriculation is necessary, only submission of a dissertationwith some articles published in well-known journals . This program, called ronbun hakase ( ),

represented the majority of engineering doctoral degrees from national universities. With the expansion of

university-based doctoral programs called katei hakase (), however, the proportion of these degrees

earned is decreasing. By 1994, more doctoral engineering degrees were earned for research within university

laboratories (53%) than industrial research laboratories (47%).[62] Since 1978, Japan Society for the Promotion of

Science (JSPS) provides tutorial and financial support for promising researchers in Asia and Africa to earn their PhD

degrees through this route. The program is called JSPS RONPAKU.[63]

Professional degree

The only professional doctorate in Japan is the Juris Doctor. In Japan the J.D. is known as Hmu Hakushi (

) [64] The program generally lasts two or three years. This curriculum is professionally oriented, [65] but unlike

in the United States the program does not provide the education sufficient for a license, as all candidates passed bar

exam(Shihou shiken) for a bar license must attend the Legal Training and Research Institute and pass the practical

exam(Nikai Shiken or Shihou Shushusei koushi).[66]

The Netherlands / Flanders

The traditional academic system of The Netherlands provided four basic academic diplomas and degrees:

propaedeuse, kandidaat, doctorandus (drs.) and doctor (dr.). After successful completion of the first year of

University, the student was awarded the propaedeutic diploma (not a degree). In some studies, this diploma was

already abolished in the 1980s: in physics and mathematics, the student could obtain directly a kandidaats degree intwo years. The kandidaat (candidate) degree, which was all but abolished by 1989, used to be attained after four or

five years of academic study, after which the student was allowed to begin work on his doctorandus thesis. The

successful completion of this thesis allowed one to use the doctorandus title, attainment of which means one's initial

studies are finished. In addition to these 'general' degrees, a number of specific titles for certain subjects are

available, each of which is equivalent to the doctorandus degree: for law: meester (master) (mr.), and for engineering

at a technical university like Delft: ingenieur (engineer)(ir.). In the last few years, the Dutch have incorporated the

Anglo-Saxon system of academic degrees into their own. The old candidate's degree has been revived as bachelor's

degree, the doctorandus' by the master's degree. However, Dutch regular university programmes tend to include

subject matter which, e.g., at Harvard is only taught in PhD-courses (for instance advanced quantum mechanics or

general relativity in a Dutch course for the master's degree in theoretical physics).
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Doctorate 10

Those who choose to can enroll in a doctorate system after achieving a masters degree (or equivalent) recognised by

the Dutch government. The most common way is to be hired as promovendus/assistent in opleiding

(aio)/onderzoeker in opleiding (oio) (research assistant with additional courses and supervision), perform extensive

research, and write a doctoral dissertation consisting of published scientific articles (this course is normally four

years, although the average duration to completions is about 5.5 years). It is also possible to conduct research

without the research assistant status, for example through a business sponsored research laboratory, or in spare time.

Regardless of the way, every thesis has to be supported by a promotor (full university professor who has the role of

principal advisor) before it can be submitted. The written thesis is subjected to review by a committee of experts in

the relevant academic field; who either approve or reject the submitted thesis. Failures at this stage are rare as the

supervisors will hold back submission (causing delay beyond the 4 years) rather than allow a substandard thesis to be

submitted. The supervisors, and especially the promotor lose face with her/his colleagues allowing a substandard

thesis to be submitted; thus gaining supervisor approval is in practice the more demanding requirement. After

approval by the reviewers, the candidate will print typically 100-300 copies of the thesis and send it to colleagues,

friends and family with an invitation to the public defense. The doctoral degree is awarded in a formal, public,

defense session (failure during this session is in theory possible but in practice this never happens). The defense lasts

exactly the assigned time slot (45 minutes or 1 hour exactly depending on the University) after which the defense isstopped by the pedel (proctor) who interrupts ongoing questioning by entering the room and announcing that the

time is past in Latin (Hora Est). At this stage the candidate is allowed to stop the defense even midsentence, although

in practice a short one sentence wrap up is usually given. If one of the examiners is still phrasing a question, no

answer will be given.

The doctor's title is the highest academic degree one can attain in the Netherlands. There is only one title "doctor",

which as is explained above requires original scientific publications, unlike the Anglo-Saxon PhD., which is only an

exam and may or may not include original scientific publications. However, the three Dutch universities of

technology (Eindhoven University of Technology, Technical University Delft, and University of Twente) do award a

Professional Doctorate in Engineering (PDEng).

In the Netherlands, although the title doctor (dr.) is informally called PhD, there is no such thing as a PhD degree;there is the title doctor (dr.) in stead of PhD. Seeing that all other university titles (BSc/BBa/LL.B/BA

M.Sc/MBA/LL.M/MA) are protected by law but PhD is not it follows that any person can call himself PhD in the

Netherlands without having obtained that title. Calling oneself "Doctor" without having a doctorate is fraud though.

For people who obtained a degree in a foreign country to be allowed to use the Dutch title drs. mr. ir. or dr. a request

has to be made at the Dienst Uitvoering Onderwijs[67] though according to the opportunity principle there is little

incentive to punish such fraud. Dutch doctors may use the letter D behind their name instead of the shortcut dr.

before their name.[68]

Those who have multiple doctor (dr.) titles may use dr.mult. before their own name. Those who have received

honoris causa doctorates may use dr.h.c. before their own name.

In Flanders (the Dutch-speaking region of Belgium) the system is very similar, except the doctorandus title was only

awarded to those who actually started their doctoral work. Doctorandus is still used as a synonym for a PhD student.

The licentiaat (licencee) title was in use for a regular graduate until the Bologna reform changed the kandidaat to

bachelor and licentiaat to master.

Nepal

In Nepal, doctorate level degrees are offered by the universities or institutions of national level importance deemed

to be universities. Entry requirements for doctorate degrees by most of the universities include good academic

background at masters level(post graduate degree). Some universities also consider undergraduate degrees in

professional areas such as engineering, medicine or law for entrance to doctorate level degrees. Entranceexaminations are held for almost all the universities for admission to doctoral level degrees. The duration of the
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Doctorate 11

coursework and thesis for award of the degree is 2 3 years after PhD registration .

Pakistan

Research Degrees are PhD (Doctor of Philosophy) awarded after extensive research work including a compulsory

one year of course work and written examination. To get admission in PhD you must be admitted to the MPhil

program for which you need to pass NTS or GRE (subjective or General) and should have good grades throughoutyour career.Exemption from MPhil is possible if you have MS from a reputable University.

Professional Degree / Terminal Degree is awarded in Pharmacy i.e. Doctor of Pharmacy (PharmD, a five (5) year

course of study) which requires accreditation of the School / Faculty of Pharmacy by Pakistan Pharmacy Council. It

is the only Professional Degree in Pharmacy awarded in Pakistan replacing Bachelor of Pharmacy degree ( a four (4)

year course of study.

Poland

The Polish system is similar to the one adopted in Germany, with Ph.D. as a first level doctorate and habilitation

(habilitacja) as second. The award of the title of doktor (Ph.D.) is usually preceded by 45 years of doctoral study (a

post-graduate study offered at most universities, during which candidate is employed by this university and is usually

obligated to teach some classes) and a doctoral exam. Doctoral studies usually consist of seminars, lectures, research

and teaching. In order to become a doktor habilitowany (i.e. to be awarded a second level doctorate) a candidate has

to publish a dissertation that is the culmination of several years of deep field studies, as well as have a recognized

research record. While, according to current Polish law, candidates without habilitation are theoretically eligible to

become professors, in practice it is extremely rare. Since 1993 only Master-degree holders are allowed to become a

doctor, while prior to that time it was possible (but rare) to gain doctorate without Master studies (for example Stefan

Banach).

First, a prospective doctor must have published some works (articles, books). To become a doctor one needs to go

through the process called doctoral proceedings (przewd doktorski). This proceedings include the writing of adissertation (varying in length), which then must be accepted by a panel of professors during a so-called defence of

the dissertation (obrona pracy doktorskiej). There are several other requirements, like passing an exam in a foreign

language and subject related to the dissertation title.

The title of a first level doctor is abbreviated as dr (without a full stop) before the surname of a person, e.g. dr

Kowalski and a second level dr hab.. After becoming a doctor mgr is omitted, e.g. mgr dr, mgr in. dr in..

Doktor is also a common form of addressing a physician, but that does not indicate that the person actually holds a

doctoral degree. Doctors of medicine have the abbreviation dr n. med. (doctor of medical science) before or after

their surname.

Other specific doctoral titles include dr n.t. (doctor of engineering) and dr n. farm (doctor of pharmaceutical

science).Dr n.hum. means doctor of humanities (incl. psychology and sociology), but is rarely used to differentiate

from doctors of other fields. All other doctorates have no indications of their field.

Portugal

Doutor (Doctor)

All doctoral programs are of research nature. Usually 3 or 4 years of study are required, mostly as a period of

research. The student must write his (or her) thesis presenting a new discovery or original contribution to the field. If

approved by his/her supervisor, the study will be presented to a panel of distinguished scholars. If approved, he or

she will receive the doctorate.

Male title: "Dr." and "Doutor". Female title: "Dra." and "Doutora".
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In Portugal and in the African Countries of Portuguese Official Language it is common to use the title "Dr."

(supposedly the abbreviation of "Doutor") in reference to people with "Licenciatura" or "Mestrado" degrees. Thus

"Doutor" is commonly used in the extended form to denote someone with a doctorate. "Professor Doutor" is usually

used for university professors.

Before the Bologna Process reform, a "Licenciatura" was something between a Bachelor ("Bacharelato" in Portugal)

and it represented 4 to 6 years of graduate studies.After the Bologna Process reform in Portugal, the new "Licenciatura" degree is equivalent to the old "Bacharelato"

(Bachelor with 3 or 4 years). There are also the "Mestrado" (Master degree) and the "Mestrado Integrado"

(integrated Bachelor and Master degree with 5 or 6 years, required for access to some professional fields). Some

professionals have, however, different titles. For example: "Eng." (Engenheiro, such as the Master of Engineering),

"Arq." (Arquitecto, Architect). The term "Dr." in Portugal is also used for people from other professional fields. For

Example, Dentists, Lawyers and Physicians.

Russia

Many post-Soviet countries, including Russian Federation, have a two-stage research degree obtaining path,

generally similar to the doctorate system in Europe. The first stage is named "Kandidat( ) of

Sciences" (literal translation means "Candidate of Sciences",) (for instance, Kandidat of Medical Sciences, of

Chemical Sciences, of Philological Sciences, and so on). The Kandidat of Sciences degree is usually recognised as

an equivalent of Philosophy Doctor (Ph.D.) degree and requiresat least (and typically more than) three, four or five

years of post-graduate research which is finished by defence of Dissertation or rarely - thesis. Addi tionally, a seeker

of the degree has to pass three examinations (a so-called "Kandidate's minimum"): in his/her special field, in a

foreign language, and in the history and philosophy of science. After additional certification by the corresponding

experts, the Kandidat degree may be recognized internationally as an equivalent of Ph.D. (An unconditional Ph.D.

equivalence has been recognized before the dissolution of the Soviet Union, and the additional certification in many

countries has become required after the steep increase flow of post-Soviet emigration.) The second stage, Doktor

nauk, "Doctor of Sciences", requires many years of research experience, and writing of a second dissertation.

The degrees of Kandidat and Doktor of Sciences are only awarded by the special governmental agency (Higher

Attestation Commission); a university or a scientific institute where the thesis was defended can only recommend to

award a seeker the sought degree.

Spain

The ancient ceremony of bestowing Complutense's Doctoral biretta

Doctor degrees are regulated by Royal

Decree (R.D. 778/1998),[69]Real Decreto

(in Spanish). They are granted by the

University on behalf of the King, and itsDiploma has the force of a public document.

The Ministry of Science keeps a National

Registry of Theses called TESEO.[70]

According to the National Institute of

Statistics (INE), less than 5% of M.Sc.

degree holders are admitted to Ph.D.

programmes.

All doctoral programs are of research

nature. A minimum of 5 years of study were required, and were divided into 2 stages:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3ABirrete_doctoral.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3ABirrete_doctoral.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3ABirrete_doctoral.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3ABirrete_doctoral.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3ABirrete_doctoral.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3ABirrete_doctoral.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Complutensehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Spanish_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3ABirrete_doctoral.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Birettahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Complutensehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Higher_Attestation_Commissionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Higher_Attestation_Commissionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Doktor_naukhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Doktor_naukhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Unionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Thesishttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dissertationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kandidathttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kandidathttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Russian_Federationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bologna_processhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bologna_process


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1.1. A 3-year (or longer) period of studies, which concludes with a public dissertation presented to a panel of 3

Professors. If the project receives approval from the university, he/she will receive a "Diploma de Estudios

Avanzados" (part qualified doctor, equivalent to M.Sc.).

2. A 2-year (or longer) period of research. Extensions may be requested for up to 10 years. The student must write

his thesis presenting a new discovery or original contribution to Science. If approved by his "thesis director", the

study will be presented to a panel of 5 distinguished scholars. Any Doctor attending the public defense is allowed

to challenge the candidate with questions on his research. If approved, he/she will receive the doctorate. Four

marks used to be granted: Unsatisfactory (Suspenso), Pass (Aprobado), Remarkable (Notable), "Cum laude"

(Sobresaliente), and "Summa cum laude" (Sobresaliente Cum Laude). Those Doctors granted their degree

"Summa Cum Laude" were allowed to apply for an "Extraordinary Award".

Note that since September 2012 and regulated by Royal Decree (R.D. 99/2011) (in Spanish), [71] three marks can be

granted: Unsatisfactory (No apto), Pass (Apto) and "Cum laude" (Apto Cum Laude) as maximum mark. In the public

defense the doctor is notified if the thesis has passed or not passed; if the doctor is granted the Apto Cum Laude

mark, this will be notified by letter or e-mail after the public defense as it is the result of a private votation (even

between the panel members): closed votes are checked and verified by the University after the public defense.

Doctors granted "Apto Cum Laude" can be nominated for an "Extraordinary Award" (Premio Extraordinario deDoctorado) if all the panel members vote so. There is also a numeric mark up to 50 (10 points per scholar in the

panel), but it is only communicated to the candidate, the thesis director and the department.

Also, since the same Royal Decree (R.D. 99/2011) the initial 3-year period of studies is substituted by a Research

Master Degree (one or two years; Professional Master Degrees do not grant direct access to Ph.D. Programs) which

concludes with a public dissertation called "Trabajo de Fin de Mster" or "Proyecto de Fin de Mster". If the project

receives approval from the university, he/she will receive a Masters Degree that grants access to become a Ph.D.

Candidate and initiate the period of research.

A Doctor degree is required in order to apply to a teaching position at the University.[72]

The social standing of Doctors in Spain is evidenced by the fact that only Ph.D. holders, Grandees and Dukes can

take seat and cover their heads in the presence of the King.[73]

Complutense University was the sole university in Spain authorised to confer the Doctor degree on any scholar. This

law remained in effect until 1954, when the authorization was extended to the University of Salamanca in

commemoration of its septecentenary. This made the degree of Doctor all the more unique and prestigious in social

circles. In 1970, the right was extended to all Spanish universities, ending the monopoly of Complutense University

over this distinction.[74]

All Doctorate Degree holders are reciprocally recognised as equivalent in Germany and Spain ("Bonn Agreement of

November 14, 1994").[75]

United Kingdom

All doctorates (except for those awarded honoris causa) granted by British universities are research doctorates in the

sense described above, in that their main (and in many cases only) component is the submission of a thesis or

portfolio of original research, examined by an expert panel appointed by the university. The Quality Assurance

Agency (for England, Wales and Northern Ireland but not Scotland) states:

Doctorates are awarded to students who have demonstrated:

1.1. the creation and interpretation of new knowledge, through original research or other advanced scholarship, of

a quality to satisfy peer review, extend the forefront of the discipline, and merit publication;

2.2. a systematic acquisition and understanding of a substantial body of knowledge which is at the forefront of an

academic discipline or area of professional practice;
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Quality_Assurance_Agency_for_Higher_Educationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Quality_Assurance_Agency_for_Higher_Educationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Complutense_Universityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=University_of_Salamancahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Complutense_Universityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dukehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Grandeeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ph.D.


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Doctorate 14

3.3. the general ability to conceptualise, design and implement a project for the generation of new knowledge,

applications or understanding at the forefront of the discipline, and to adjust the project design in the light of

unforeseen problems;

4.4. a detailed understanding of applicable techniques for research and advanced academic enquiry.

Framework for Higher Education Qualifications in England, Wales and Northern Ireland,[76] Annex 1

The professional doctorates such as the EngD, EdD, DSocSci, DCrimJ and DClinPsych requires the submission of abody of original research of a similar length to a PhD thesis. In the case of the EngD, however, this might be in the

form of a portfolio of technical reports on different research projects undertaken by the candidate as opposed to a

single, long monographical thesis. Another important difference is that traditional PhD programs are mostly

academic-oriented, whereas, in an EngD programme, the candidate typically works full-time for an industrial

sponsor on application-oriented topics of direct interest to the partner company and is jointly supervised by

university faculty members and company employees.

The PhD itself is a comparatively recent introduction to the UK, dating from 1917. It was originally introduced in

order to provide a similar level of graduate research training as was available in several other countries, notably

Germany and the USA. Previously, the only doctorates available were the higher doctorates, awarded in recognition

of an illustrious research career.

The universities of Oxford and Sussex denote the degree of Doctor of Philosophy with the postnominal initials

DPhil. The University of York also did this for some years, switching to the more conventional PhD quite

recently.Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers#Chronological items

In UK the Doctorate is a qualification awarded at NVQ level 5 or QCF level 8 in the national qualifications

framework. http://www.ofqual.gov.uk/help-and-advice/comparing-qualifications/

Higher degrees

Higher doctorates are awarded in recognition of a substantial body of original research undertaken over the course of

many years. Typically the candidate will submit a collection of work which has been previously published in apeer-refereed context and pay an examination fee. The university then assembles a committee of academics both

internal and external who review the work submitted and decide on whether the candidate deserves the doctorate

based on the submission.

Most universities restrict candidacy to graduates or academic staff of several years' standing. The most common

doctorates of this type are those in Divinity (DD), Laws (LLD), Civil Law (DCL), Music (DMus or MusD), Letters

(DLitt or LittD), Science (DSc or ScD) and DSc(Med). In the United Kingdom, the degrees in medicine or dentistry

that permit licensure are bachelors' degrees; these correspond roughly with the MD in the USA or the Dr.med. in

Germany. The MD in the United Kingdom (in most universities) is an unsupervised doctorate by thesis, usually

ranking above the supervised PhD, but below the DSc(Med).

Of these, the DD historically ranked highest, theology being the senior faculty in the mediaeval universities. The

degree of Doctor of Canon Law was next in the order of precedence, but (except for a brief revival during the reign

of Mary Tudor) did not survive the Protestant reformation,[77] a consequence of the fact that the teaching of canon

law at Cambridge and Oxford was forbidden by Henry VIII, founder of the Church of England. The DMus was,

historically, in an anomalous situation, since a candidate was not required to be a member of Convocation (that is, to

be a Master of Arts). The DLitt and DSc are relatively recent innovations, dating from the latter part of the 19th

century.
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Master_of_Arts_%28postgraduate%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Convocationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Church_of_Englandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_the_Church_of_Englandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Henry_VIII_of_Englandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Protestant_reformationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mary_I_of_Englandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Doctor_of_Canon_Lawhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Doctor_of_Sciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Doctor_of_Lettershttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Doctor_of_Musichttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Doctor_of_Civil_Lawhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Doctor_of_Lawshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Doctor_of_Divinityhttp://www.ofqual.gov.uk/help-and-advice/comparing-qualifications/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Qualifications_and_Credit_Frameworkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=National_Qualifications_Frameworkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_itemshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=University_of_Yorkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=University_of_Sussexhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=University_of_Oxfordhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Doctor_of_Clinical_Psychologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Doctor_of_Social_Sciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=EdDhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=EngD


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Doctorate 15

Honorary degrees

Most British universities award degrees honoris causa in order to recognise individuals who have made a substantial

contribution to a particular field. Usually an appropriate higher doctorate is used in these circumstances, depending

on the achievements of the candidate. However, some universities, in order to differentiate between honorary and

substantive doctorates, have introduced the degree of Doctor of the University (DUniv) for these purposes, and

reserve the higher doctorates for formal academic research.

United States

Research degrees

Yale University awarded the first Ph.D. in the

U.S.

The most common research doctorate is the Doctor of Philosophy

(Ph.D.). This degree was first awarded in the U.S. at the 1861 Yale

University commencement. The University of Pennsylvania followed

shortly thereafter in 1871,[78] while Cornell (1872),[79]Harvard (1873),

and Princeton (1879)[80] also followed suit. Unlike the introduction of

the professional doctorate M.D., there was considerable controversyand opposition over the introduction of the Ph.D. into the U.S.

educational system, even through the 1950s, as it was seen as an

unnecessary artificial transplant from a foreign educational system

(that of Germany), which corrupted a system based on the Oxbridge

model of England.[81]

The requirements for obtaining Ph.D.s and other research doctorates in the U.S. typically entail successful

completion of pertinent classes, passing of a comprehensive examination, and defense of a dissertation.[82]

The median number of years for completion of doctoral degrees for all fields in the US is seven. Furthermore,

doctoral applicants were previously required to have a master's degree, but many programs will now accept studentsimmediately following their undergraduate studies.[83][84] Many programs simply gauge the potential of a student

applying to their program and will give them a master's degree upon completion of the necessary Ph.D course work.[citation needed] When so admitted, the student is expected to have mastered the material covered in the masters degree

even though the student does not officially hold a masters degree. [citation needed] Once the person has finished Ph.D.

qualifying exams, he/she is considered a Ph.D candidate, and may begin work on his/her dissertation. [citation needed]

The International Affairs Office of the U.S. Department of Education lists over 20 frequently awarded research

doctorate degree titles accepted by the National Science Foundation (NSF) as representing degrees equivalent in

research content to the Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) degree.[85] They are:

Doctor of Arts (D.A./D. Arts), Doctor of Business Administration (D.B.A.), Doctor of Church Music (D.C.M.),

Doctor of Canon Law (J.C.D./D.C.L.), Doctor of Design (D.Des.), Doctor of Education (Ed.D.), Doctor ofEngineering (D.Eng./D.E.Sc./D.E.S.), Doctor of Fine Arts (D.F.A.), Doctor of Health Science (D.H.Sc.), Doctor of

Hebrew Letters (D.H.L.), Doctor of Industrial Technology (D.I.T.), Doctor of Juridical Science (J.S.D./S.J.D.),

Doctor of Liberal Studies (D.L.S.), Doctor of Management (D.M.), Doctor of Music (D.M.), Doctor of Musical Arts

(D.M.A./A.Mus.D./D.Mus.A.), Doctor of Music Education (D.M.E.), Doctor of Modern Languages (D.M.L.),

Doctor of Nursing Science (D.N.Sc.), Doctor of Occupational Therapy (O.T.D.), Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.),

Doctor of Public Administration (D.P.A.), Doctor of Physical Education (D.P.E.), Doctor of Public Health (Dr.P.H.),

Doctor of Sacred Theology (S.T.D.), Doctor of Biblical Studies (D.B.S.), Doctor of Science (D.Sc./Sc.D.), Doctor of

Social Work (D.S.W.), and Doctor of Theology (Th.D.).
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Doctor_of_Artshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dissertationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Master%27s_degreehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Thesis%23Thesis_examinationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Comprehensive_examinationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Princeton_Universityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Harvardhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cornell_Universityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=University_of_Pennsylvaniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yale_Universityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yale_Universityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Doctor_of_Philosophyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3AWoolsey_Hall%2C_Yale_University.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yale_Universityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Doctor_of_the_University


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Doctorate 16

Professional degrees

In the United States, numerous fields of study have professional doctorates, such as medicine/osteopathic medicine,

public health, dentistry, optometry, pharmacy, psychology, physical therapy, occupational therapy, health science,

advanced practice registered nurse, chiropractic, naturopathic medicine, law, education, teaching, and many others

that usually require such degrees for licensure. Some of these degrees are also termed "first professional degrees,"

since they are also the first degrees in their fields.Professional doctorates were developed in the United States in the 19th century during a movement to improve the

training of professionals by raising the requirements for entry and completion of the degree necessary to enter the

profession.[86] These first professional degrees were created to help strengthen professional training programs. The

first professional doctorate to be offered in the United States was the M.D. in 1767 by Columbia University which

was nearly one hundred years before the first Ph.D. was awarded in the U.S. in 1861. [87] The Juris Doctor (J.D.) was

subsequently established by Harvard University for the same reasons that the M.D. was established.[88] A Doctor of

Pharmacy is awarded as the Terminal/Professional degree in Pharmacy replacing BS in Pharmacy. It is the only

Professional Pharmacy Degree awarded in the US and the Pharmacy School needs accreditation of American

Council on Pharmacy Education (ACPE). Pharmacy programs vary in length between 46 years depending if a

matriculating student has earned a BS/BA or not.

Recently there has been a trend for introducing professional doctorates in other fields as well, including the Doctor

of Audiology in 2007. Advanced Practice Registered Nurses are expected to completely transition to the Doctor of

Nursing Practice by 2015, and physical therapists to the Doctor of Physical Therapy by 2020. Most often

professional associations play a central role in this transformation, and there are criticisms on the lack of proper

criteria to assure required rigor in the new doctorate program. In many cases Masters level programs are relabeled as

doctorate degrees.[89]

Profession Professional doctorate in the United States First

awarded

Physician Medicinae Doctor and Doctor of Medicine (M.D.) 1767

Osteopathic Physician Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine (D.O.) 1892

Chiropractor Doctor of Chiropractic (D.C.)

Dentist Doctor of Dental Surgery (D.D.S) and Doctor of Dental Medicine (D.M.D.)

Occupational Therapy Doctor of Occupational Therapy (O.T.D.)

Social Work Doctor of Social Work (D.S.W.)

Counseling Doctor of Professional Counseling (D.P.C.)

Physical Therapy Doctor of Physical Therapy (D.P.T)

Podiatrist Doctor of Podiatric Medicine (D.P.M.)

Pharmacist Doctor of Pharmacy (PharmD)

Government Doctor of Public Administration (D.P.A.)

Veterinarian Doctor of Veterinary Medicine (D.V.M.) and Veterinariae Medicinae Doctoris (V.M.D.)

Advanced Practice Registered

Nurse

Doctor of Nursing Practice or Doctor of Nurse Anesthesia Practice (DNP or DNAP) 2005

Behavioral Health Doctor of Behavioral Health (DBH) 2010

Optometrist Doctor of Optometry (O.D.)

Audiologist Doctor of Audiology (Au.D.) 1996

Lawyer Juris Doctor or Doctor of Law or Doctor of Jurisprudence (J.D.) 1870

Physician Assistant Doctor of Science Physician Assistant (DScPA)
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Doctor_of_Audiologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Juris_Doctorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Juris_Doctorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Doctor_of_Audiologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Doctor_of_Optometryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Doctor_of_Nursing_Practicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Doctor_of_Veterinary_Medicinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Doctor_of_Public_Administrationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Doctor_of_Pharmacyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Doctor_of_Podiatric_Medicinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Doctor_of_Physical_Therapyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Doctor_of_Professional_Counselinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Doctor_of_Social_Workhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Doctor_of_Occupational_Therapyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Doctor_of_Dental_Surgeryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Doctor_of_Chiropractichttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Doctor_of_Osteopathic_Medicinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Doctor_of_Medicinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Doctor_of_Physical_Therapyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Doctor_of_Nursing_Practicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Doctor_of_Nursing_Practicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Doctor_of_Audiologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Doctor_of_Audiologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Juris_Doctorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Doctor_of_Medicinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=First_professional_degreehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=First_professional_degreehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Licensurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Teachinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Educationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lawhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Naturopathic_medicinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chiropractichttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Advanced_practice_registered_nursehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Health_sciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Occupational_therapyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Physical_therapyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Psychologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pharmacyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Optometryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dentistryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Public_healthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Osteopathic_medicinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Medicinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=United_States


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Doctorate 17

Health Science Doctor of Health Science (D.H.Sc.)

Public Health Doctor of Public Health (Dr.PH.)

Minister/Clergy Doctor of Ministry (D.Min.), Doctor of Practical Theology (D.P.T. or D.Th.P.) or Doctor of

Biblical Studies (D.B.S)

Psychologist Doctor of Psychology Given in School and Clinical Psychology programs(Ph.D. or Psy.D.)

College Teaching Doctor of Arts (D.Arts/D.A.)

Music Doctor of Musical Arts (D.Mus.A/D.M.A.)

Management Doctor of Management (D.Mgt./D.M.)

References

[1] http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ous/international/usnei/us/professional.doc.

[2] http://www.law.yale.edu/graduate/PHD_program.htm

[3] http://www2.le.ac.uk/study/research/phd/law/distance-learning

[4] http://www.law.berkeley.edu/jsp.htm

[5] http://www.law.washington.edu/phd/[6] http://www.drexel.edu/physicalTherapy/programs/phdRehabilitation/admissions/

[7] http://www.apta.org/PostprofessionalDegree/PhDScDPrograms/

[8] http://pharmacy.ucsf.edu/pharmdphd/

[9] http://www.utexas.edu/pharmacy/research/pharmd_phd/description.html

[10] http://pharmacy.ufl.edu/education/doctor-of-pharmacy-degree-pharmd/

[11] http://pharmacy.osu. edu/futurestudents/?subsec=pharmd

[12] http://www.ferris.edu/HTMLS/colleges/pharmacy/admissions/faq/program/difference.htm

[13] Historia de la Universidad. Universidad de Alcal. 2011. (http://www.uah.es/universidad/presentacion/historia_universidad.shtm)

[14] Research Doctorate Programs (http://www.americangraduateeducation.com/folder1/subfolder4/doctorate_programs.htm)

[15] EPSRC: Engineering Doctorates (http://www.epsrc.ac.uk/PostgraduateTraining/EngineeringDoctorates/default.htm)

[16] Columbia University: About Columbia (http://www.columbia.edu/about_columbia/history.html). Columbia.edu. Retrieved on

2010-10-26.[17] Office of Public Affairs at Yale News Release (http://web.archive.org/web/20060909180355/http://www.yale.edu/opa/newsr/

97-04-21-01.all.html). Web.archive.org. Retrieved on 2010-10-26.

[18] Stevens, R. (1971). "Two Cheers For 1870: The American Law School," in Law in American History, eds. Donald Fleming and Bernard

Bailyn. Boston: Little, Brown & Co., 1971, p.427. Reed, A. (1921). "Training for the Public Profession of the Law, Carnegie Foundation for

the Advancement of Teaching, Bulletin 15." Boston: Merrymount Press.

[19] Stuart Powell, Elizabeth Long,Professional Doctorate Awards in the UK(http://www.ukcge.ac.uk/Resources/UKCGE/Documents/

PDF/Professional Doctorate Awards 2005.pdf), UK Council for Graduate Education (2005)

[20] Elaine Graham, Doctor of Ministry (DMin) was designed for full-time pastors and ministers. The Professional Doctorate in Practical

Theology: An Idea Whose Time Has Come? (http://www.reference-global.com/doi/abs/10.1515/IJPT.2006. 020. ), International Journal

of Practical Theology. 10:2 (2007) 298311

[21] Paul Chynoweth (2006) 'Professional doctorates in the built environment: how Higher Education is responding to the changing needs of

industry and the professions', Proceedings of the Built Environment Education Conference (BEECON 2006), 1213 September 2006,

Bonnington Hotel, London, UK. (http://www.cebe.heacademy.ac.uk/news/events/beecon2006/powerpoint/P25_Paul_Chynoweth.ppt)

[22] Doctor of Juridical Science (SJD) (http://research.law.unimelb.edu.au/index.

cfm?objectId=3B8BAC72-B0D0-AB80-E2C0F006055B6085). Research.law.unimelb.edu.au (2010-06-04). Retrieved on 2010-10-26.

[23] UTS: C02027v4 Doctor of Juridical Science Law, UTS Handbook (http://www.handbook. uts.edu. au/courses/c02027. html).

Handbook.uts.edu.au (2009-10-30). Retrieved on 2010-10-26.

[24] UWA Handbooks 2011 > Doctor of Juridical Scien