do more, add more, earn more: teacher salary redesign lessons from 10 first-mover districts

8/9/2019 Do More, Add More, Earn More: Teacher Salary Redesign Lessons from 10 First-Mover Districts

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Do More, Add More, Earn More

Teacher Salary Redesign Lessons from 10 First-Mover Districts

By Karen Hawley Miles, Kaitlin Pennington, and David Bloom February 2015


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Do More, Add More, Earn MoreTeacher Salary Redesign Lessons from

10 First-Mover Districts

By Karen Hawley Miles, Kaitlin Pennington, and David Bloom February 2015

The Center for American Progress joined with Education

Resource Strategies, or ERS, to write this report. By marrying

ERS’s unique database and expertise in innovative strategiesfor resource allocation with CAP’s understanding of policy

solutions, we have created what we hope will be a valuable

report for federal, state, and local policymakers.


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1 Introduction and summary

6 Why districts redesign teacher compensation

8 Meet the first-mover districts

20 Recommendations

23 Conclusion

24 About the authors, acknowledgments, and about ERS

26 Endnotes

Contents


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1 Center for American Progress | Do More, Add More, Earn More

Introduction and summary

William aylor, 29, a hird generaion Washingon, D.C. residen sands ou or a

number o reasons. For one, he is an Arican American man who augh mah a an

elemenary school or many years. aylor excelled in he role, so much so ha he

now coaches his ellow mah eachers a Aion Elemenary School, which is

locaed in a high-povery Washingon neighborhood.* He has also been profiled

in he naional newsspecifically in Te Atlanticwhere i was noed ha, in a

ypical school year, 60 percen o aylor’s sudens sar heir firs day in his class

doing mah below grade level, bu by he end o he year, 90 percen o his sudensare perorming above grade level.1 For his exemplary work aylor earned $131,000

in 2013anoher acor ha makes him sand ou as a public school eacher.2

In 2013, afer seven sraigh years o exraordinary perormance reviews , aylor

received a base salary o $96,000, a $25,000 bonus or being a highly effecive

eacher in a high-povery school, and a $10,000 award or ousanding eaching

and dedicaion o his work.3 Wih he money he’s saved since he sared eaching,

aylor recenly bough a house in Washingon, a ciy ha annually ranks as one o

he mos-expensive ciies in America.4 He also purchased his dream car: a black

Chevrole Camaro.5

aylor’s financial success was made possible by he Disric o Columbia Public

Schools’, or DCPS, revamped eacher compensaion sysem known as IMPACplus.

Inroduced in 2009, IMPACplus redesigned he sep-and-lane pay scalewhich

rewarded eachers solely or years o experience and degree atainmeno include

measures o perormance and school leadership.6 Beore he implemenaion

o IMPACplus, aylor earned $42,000 a year as a eacher and gave serious

consideraion o changing o a more lucraive proession.

“Te [increased] compensaion has made me more inclined o say in educaion,”

aylor says now. “I also makes me more inclined o be a eacher in DCPS because

i I go o oher disrics, I’m no making ha ype o money.”7


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Trough IMPACplus, eachers like aylor who earn highly effecive raings on

IMPAChe DCPS eacher evaluaion sysem ha evaluaes eacher perormance

hrough muliple measures, including suden perormance and observaion o

pracicereceive subsanial raises o heir base salaries in addiion o annual

bonuses. Early daa rom DCPS show his sraegy o financially rewarding high-

perorming eachers more may be saring o pay dividends. A recen sudy oundha DCPS has reained 92 percen o is highly effecive eachers and 86 percen

o is effecive eachers beween he 2010 and 2012 school years.8 By conras,

only 59 percen o he disric’s minimally effecive eachers are sill in DCPS

during he same ime period.9

In addiion, anoher recen repor ound ha while compensaion was one o he

op hree reasons cied by high-perorming eachers or leaving he classroom in

oher disrics, in DCPS, high-perorming eachers who lef he disric ranked

compensaion a he botom o he lis20h ou o 20 reasonsor ceasing o

each.10 Furhermore, over he las several years, he number o DCPS applicansor eaching posiions rose by 45 percen.11

“We have effecively eliminaed compensaion as a reason our op eachers leave

and we’re increasingly seeing grea eachers coming o DCPS because hey wan o

each in a disric where hey can be paid wha hey deserve,” said Scot Tompson,

DCPS’s depuy chie o human capial or eacher effeciveness.12

DCPS is no he only disric ha has overhauled is compensaion sysem wih he

aim o paying effecive educaors subsanially more han hey earned in years prior,

ye i is sill an unusual pracice. In nearly 90 percen o disrics across he naion,

eachers are no recognized or heir effeciveness hrough increased compensaion.13

Tis repor reveals he key policy decisions underaken by 10 disrics ha have made

i possible o revamp heir compensaion sysems and, a he same ime, boh keep

heir sysems solven and achieve disric goals. While he specific goals o each

disric vary, all 10 disrics used compensaion o atrac, reain, and leverage

high-perorming eachers.


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Te 10 disrics presened in his repor have been among he firs in he naion o

redesign heir eacher compensaion sysems. Tese so-called firs-mover disrics

include: Balimore Ciy, Maryland; Denver, Colorado; Douglas Couny, Colorado;

Harrison School Disric 2, Colorado; Hillsborough Couny, Florida; Lawrence,

Massachusets; New Haven, Connecicu; Pitsburgh, Pennsylvania; Punam Couny,

ennessee; and Washingon, D.C. Firs-mover disrics vary in locaion, size,governance srucure, and suden academic perormance, proving ha diverse

disrics hroughou he counry can find ways o reorm eacher compensaion

sysems regardless o conex.

Te firs-mover disrics considered he ollowing key componens during he eacher

compensaion redesign process. No all disrics alered each componen o he

process, bu each considered he ollowing elemens as par o heir comprehensive

approach o redesign compensaion:

• Base salary: Te se pay eachers receive rom he disric, which accouns or90 percen o 95 percen o eacher pay beore benefis

• Teacher effectiveness: Te measure rom eacher evaluaion sysems used insead

oor in addiion oyears o experience and advanced degree atainmen.

• Speed of salary growth: Te number o years i akes or eachers o reach he

highes salary level in a school disric.

• Career pathway opportunities: Te avenues available o eachers o earn

addiional compensaion by aking on increased roles and responsibiliy wihin

heir school buildings and/or disrics.

• Incentives for hard-to-staff schools and positions: Te addiional

compensaion given o eachers or eaching hard-o-saff subjecs and/or

eaching in a high-needs school.

• Bonuses, rewards, and recognition: Te one-ime bonuses, rewards and/or

recogniion offered o individual eachers, groups o eachers, or school-wide or

suden-achievemen gains.

• Opt-in timeframe: Te amoun o ime eachers are given o ener he new

eacher compensaion sysem.


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While each o he 10 disrics examined aced differen consrains and made

differen choices in redesigning heir compensaion sysems, he ollowing bes

pracices or disrics emerged rom he auhors’ analysis:

1. Differentiate compensation based on roles and responsibilities.

Implemening differeniaed career pahways gives disrics he opporuniy oincrease pay or effecive, exper eachers who ake on boh addiional or differen

roles and responsibiliy. When designing differeniaed compensaion srucures,

disrics should provide rewards ha are commensurae wih job responsibiliy.

2. Set starting salaries to meet market demand. When seting saring salaries,

disrics need o be aware o heir compeiion rom neighboring disrics.

Disrics should se saring salaries ha are subsanial enough o atrac

high-poenial eachers, bu no so high ha hey compromise he disric’s

abiliy o appropriaely reward and reain experienced eachers who prove

hemselves effecive.

3. Align teacher compensation redesign with fair and proven teacher

evaluation systems. eacher compensaion sysems should be aligned wih air

and proven eacher evaluaion sysems ha include muliple measures and

reliably disinguish among levels o eacher effeciveness. Disrics should refine

heir eacher evaluaion sysems unil eachers and principals have confidence

in hese new sysems beore ying hem o compensaion.

4. Shift pay away from years of experience and advanced-degree attainment.

Disrics should consider moving away rom primarily rewarding addiional

educaional atainmen and years o experience and oward salary raises based

subsanially on effeciveness, roles, and responsibiliies.

5. Use compensation incentives to attract highly effective teachers to hard-to-

staff schools, districts, and subjects. Disrics should use compensaion o

atrac highly effecive eachers o hard-o-saff schools and posiions. Te number

o eachers needed o fill he posiions in each school will differ based on conex.

6. Emphasize extra pay for effectiveness and career pathways instead ofsmall bonuses. Disrics should prioriize increases in base salaries based upon

a eacher’s effeciveness or or aking on increased or differen roles and

responsibiliies. Increases in base salaries signal o eachers ha he disric

values hem and encourages hem o hink differenly abou heir long-erm

career rajecory.


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7. Accelerate the timeline to earning the maximum salary where possible.

o expand he effec o redesigned compensaion sysems, disrics should

minimize he number o years i akes o reach he maximum eacher salary.

However, because his policy change may affec many early career eachers,

disrics should se a high bar or he rigorous differeniaion o eachers in

order or he redesigned sysem o remain financially susainable.

8. Allow teachers to opt-in to new compensation systems within a set time -

frame. I he new compensaion sysem reduces he pay o some eachers,

disrics should allow curren eachers o op-in o he redesigned compensaion

sysems raher han orcing all eachers o swich o a he new sysem. Tis op-in

opion should be limied o a se period o ime ollowing he ransiion o a

new compensaion sysem in order o make he fiscal effec more predicable

and susainable.

Te purpose o eacher compensaion reorm is o improve school disrics’ abiliyo atrac, reain, and leverage a high-perorming eaching orce ha aligns wih a

disric’s suden-perormance objecives and overall prioriies. Ideally, disrics

will be able o adjus curren budges in order o achieve his goal. Te resuling

compensaion sysem should be one where he majoriy o eachers are earning

equal or higher salaries han hey were prior o he reorm.

From January to March 2012, ERS collected data from 10 U.S. school districts—mostly

large and urban—that are on the forefront of redesigning teacher compensation

systems. The data were collected through interviews with district staff, examining

teacher contracts, and sifting through other publically available data. The districts

profiled in this report are in different stages of compensation reform. Some are still

in the planning stage, some have just implemented new systems, and others have

been working with new systems for a number of years. It should be noted that district

policies may have evolved since the collection of these data. ERS is solely responsible

for the ideas presented in this paper and for any errors.

Methodology

*Correction, February 17, 2015: Te PDF of this report incorrectly stated the school

where William aylor works. Te correct school is Aiton Elementary School.


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Why districts redesign

teacher compensation

Mos eacher compensaion sysems, in an atemp o be air, base rewards off o

years o experience and degree atainmen. When firs implemened in he 1920s,

he uniorm compensaion schedule enhanced he proessionalism o eaching by

creaing a sandardized, objecive way o se salary levels ha proeced eachers

rom gender discriminaion and poliical promoions.14

oday, eacher compensaion sysems ha ocus solely on experience and degree

atainmen may in ac be having he opposie effec. Advanced degrees have litleeffec on suden academic success excep in he areas o mah.15 And while eacher

experience in he early years leads o greaer suden achievemen, here is limied

evidence regarding is effec afer five years.16

Sill, school disrics naionally spend $14.8 billion on raises or eachers or he

atainmen o maser’s degrees alone.17 Tereore, in paying eachers according o

hese wo measures, disrics are spending a significan porion o heir unding in

a way ha has a limied impac on suden achievemen.

Moreover, he single salary schedule in mos school disrics may also be huring

disrics’ abiliy o atrac high-poenial eacher candidaes and reain highly effecive

eachers. Recen research has ound ha boh saring and maximum poenial

salaries and opporuniies o advance were criical acors or choosing a job among

high-achieving college graduaes.18 In a recen poll, Millennials ranked eaching as

he op proession ha “average” people chooseha is o say, individuals wih

superior skills selec proessions oher han eaching. 19

In response, some disrics are hinking differenly abou compensaion. Tey

are using i as a key par o a comprehensive sraegy o atrac, reain, and deployhigh-perorming eachers o heir highes need areas, subjecs, and grades.


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Successul eacher compensaion sysems and he specific deails o how hey work

should no all look he same. How disrics srucure heir compensaion sysems

differ based on available unds, he legal conex, communiy norms, eacher

demographics, eacher qualiy, and disrics prioriies. However, disrics should

approach eacher compensaion redesign as par o a comprehensive effor ha

affecs he enirey o a disric’s human-capial sysem.

Funding teacher compensation redesign

I is possible o design a new eacher compensaion sysem wih he same long-

erm cos srucure as he curren compensaion sysem. Disrics should rigorously

examine heir human-capial paterns and needs using daa and consider he daa in

ligh o heir prioriies, goals, and budge consrains and projecions. Many o he

firs-mover disrics profiled here were able o develop sysems ha were cos-neural

over he long erm. Tey achieved his oucome by differeniaing heir salaryschedule so ha only a subse o heir eaching orcesuch as higher-perorming

eachers or high-perorming eachers who agreed o each in high-need schools or

subjecsreceived dramaically more pay.

Many firs-mover disrics did seek and receive ime-limied unding o cover he

cos o ransiioning o a new sysem. Tese coss include grandahering exising

eachers so ha no one in he sysem has o experience a decrease in heir salary

and updaing human resources processes and echnology o suppor he new

compensaion srucures. Some disrics even agreed o allow all exising eachers

who waned o remain on he previous sep-and-lane salary schedule.

Te ederal eacher Incenive Fund, or IF, may be a good source o unding or

ransiion coss. IF has provided more han $2 billion o saes and disrics or

incenive pay programs since 2006.20 In addiion, some o he firs-mover disrics

have received suppor rom privae oundaions.21


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Meet the first-mover districts

Tis repor reveals how 10 disrics a he oreron o he eacher compensaion

reorm effor have revamped heir pay sysems in order o mee heir overall

educaion goals. Tese firs-mover disrics vary in locaion, size, governance

srucure, and perormance, ye all o hem have ound innovaive ways o rehink

eacher pay. No one plan is he answer or all disrics nor is any plan perec in is

own righ. Bu by providing insigh ino he ways leading disrics are reorming

eacher compensaion, his repor can help oher school leaders o consider how

o refine and reorm heir own compensaion sysems.

Imporanly, he firs-mover disrics are in saes where sae law does no impede

hem rom reorming he single-schedule salary. Across he naion, eigh saes

require work experience and academic credenials o deermine eacher pay and

prohibi disrics rom aking perormance ino accoun when deermining pay.22

Conversely, five saes require disrics o use effeciveness as he primary crieria

or deermining eacher pay.23 All oher sae law is eiher silen on he issue or allows

disrics o include measures o effeciveness when deermining compensaion while

years o service and/or credenials remain he primary acor or pay increases.24


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Key compensation systems components

Base salary

In mos disrics, base salaryor he se pay ha eachers receiveconsiues 90

o 95 percen o eacher compensaion beore benefis.25 Base salary consiss o

saring salaryhe pay a eacher receives wih eiher no experience eaching or

eaching in he paricular disricand he permanen raises a eacher receives

hroughou his or her career.

One way o reorm eacher pay in order o atrac excellen new eachers is o raise

he saring base salary or eachers. Mos firs-mover disrics, however, did no

raise saring salaries. In ac, aside rom Balimore Ciy, Maryland; Pitsburgh,

Pennsylvania; Harrison School Disric 2, Colorado;** and Punam Couny,ennesseewho each raised saring salaries beween 5 percen and 20 percen

he firs-mover disrics lef saring salaries roughly consan. Tey made his

decision because raising saring salaries is expensive and he invesmen goes o

eachers beore heir effeciveness is known. Research suggess i is challenging o

FIGURE 1

First-mover districts

School districts in states where state law does not impede the district from reforming the single-schedule salary mod

Source: Students First, "Scoring Rubric," available at http://reportcard.studentsfirst.org/policy/elevate_the_teaching_

profession/value_effective_teachers/reward_performance_with_pay/state_by_state (last accessed December 2014).

Locations of first-mover districts

VT NH MA RI CT NJ DE MD DC

State law requires traditional school districts to

implement a teacher compensation system base

only on years of experience and credentials. The

also restricts districts' ability to include measures

effectiveness.

State law allows, but does not require, compensa

systems to be based in part on measures of

effectiveness. Years of service and/or credentials

remain the primary factor for pay increases.

State law requires compensation systems to incl

measures of effectiveness; however, years of serv

and/or credentials may remain the primary facto

pay increases.

State law requires compensation systems that m

measures of effectiveness the primary criteria fo

determining pay increases.

State law is silent.


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ideniy which prospecive eachers are going o be successul and many firs-ime

eachers sruggle.26 Tereore, disrics ha raise heir saring salary will be giving

some o heir invesmens o ineffecive eachers. However, i disrics’ saring

salaries are so low ha hey are no able o atrac a srong candidae pool, hey

may need o raise hem.

FIGURE 2

Starting salaries before and after teacher compensation reform

Note: Max salary includes base-salary increases only.

Source: ERS Internal Benchmark Database; personal communication by ERS with district officials via phone, January–March 2012;publicly available teacher contract information via state and district websites and the National Council on Teacher Quality's database,

available at http://www.nctq.org/districtPolicy/contractDatabaseLanding.do (last accessed January 2015).

Washington, D.C.

Baltimore City, MD

Lawrence, MA

New Haven, CT

Pittsburgh, PA

Hillsborough County, FL

Putnam County, TN

Denver, CO

Douglas County, CO

Harrison School

District 2, CO

$10,000 $20,000 $30,000 $40,000 $50,000

before

after

Teacher effectiveness

Mos school disrics use he radiional salary schedule, which relies solely on

wo measures: years on he job and atainmen o an advanced degree. 27 In mos

compensaion sysems, hese elemens consiue 70 o 100 percen o eacher

raises.28

Mos o he firs-mover disrics have eliminaed or supplemenedexperience and educaion wih crieria ha are based on objecive measures

o perormance.


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All o he firs-mover disrics srongly considered he qualiy o heir evaluaion

sysem when considering a compensaion overhaul, and many chose o revamp

heir eacher evaluaion sysems prior o underaking compensaion sysem

redesign. A ypical approach o firs-mover disrics was o only provide an annual

pay increase o eachers who achieved a minimum effeciveness raing on heir

annual evaluaion. As disrics ransiion o new eacher compensaion sysems,only rewarding eachers who received a minimum effeciveness raing, allows

disrics o increase paymens o high-perorming eachers. O he disrics ha

sill pay eachers or coninuing heir educaion, Denver and Pitsburgh provide

uiion reimbursemen or pre-approved programs.29 Tis approach ensures ha

educaion credis direcly affec suden achievemen in he disric.

TABLE 1

The main components of first-mover districts’ teacher compensation systems

Annual raise for years of

experience outright ✔

Annual raise for exceeding

minimum effectiveness rating on

annual evaluation

✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔

Annual raise differentiated for

high performers ✔ ✔ ✔

Annual raise for tiers connected

to effectiveness and/or roles or

additional responsibilities*

✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔

Market-based salary ✔

Professional development:

National Board Certification ✔ ✔ ✔

Professional development: other ✔ ✔ ✔

Advanced degree and course credit ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔

Tuition reimbursement ✔ ✔

Source: ERS Internal Benchmark Database; personal communication by ERS with district officials via phone, January–March 2012; publicly available teacher contract information via stateand district websites and the National Council on Teacher Quality’s database, available at http://www.nctq.org/districtPolicy/contractDatabaseLanding.do (last accessed January 2015).

* Correction, March 10, 2015: This table has been corrected to more accurately reflect the criteria for raises based on effectiveness, roles, or responsibilities.

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Speed of salary growth

Many disrics increased he speed o salary growh or

high-perorming eachers in order o atrac and reain hese

eachers. Tis sraegy reduces he number o years i akes

effecive eachers o reach he highes salary levels in a schooldisric. Many firs-mover disrics increased he speed o salary

growh or effecive eachers based on eacher evaluaion

raings and/or career pahway roles. In Pitsburgh,

Pennsylvania; Washingon, D.C.; Harrison School Disric 2,

Colorado; Balimore, Maryland; and Lawrence, Massachusets,

an effecive eacher can reach he maximum disric salary in

10 years or ewer.

Career pathway opportunities

In several o he firs-mover disrics, eachers can earn

addiional compensaion or aking on new roles and increased

responsibiliy. In many cases, hese roles are srucured in such

a way ha eachers can remain in he classroom while assuming

more responsibiliy. Some sysems, such as Lawrence,

Massachusets and Balimore, Maryland, creaed srong incenives or eachers o

ake on a school or disric-wide responsibiliy ha spreads heir knowledge and

skill o oher eachers by rewarding hose roles wih he highes-available base

salary. Oher disrics offered supplemenal sipends insead o increasing base pay

o eachers who ormally suppor oher eachers. Alernaively, some o he firs-

mover disrics have chosen no o reward eacher leadership roles in heir salary

schedules a his ime.

TABLE 2

Minimum years of teaching experienc

required to reach maximum salary

Before teacher

compensation

reform

After te

compen

refo

Baltimore City, MD 21 10

Denver, CO* 40 40

Douglas County, CO* 14 14

Harrison School

District 2, CO27 9

Hillsborough County, FL 26 21

Lawrence, MA 13 8

New Haven, CT 30 16

Pittsburgh, PA 22 10

Putnam County, TN 20 18

Washington, D.C. 21 8

*High-performing teachers are eligible for larger raises throughout theicareer than they were previously.

Source: ERS Internal Benchmark Database; personal communication by

with district officials via phone, January–March 2012; publicly available tcontract information via state and district websites and the National Co Teacher Quality’s database, available at http://www.nctq.org/districtPol

contractDatabaseLanding.do (last accessed January 2015).


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TABLE 3

Career pathway opportunities, by type

Instructional

leadership

Content and

curriculum

Pedagogy and

coaching

Administration

and leadership

Baltimore City, MD ✔ ✔

Denver, CO

Douglas County, CO

Harrison School District 2, CO

Hillsborough County, FL ✔

Lawrence, MA ✔ ✔

New Haven, CT ✔ ✔

Pittsburgh, PA ✔

Putnam County, TN ✔

Washington, D.C. ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔

Note: The roles reflected here are official district initiatives. Roles and responsibilities defined by individual schools are not reflected.

Source: ERS Internal Benchmark Database; personal communication by ERS with district officials via phone, January–March 2012; publiclyavailable teacher contract information via state and district websites and the National Council on Teacher Quality’s database, available athttp://www.nctq.org/districtPolicy/contractDatabaseLanding.do (last accessed January 2015).

Another way to increase pay for top performers is to create and reward roles andcareer pathway

Instructional leaders:

• Extended reach teachers

• Multiclassroom leaders*

Pedagogy and coaching:

• Peer evaluators

• Model classroom teachers

• Instructional coaches

• Team leaders

Content and curriculum:

• Curriculum writers

• Literacy and math facilitators

Administration and

leadership:

• Assistant principals

• Principal interns

*For more information on this term, see Public Impact, “Teacher Pay and Career Paths in an Opportunity Culture: A Practical Policy Guide” (2014), available at http://opportunityculture.org/wp-content/ uploads/2014/10/Teacher_Pay_and_Career_Paths_in_an_Opportunity_Culture_A_Practical_Policy_Guide-Public_Impact.pdf.


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Incentives for hard-to-staff schools and positions

Some firs-mover disrics used compensaion o atrac eachers o each in

prioriy areassuch as hard-o-saff or high-need schoolsin heir redesigned

compensaion sysems. Te firs-mover disrics were spli on wheher o offer

incenives o all eachers in hese posiions. When disrics have more sringencrieria or incenives, hey are able o offer higher incenive amouns, which research

shows is more likely o recrui and reain he highes-perorming eachers.30 In a

recen sudy implemened in 10 school disrics in 7 saes, a ranser incenive o

$20,000 or eachers who roughly ranked in he op 20 percen o he school disric

successully atraced high-perorming eachers o fill argeed vacancies and had a

posiive effec on eacher reenion raes during he payou period.31

Hillsborough, Florida; Pitsburgh, Pennsylvania; Denver,

Colorado; Washingon, D.C.; and Punam Couny, ennessee all

offer incenives or hard-o-saff subjecs and/or high-needschools. Tere is a significan variaion in he amoun disrics

offer or he prioriy incenive. Disrics ha have more sringen

crieria or incenives end o offer higher incenive amouns.

Washingon, D.C. and Pitsburgh, or example, offer significanly

higher incenives because he incenives are limied o eachers

who are highly effecive. In hese disrics, he incenive amoun

is greaer han 10 percen o highly effecive eachers’ salaries. In

Washingon, D.C. he incenive amoun can be as much as

$22,000 or eachers in he disric’s needies schools, and in

Pitsburgh, he incenive amoun is $10,000.32

Bonuses, rewards, and recognition

Research suggess ha bonuses need o be large in order o

influence eacher behavior; however, larger eacher bonuses leave

less money in he sysem or oher invesmens.33 While some

disrics are saring o move away rom bonuses as more research emerges

quesioning he effec o small bonuses based on eacher perormance, manydisricsfirs-mover disrics includedare sill offering boh individual and

school-wide bonuses.

TABLE 4

District priority incentives

Working in

high-needs

schools

Worki

hard-to

job

New Haven , CT ✔

Baltimore City, MD

Denver, CO ✔ ✔

Douglas County, CO

Harrison School

District 2, CO

Hillsborough County, FL ✔

Lawrence, MA

Pittsburgh, PA ✔

Putnam County, TN ✔

Washington, D.C. ✔ ✔

Source: ERS Internal Benchmark Database; personal communication bywith district officials via phone, January–March 2012; publicly available tcontract information via state and district websites and the National Co

Teacher Quality’s database, available at http://www.nctq.org/districtPolcontractDatabaseLanding.do (last accessed January 2015).


18/31


Several o he firs-mover disrics offer bonuses, rewards, and/or recogniion.

Tese ypes o incenives have varying definiions in he disrics, bu all amoun

o exra pay or eachers. Te crieria or hese paymens varies significanly

beween disrics. Hillsborough, Florida; Pitsburgh, Pennsylvania; Denver and

Douglas Couny, Colorado; and Punam Couny, ennessee offer boh individual

and school-wide bonuses or suden perormance, which is requenly based onsuden growh on saewide assessmens, hough he exac mechanism varies by

disric. Washingon, D.C. only offers individual bonuses. Lawrence,

Massachusets only offers school-wide bonuses.

TABLE 5

Rewards, by type

Performance-based

individual rewards

Performance-based

group rewardsRecognition only

Baltimore City, MD ✔

Denver, CO ✔ ✔

Douglas County, CO ✔ ✔

Harrison School District 2, CO ✔

Hillsborough County, FL ✔ ✔

Lawrence, MA ✔

New Haven, CT ✔

Pittsburgh, PA ✔ ✔

Putnam County, TN ✔ ✔

Washington, D.C. ✔

Source: ERS Internal Benchmark Database; personal communication by ERS with district officials via phone, January–March 2012; publicly

available teacher contract information via state and district websites and the National Council on Teacher Quality’s database, available athttp://www.nctq.org/districtPolicy/contractDatabaseLanding.do (last accessed January 2015).

Opt-in timeframe

As disrics move o new compensaion sysems, leaders mus deermine wha will

happen o he eachers who have been working under he old sysem. Many disrics

have policies ha allow eachers o op-in o he new sysem as opposed o orcing

all eachers o swich. Tese op-in policies have he poenial o be expensive because higher-perorming eachers may choose o op-in, while lower- perorming

eachers who do no op-in will sill ge significan increases by remaining in he

old compensaion sysem.


19/31


Despie he expense o op-in policies, many firs-mover disrics allow eachers o

op-in o he new sysem. However, several disrics have eiher given eachers an

op-in imerame or required ha all eachers swich o he new sysem. In some o

he disrics ha require eachers o op-in, eachers will no see a decrease in salary

afer swiching over. In oher disrics, eachers may see a salary decrease i hey

receive muliple low-evaluaion scores. In Washingon, D.C.; Harrison SchoolDisric 2 and Douglas Couny, Colorado; Balimore, Maryland; and Lawrence,

Massachusets, all eachers are auomaically swiched ino he new compensaion

sysem eiher immediaely or soon afer implemenaion. In Balimore and

Lawrence, eachers canno see heir salary decrease due o he ransiion.

TABLE 6

Ability to opt-in to new teacher compensation systems, by district

Are veteran teachers

allowed to opt in to new

compensation system?

Can salary decline or freeze due to

poor performance?

Baltimore City, MD No Can freeze but not decline

Denver, CO Yes Can freeze but not decline

Douglas County, CO No Can freeze but not decline

Harrison School

District 2, CO

All teachers are on new system

but can keep old salary for two years

before switching

Can freeze; can decline

after multiple low evaluations

Hillsborough County, FL* Yes Can freeze and decline

Lawrence, MA No Can freeze but not decline

New Haven, CT No Can freeze but not decline

Pittsburgh, PAAll returning teachers

still on old systemCan freeze and decline

Putnam County, TN Yes Can freeze but not decline

Wahington, D.C. No Can freeze but not decline

*Hillsborough County, FL is still negotiating on this policy.

Source: ERS Internal Benchmark Database; personal communication by ERS with district officials via phone, January–March 2012; publicly

available teacher contract information via state and district websites and the National Council on Teacher Quality’s database, available athttp://www.nctq.org/districtPolicy/contractDatabaseLanding.do (last accessed January 2015).


20/31


First-mover districts’ teacher compensation redesign efforts combined

ogeher, he policies described above enable firs-mover disrics o provide

significanly higher salaries o highly effecive eachers. Te char below shows he

maximum salary by pay ype ha a highly effecive eacher can obain in each o

he firs-mover disrics, boh beore and afer eacher compensaion reorm.

FIGURE 3

Possible maximum salary for highly effective teachers

By pay type before and after reform

Source: ERS Internal Benchmark Database; personal communication by ERS with district officials via phone, January–March 2012;

publicly available teacher contract information via state and district websites and the National Council on Teacher Quality's database,available at http://www.nctq.org/districtPolicy/contractDatabaseLanding.do (last accessed January 2015).

Washington, D.C.

Pittsburgh, PA

Baltimore City, MD

New Haven, CT

Lawrence, MA

Douglas Couny, CO


Denver, CO

Putnam County, TN

$30,000 $60,000 $90,000 $120,000 $150,000

Starting salary

Market incentivesPerformance School roles

Education


Experience

beforeafter

Harrison School

District 2, CO


21/31


In addiion o he poenial effecs on op perormers, i is imporan or disrics

o consider a new compensaion sysem’s effec on a disric’s ypical proficien

eacher. Tese individuals represen he majoriy o eachers in every disric. In

order or a disric o be successul in ransorming suden oucomes, i has o atrac

and reain a srong core o proficien eachers. In order o accomplish his goal, i

is imporan ha he disric offers a salary ha allows he ypical eacher o suppora amily, buy a car, a house, and oher middle-class maerial atainmensaspecs

o he American Dream ha are ou o reach or many o oday’s eaching work-

orce wihou addiional income rom a parner or addiional employmen. Te

firs-mover disrics all increased compensaion or ypical proficien eachers, as

shown in he firs char below.

FIGURE 4

Potential salary plus bonus for a typical teacher with

10 years of experienceBefore and after reform

Source: ERS Internal Benchmark Database; personal communication by ERS with district officials via phone, January–March 2012;publicly available teacher contract information via state and district websites and the National Council on Teacher Quality's database,

available at http://www.nctq.org/districtPolicy/contractDatabaseLanding.do (last accessed January 2015).

Washington, D.C.

Pittsburgh, PA

New Haven, CT

Lawrence, MA

Baltimore City, MD

Denver, CO

Douglas County, CO


Putnam County, TN

$20,000 $40,000 $60,000 $80,000

Starting salary

Market incentivesPerformance School roles

Education


Experience

before

after

Harrison School

District 2, CO


22/31


As a resul o heir reorms, disrics are now paying ypical proficien eachers

salaries ha are in close proximiy o he average salary o proessionals in heir

meropolian area, as measured by he Bureau o Labor Saisics.34 Absolue pariy

is a difficul goal o achieve wihin curren budge consrains, bu firs-mover

disrics are closing he gap.

FIGURE 5

A typical salary for a proficient teacher compared to an average

professional salary

Compared in the same metropolitan area and as measured by the Bureau of Labor

Statistics, or BLS

*Note: Cost of living based on closest metropolitan area, which may be higher than local cost

Source: ERS Internal Benchmark Database; personal communication by ERS with district officials via phone, January–March 2012;

publicly available teacher contract information via state and district websites and the National Council on Teacher Quality's database,available at http://www.nctq.org/districtPolicy/contractDatabaseLanding.do (last accessed January 2015).

Washington, D.C.

Pittsburgh, PA

New Haven, CT

Lawrence, MA*

Baltimore City, MD

Denver, CO

Douglas County, CO*


Putnam County, TN*

$20,000 $40,000 $60,000 $80,000

Typical salary for a proficient teacher BLS average professional salary

Harrison SchoolDistrict 2, CO*


23/31


Recommendations

Te ollowing recommendaions are direced o disrics in saes ha allow

compensaion o be deermined in par by perormance. Tey are based on insighs

garnered rom firs-mover disric rends and research ino eacher compensaion

reorm iniiaives.

1. Differentiate compensation based on roles and responsibilities. Career

pahways ha allow high-perorming eachers o ake on differen roles and

responsibiliies are he oundaion upon which differeniaed compensaionsrucures are buil. Once disrics have implemened career pahways, hey

have an opporuniy o increase pay or effecive, exper eachers who ake on

addiional or differen roles and responsibiliies. When designing differeniaed

compensaion srucures, disrics should provide rewards ha are commensurae

wih job responsibiliy. Cerain roles may require greaer experise or more

experience on he job. Compensaion should be differeniaed accordingly.

2. Set starting salaries to meet market demand. Disrics should se saring

salaries ha are compeiive wih neighboring disrics and subsanial enough

o atrac alened eachers while balancing he high cos o saring salary

changes, which go o eachers beore heir effeciveness is known. Disrics

mus consider saring salaries wihin hese confines so ha hey do no

compromise heir abiliy o appropriaely reward and reain experienced

eachers who prove hemselves effecive.

3. Align teacher compensation redesign with fair, proven teacher evaluation

systems. eacher compensaion sysems should be aligned wih air, proven

eacher evaluaion sysems ha include muliple measures oand reliably

disinguish beween levels oeacher effeciveness. Elemens o redesignedeacher compensaion srucures rely on srong eacher evaluaion sysems o

creae rigorous crieria or advancemen. Currenly he rigor o, and confidence

in, eacher evaluaion sysems among key sakeholders varies significanly rom

sae o sae and someimes even disric o disric. In order o reain highly


24/31


effecive eachers, disrics mus work o refine heir eacher evaluaion sysems

so ha eachers and principals have confidence in hem and hey accuraely

differeniae among high and low perormers beore ying hem o compensaion.

4. Shift pay structures away from years of experience and advanced degrees.

Disrics should eliminae or supplemen experience and educaion wihcrieria ha are based on objecive measures o perormance. An imporan firs

sep in ransiioning o such a sysem is ensuring ha new eacher evaluaion

sysems are finalized and ha hey are air, proven, and rigorous. When eacher

compensaion sysems are conneced o eacher effeciveness and o roles ha

leverage effeciveness and experise, shifing pay away rom years o experience

and advanced degrees is a naural nex sep.

5. Use compensation incentives to attract highly effective teachers to hard-to-

staff schools, districts, and subjects. Disrics should use compensaion o

atrac highly effecive eachers o hard-o-saff schools and posiions. Imporanly,he key is ha he eachers mus be highly effecive. Te incenive amoun a

disric is able o offer is imporan as research shows ha higher pay incenives

are more likely o influence a disric’s abiliy o recrui and reain eachers.35

Disrics mus hink sraegically abou heir budges when seting hese

incenive amouns.

6. Emphasize extra pay for effectiveness and career pathways instead of small

bonuses. Disrics should repurpose bonus unds oward rewarding effecive-

ness and highly imporan roles in order o have a larger, longer-erm, and

susainable influence on suden learning, excep in very specific insances

where bonuses are used o reward paricipaion in programs ha are sricly

aligned wih disric prioriies.

7. Accelerate the timeline to maximum salary where possible. When eacher

compensaion is based in par on effeciveness and addiional responsibiliy a

he school level, many early- career eachers may achieve higher salaries earlier

in heir careers, resuling in greaer coss over ime i he eachers say, which is

he goal o he iniiaive. In order o remain financially susainable, disrics

mus be clear abou how hey will und heir sysems and save he largesincreases or roles ha link o effeciveness, hus allowing eachers o serve in

roles such as coaching oher eachers, which allows hem o have a broader

effec on heir schools. In order o creae cos esimaes or heir plans, disrics

need o projec he disribuion o eacher perormance o see who will mee


25/31


he crieria. Limis on advancemen can be a ool o creae a significanly

differeniaed compensaion sysem. Te limis allow disrics o offer significanly

higher salaries o a selec group o eachers. In disrics wihou hese limis,

maximum salary has no been significanly increased.

8. Allow teachers to opt-in to new compensation systems within a set time -frame.

Op-in policies can lead o increased coss and difficuly predicing he

coss o ransiion. However, when he compensaion redesign means ha he

curren salaries o exising eachers migh decrease, disrics may need o

consider reprioriizing unds o allow or op-in policies in order o ensure a

smooh ransiion o redesigned compensaion sysems. I is also imporan or

disrics o consider he amoun o ime o give eachers o op-in. eachers

need enough ime o gain comor wih he new sysem in order o make heir

decision, bu oo long o a imerame creaes oo much insabiliy in he eacher

compensaion sysem.


26/31


Conclusion

Effecive eachers are considered he bigges in-school acor relaed o suden

success. Ye, in mos school disrics, eachers are no compensaed adequaely,

sraegically, or susainably. However, successul school sysems depend on atracing,

reaining, and rewarding excellen eachers. Tis repor shows how some leading

disrics are making bold moves o do hings differenly as i perains o eacher

compensaion. While all disrics have aced challenges, given financial consrains

and he commimens made o eachers hired under he curren salary srucure,

successul disrics have ound ways o move orward.

Mos firs-mover disrics are sill early in heir journey, and hey will need o

coninue o evaluae he effec o heir changes on recruimen, reenion, and

mos imporanlysuden perormance and adjus accordingly. As illusraed

by he disrics in his repor, firs and oremos, disrics need o use eacher

compensaion reorm as a way o atrac and keep he mos effecive eachers and

reward hose who leverage heir experise o do more. Doing so will require shifing

he disribuion o curren compensaion spending away rom a single salary schedule

and undiffereniaed benefi plans. Paying effecive eachers and eacher leaders

more will ofen require disrics o cu spending in oher less-producive areas,

and in some cases i will require raising unding levels alogeher. Making hese

rade-offs and building sakeholder undersanding will require leadership skill and

poliical will.

Te diversiy o he disrics sudied in his repor show ha eacher compensaion

redesign is possible under any circumsance, hough he sequence and speed wih

which hey approach he ask will differ. Te key is or disrics o lay ou a vision

and begin he work.


27/31


About the authors

Karen Hawley Miles is he ounder and execuive direcor o Educaion Resource

Sraegies Inc., or ERS. Under her leadership, ERS has pioneered a process or

quaniying, comparing, and realigning disric and school resources or more

sraegic use. Tis includes deep work o revise school unding sysems, creaesraegic school designs, and improve disrics’ proessional growh and human

capial sraegies. Since 2004, ERS has parnered wih more han 20 school sysems,

grown rom 3 o more han 40 employees, and now regularly publishes research and

pracical ools o help educaion leaders across he counry redesign urban sysems.

Hawley Miles co-auhored Te Strategic School: Making the Most of People, ime, and

Money wih Sephen Frank, and has auhored numerous aricles. Prior o ERS,

Hawley Miles worked a Bain & Company as a sraegy and managemen consulan.

She has a bachelor’s degree in economics and poliical science rom Yale Universiy

and a docorae in educaion rom Harvard Universiy, where her disseraionocused on he drivers o increased educaion spending over he pas wo decades.

Kaitlin Pennington is a Policy Analys on he Educaion Policy eam a American

Progress. Her work ocuses on human capial issues, specifically around eacher and

principal effeciveness. Prior o joining American Progress, Penningon worked as a

policy analys a he educaion policy nonprofi Colorado Succeeds. Beore ha, she

worked in he office o Colorado Sae Sen. Mike Johnson (D) as an Urban Leaders

Policy Fellow and in he Office o School Reorm and Innovaion a Denver Public

Schools. As a each For America corps member, Penningon augh middle school

English and language ars in Washingon, D.C.

Originally rom Pitsburgh, Pennsylvania, Penningon holds a maser’s degree

rom George Mason Universiy and a bachelor’s degree rom Syracuse Universiy.

David Bloom, principal associae a ERS, specializes in mapping disric resources.

His work has helped disric leadership in Ausin, exas and Washingon, D.C.

undersand how heir resource allocaion sraegies can bes align wih overarching

suden improvemen goals. His resource mapping work in Washingon, D.C.

idenified opporuniies o improve he managemen o human capial ha includedmodeling alernaive compensaion srucures. As a member o ERS’ Human

Capial pracice area, David works wih parners o srenghen eaching effeciveness

by beter inegraing hiring, evaluaion, suden assessmen, compensaion, proes-

sional growh, and suppor. David’s career in educaion began as a member o he


28/31


Acknowledgments

Tis paper resuled rom he effors o many minds over many monhs. ERS would

like o recognize auhors Karen Hawley Miles, David Bloom, and he Noyce

Foundaion. Teir suppor allows ERS o explore hese conceps deeply. CAP

would like o recognize Caherine Brown or her inegral role in ediing and

providing eedback on his repor.

About ERS

Educaion Resource Sraegies, or ERS, is a nonprofi organizaion dedicaed o

ransorming how urban school sysems organize resourcespeople, ime,

echnology, and moneyso ha every school succeeds or every suden. For

more han 10 years, ERS has worked hand-in-hand wih more han 20 school

sysems naionwide, on opics such as eacher compensaion and career pah,

unding equiy, school design, cenral office suppor, and budge developmen.

ERS shares research and pracical ools, and collaboraes wih ohers o creae he

condiions or change in educaion. Every projec is guided by ERS’s School

Sysem 20/20 rameworkwhich comes rom is experience and research on bes

pracices. In all o he work o ERS, he ocus is on how resources work ogeher o

creae high-perorming sysems. ERS’s nonprofi saus enables long-erm parner-

ship: one where ERS paricipaes in he ransormaion sruggle, creaes insighs

ogeher, and shares lessons wih ohers.

**Correction, February 24, 2015: Te school district name has been updated through-

out the report and figures to match the correct name in the introduction. Te correct

name is Harrison School District 2.

AmeriCorps-sponsored Mach Corps program in Boson, Massachusets. His

experience working wih sudens in ha program inspired him o coninue wih he

organizaion as a ounding mah eacher a he Mach Middle School in Boson.


29/31


Endnotes

1 Amanda Ripley, “What Makes a Great Teacher?”The Atlantic , January 1, 2010, available at http://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2010/01/what-makes-a-great-teacher/307841/.

2 William Taylor, DCPS teacher, phone interview withauthor, August 22, 2014.

3 District of Columbia Public Schools, “2013 Excellence in Teaching Awards,” available at http://dcps.dc.gov/DCPS/About+DCPS/Who+We+Are/Honoring+our+Educators/

Teaching+Awards/2013+Excellence+in+Teaching+Awards (last accessed October 2014).

4 Dana Hedgpeth, “It’s more expensive to live in D.C. thanNew York, study says,” The Washington Post , October 13,2014, available at http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/local/wp/2014/10/13/its-more-expensive-to-live-in-d-c-than-new-york-study-says/?tid=pm_local_.

5 William Taylor, DCPS teacher, phone interview withauthor, November 6, 2014.

6 District of Columbia Public Schools, “IMPACTplus,”available at http://dcps.dc.gov/DCPS/impactplus (lastaccessed October 2014).

7 William Taylor, DCPS teacher, phone interview withauthor, September 19, 2014.

8 Thomas Dee and James Wyckoff, “Incentives, Selection,and Teacher Performance: Evidence from IMPACT.”Working Paper 19529 (National Bureau of EconomicResearch, 2013) available at http://curry.virginia.edu/uploads/resourceLibrary/16_Dee-Impact.pdf .

9 Ibid.

10 TNTP, “Keeping Irreplaceables in D.C. Public Schools:Lessons in Smart Teacher Retention” (2012) availableat http://tntp.org/assets/documents/TNTP_DCIrreplaceables_2012.pdf .

11 Scott Thompson, deputy chief of human capital forteacher effectiveness at DCPS, phone interview with

author, September 30, 2014.

12 Ibid.

13 The New Teacher Project “Shortchanged: The HiddenCosts of Lockstep Teacher Pay” (2014), available athttp://tntp.org/assets/documents/TNTP_Short-changed_2014.pdf .

14 Craig Jerald, “Aligned by Design: How TeacherCompensation Reform Can Support and ReinforceOther Educational Reforms” (Washington: Center forAmerican Progress, 2009) available at http://cdn.americanprogress.org/wp-content/uploads/issues/2009/07/pdf/teacher_alignment.pdf.

15 Dan D. Goldhaber and Dominic J. Brewer, “WhenShould We Reward Degrees for Teachers?” Phi DeltaKappan 80 (2) (1998), available at https://www.questia.

com/library/journal/1G1-21239727/when-should-we-reward-degrees-for-teachers.

16 Steven G. Rivkin, Eric A. Hanushek, and John F. Kain,“Teachers, Schools, and Academic Achievement,”Econometrica 73 (2) (2005): 417–458, available at http://www.econ.ucsb.edu/~jon/Econ230C/HanushekRivkin.pdf ; Jennifer King Rise, “The Impact of TeacherExperience: Examining the Evidence and PolicyImplications” (Washington: The National Center forAnalysis of Longitudinal Data in Education Research,2010), available at http://www.urban.org/uploadedpdf/1001455-impact-teacher-experience.pdf.

17 Raegan Miller and Marguerite Roza, “The SheepskinEffect and Student Achievement: De-emphasizing theRole of Master’s Degrees in Teacher Compensation”(Washington: Center for American Progress, 2012)available at http://www.americanprogress.org/issues/education/report/2012/07/17/11934/the-sheepskin-effect-and-student-achievement/.

18 Bryon Auguste, Paul Kihn, and Matt Miller, “Closing thetalent gap: Attracting and retaining top-third graduatesto careers in teaching” (New York, NY: McKinsey andCompany, 2010), available at http://www.mckinseyon-society.com/downloads/reports/Education/Closing_the_talent_gap.pdf.

19 Lanae Erickson Hatalsky and Tamara Hiler, “Teaching: The Next Generation” (Washington: Third Way, 2014),available at http://s3.amazonaws.com/content.thirdway.org/publishing/documents/pdfs/000/000/080/teaching-the-next-generation.pdf?1413993182.

20 U.S. Department of Education, “Teacher Incentive Fund,”available at http://www2.ed.gov/programs/teacherincentive/funding.html (last accessedNovember 2014).

21 The Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, “FoundationCommits $335 Million to Promote Effective Teachingand Raise Student Achievement,” Press release, availableat http://www.gatesfoundation.org/Media-Center/Press-Releases/2009/11/Foundation-Commits-$335-Million-to-Promote-Effective-Teaching-and-Raise-Student-Achievement (last accessed January 2015).

22 StudentsFirst, “Reward Performance with Pay,” availableat http://reportcard.studentsfirst.org/policy/elevate_the_teaching_profession/value_effective_teachers/reward_performance_with_pay/state_by_state (lastaccessed October 2014).

23 Ibid.

24 Ibid.

25 Education Resource Strategies, “Misfit Structures & LostOpportunities” (2013), available at http://www.erstrategies.org/cms/files/1796-misfit-structures--lost-opportunities-pdf-doc.pdf.

26 Robert Gordon, Thomas J. Kane, and Douglas O. Staiger,“Identifying Effective Teachers Using Performance onthe Job.” Working Paper 2006-01, ( The BrookingsInstitution, 2006), available at http://www.brookings.

edu/views/papers/200604hamilton_1.pdf .

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27 Miller and Roza, “The Sheepskin Effect and StudentAchievement.”

28 Education Resource Strategies, “Misfit Structures & LostOpportunities.”

29 Denver Public Schools, “Tuition Reimbursement,”available at http://denverprocomp.dpsk12.org/support/tuition_reimbursement#Tuition_E (lastaccessed January 2015); Marne Pastor, Director ofCompensation for Pittsburgh Public Schools, phoneinterview with ERS, January 2012.

30 National Center for Education and Evaluation andRegional Assistance, Transfer Incentives for High-Per-forming Teachers: Final Results from a MultisiteRandomized Experiment (U.S. Department of Education,2013) available at http://ies.ed.gov/ncee/pubs/20144003/pdf/20144003.pdf.

31 Ibid.

32 District of Columbia Public Schools, “IMPACT: The DCPSEffectiveness Assessment System for School-BasedPersonnel,” available at http://dcps.dc.gov/DCPS/Files/downloads/In-the-Classroom/Ensuring-Teacher-Suc-cess/2013-2014%20IMPACTplus%20For%20Teachers.pdf (last accessed January 2015); Marne Pastor, Directorof Compensation for Pittsburgh Public Schools, phoneinterview with ERS, January 2012.

33 Education Resource Strategies, “Strategic Design of Teacher Compensation” (2012), available at http://www.erstrategies.org/library/strategic_design_of_teacher_compensation.

34 Data retrieved from the Bureau of Labor Statistics,“National Compensation Sur vey – Wages,” available athttp://www.bls.gov/ncs/ocs/compub.htm (lastaccessed November 2014).

35 National Center for Education and Evaluation andRegional Assistance, “Transfer Incentives for

High-Performing Teachers: Final Results from a MultisiteRandomized Experiment” (2013) available at http://ies.ed.gov/ncee/pubs/20144003/pdf/20144003.pdf.

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