dna technology and forensics

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DNA technology and forensics

DNA is used for identification in forensic science.

DNA can be used to identify any type of living organism. This is done by analyzing DNA

sequences that are unique to a species. The field of forensic science uses DNA analysis toidentify individuals. While it is not yet possible to identify individuals by exact DNA matches, it

is possible to analyze DNA regions that give a very high probability for matching the individual

with the sample.

What is GMO?Agricultural Crops That Have a Risk of Being GMO

GMOs, or genetically modified organisms, are plants or animals created through the genesplicing techniques of biotechnology (also called genetic engineering, or GE). This experimental


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technology merges DNA from different species, creating unstable combinations of plant, animal,

bacterial and viral genes that cannot occur in nature or in traditional crossbreeding.

For consumers, it can be difficult to stay up-to-date on food ingredients that are at-risk of being

genetically modified, as the list of at-risk agricultural ingredients is frequently changing. As part

of the Non-GMO Projects commitment to informed consumer choice, we work diligently tomaintain an accurate list of risk ingredients.

Agricultural products are segmented into two groups: (1) those that are high-riskof being GMObecause they are currently in commercial production, and (2) those that have a monitored risk

because suspected or known incidents of contamination have occurred and/or the crops have

genetically modified relatives in commercial production with which cross-pollination (andconsequently contamination) is possible. For more information on the Non-GMO Projects

testing and verification of risk ingredients and processed foods, please see the Non-GMO Project

Standard.

High-Risk Crops (in commercial production; ingredients derived from these must be testedevery time prior to use in Non-GMO Project Verified products (as of December 2011):

Alfalfa (first planting 2011)

Canola (approx. 90% of U.S. crop)

Corn (approx. 88% of U.S. crop in 2011)

Cotton (approx. 90% of U.S. crop in 2011)

Papaya (most of Hawaiian crop; approximately 988 acres)

Soy (approx. 94% of U.S. crop in 2011)

Sugar Beets (approx. 95% of U.S. crop in 2010)

Zucchini and Yellow Summer Squash (approx. 25,000 acres)

ALSO high-risk: animal products (milk, meat, eggs, honey, etc.) because of contamination in

feed.

Monitored Crops (those for which suspected or known incidents of contamination have

occurred, and those crops which have genetically modified relatives in commercial productionwith which cross-pollination is possible; we test regularly to assess risk, and move to High-

Risk category for ongoing testing if we see contamination):

Beta vulgaris (e.g., chard, table beets)

Brassica napa (e.g., rutabaga, Siberian kale)

Brassica rapa (e.g., bok choy, mizuna, Chinese cabbage, turnip, rapini, tatsoi)

Curcubita (acorn squash, delicata squash, patty pan) Flax

Rice

Common Ingredients Derived from GMO Risk CropsAmino Acids, Aspartame, Ascorbic Acid, Sodium Ascorbate, Vitamin C, Citric Acid, Sodium

Citrate, Ethanol, Flavorings (natural and artificial), High-Fructose Corn Syrup, Hydrolyzed
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Vegetable Protein, Lactic Acid, Maltodextrins, Molasses, Monosodium Glutamate, Sucrose,

Textured Vegetable Protein (TVP), Xanthan Gum, Vitamins, Yeast Products.

You may also be wondering about

Tomatoes: In 1994, genetically modified Flavr Savr tomatoes became the first commerciallyproduced GMOs. They were brought out of production just a few years later, in 1997, due to

problems with flavor and ability to hold up in shipping. There are no genetically engineered

tomatoes in commercial production, and tomatoes are considered low-risk by the Non-GMO

Project Standard.

Potatoes: Genetically modified NewLeaf potatoes were introduced by Monsanto in 1996. Due to

consumer rejection several fast-food chains and chip makers, the product was never successful

and was discontinued in the spring of 2001. There are no genetically engineered potatoes in

commercial production, and potatoes are considered low-risk by the Non-GMO Project

Standard.

Wheat: There is not currently, nor has there ever been, any genetically engineered wheat on the

market. Ofall low-risk crops, this is the one most commonly (and incorrectly) assumed to be

GMO. It is a key commodity crop, and the biotech industry is pushing hard to bring GMO

varieties to market. The Non-GMO Project closely watches all development on this front.

Salmon: A company called AquaBounty is currently petitioning the FDA to approve its

genetically engineered variety of salmon, which has met with fierce consumer resistance.Find

out more here.

Pigs: A genetically engineered variety of pig, called Enviropig was developed by scientists at the

University of Guelph, with research starting in 1995 and government approval sought beginning

in 2009. In 2012 the University announced an end to the Enviropig program, and the pigs

themselves were euthanized in June 2012.

DNA Technology Applications

The use ofrecombinant DNA technology has become commonplace as new products fromgenetically altered plants, animals, and microbes have become available for human use. In 1997,

Dolly made headlines as the first successfully clonedlarge mammal (sheep). Since then therehave been many similar advances in medicine, such as treatments for cancer; many advances in

agriculture, such as transgenic insect-resistant crops; and many advances in animal husbandry,

such as growth hormones and transgenic animals (an animal that has received recombinant

DNA).

Most biotechnologists envision DNA technological applications as one of the new frontiers inscience with tremendous growth and discovery potential.

Medicine

Genetic engineering has resulted in a series of medical products. The first two commercially

prepared products from recombinant DNA technology were insulin and human growth hormone,
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both of which were cultured in the E. coli bacteria. Since then a plethora of products have

appeared on the market, including the following abbreviated list, all made in E. coli:

Bionote

A vaccine is usually a harmless version of a bacterium or virus that is injected into an organismto activate the immune system to attack and destroy similar substances in the future.

Tumor necrosis factor. Treatment for certain tumor cells

Interleukin-2 (IL-2). Cancer treatment, immune deficiency, and HIV infection treatment

Prourokinase. Treatment for heart attacks

Taxol. Treatment for ovarian cancer

Interferon. Treatment for cancer and viral infections

In addition, a number ofvaccines are now commercially prepared from recombinant hosts. At

one time vaccines were made by denaturing the disease and then injecting it into humans with

the hope that it would activate their immune system to fight future intrusions by that invader.Unfortunately, the patient sometimes still ended up with the disease.

With DNA technology, only the identifiable outside shell of the microorganism is needed,copied, and injected into a harmless host to create the vaccine. This method is likely to be much

safer because the actual disease-causing microbe is not transferred to the host. The immune

system is activated by specific proteins on the surface of the microorganism -e. DNA technologytakes that into account and only utilizes identifying surface features for the vaccine. Currently

vaccines for the hepatitis B virus, herpes type 2 viruses, and malaria are in development for trial

use in the near future.

Agriculture

Crop plants have been and continue to be the focus of biotechnology as efforts are made toimprove yield and profitability by improving crop resistance to insects and certain herbicides and

delaying ripening (for better transport and spoilage resistance). The creation of a transgenic

plant, one that has received genes from another organism, proved more difficult than animals.Unlike animals, finding a vector for plants proved to be difficult until the isolation of the Ti

plasmid, harvested from a tumor-inducing (Ti) bacteria found in the soil. The plasmid is shot

into a cell, where the plasmid readily attaches to the plant's DNA. Although successful in fruitsand vegetables, the Ti plasmid has generated limited success in grain crops.

Creating a crop that is resistant to a specific herbicide proved to be a success because theherbicide eliminated weed competition from the crop plant. Researchers discovered herbicide-

resistant bacteria, isolated the genes responsible for the condition, and shot them into a crop

plant, which then proved to be resistant to that herbicide. Similarly, insect-resistant plants arebecoming available as researchers discover bacterial enzymes that destroy or immobilize

unwanted herbivores, and others that increase nitrogen fixation in the soil for use by plants.


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Geneticists are on the threshold of a major agricultural breakthrough. All plants need nitrogen to

grow. In fact, nitrogen is one of the three most important nutrients a plant requires. Although the

atmosphere is approximately 78 percent nitrogen, it is in a form that is unusable to plants.However, a naturally occurring rhizobium bacterium is found in the soil and converts

atmospheric nitrogen into a form usable by plants. These nitrogen-fixing bacteria are also found

naturally occurring in the legumes of certain plants such as soybeans and peanuts. Because theycontain these unusual bacteria, they can grow in nitrogen-deficient soil that prohibits the growthof other crop plants. Researchers hope that by isolating these bacteria, they can identify the DNA

segment that codes for nitrogen fixation, remove the segment, and insert it into the DNA of a

profitable cash crop! In so doing, the new transgenic crop plants could live in new fringeterritories, which are areas normally not suitable for their growth, and grow in current locations

without the addition of costly fertilizers!

Animal Husbandry

Neither the use of animal vaccines nor adding bovine growth hormones to cows to dramatically

increase milk production can match the real excitement in animal husbandry: transgenic animalsand clones.

Transgenic animals model advancements in DNA technology in their development. The

mechanism for creating one can be described in three steps:

1. Healthy egg cells are removed from a female of the host animal and fertilized in the laboratory.

2. The desired gene from another species is identified, isolated, and cloned.

3. The cloned genes are injected directly into the eggs, which are then surgically implanted in the

host female, where the embryo undergoes a normal development process.

It is hoped that this process will provide a cheap and rapid means of generating desired enzymes,other proteins, and increased production of meat, wool, and other animal products throughcommon, natural functions.

Ever since 1997 when Dolly was cloned, research and experimentation to clone useful livestockhas continued unceasingly. The attractiveness of cloning is the knowledge that the offspring will

be genetically identical to the parent as in asexual reproduction. Four steps describe the general

process:

1. A differentiated cell, one that has become specialized during development, with its diploid

nucleus is removed from an animal to provide the DNA source for the clone.

2. An egg cell from a similar animal is recovered and the nucleus is removed, leaving only the

cytoplasm and cytoplasm organelles.

3. The two egg cells are fused with an electric current to form a single diploid cell, which then

begins normal cell division.

4. The developing embryo is placed in a surrogate mother, who then undergoes a normal

pregnancy.


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Completed in 2003, the Human Genome Project (HGP) was a 13-year projectcoordinated by the U.S. Department of Energy and the National Institutes of Health.

During the early years of the HGP, the Wellcome Trust (U.K.) became a major partner;

additional contributions came from Japan, France, Germany, China, and others. See

ourhistory page for more information.

Project goals were to

identifyall the approximately 20,000-25,000 genes in human DNA,

determine the sequences of the 3 billion chemical base pairs that make uphuman DNA,

store this information in databases,

improve tools for data analysis, transfer related technologies to the private sector, and address the ethical, legal, and social issues (ELSI) that may arise from the

project.

Though the HGP is finished, analyses of the data will continue for many years. Follow

this ongoing research on ourMilestones page. An important feature of the HGP project

was the federal government's long-standing dedication to the transfer of technology to

the private sector. By licensing technologies to private companies and awarding grants

for innovative research, the project catalyzed the multibillion-dollar U.S. biotechnology

industry and fostered the development of new medical applications.

To help achieve these goals, researchers also studied the genetic makeup of several nonhuman

organisms. These include the common human gut bacteriumEscherichia coli, the fruit fly, and

the laboratory mouse.

A unique aspect of the U.S. Human Genome Project is that it was the first large scientificundertaking to address potential ELSI implications arising from project data.

Another important feature of the project was the federal government's long-standing dedication

to the transfer of technology to the private sector. By licensing technologies to private companies

and awarding grants for innovative research, the project catalyzed the multibillion-dollar U.S.biotechnology industry and fostered the development of new medical applications.

Landmark papers detailing sequence and analysis of the human genome were published in

February 2001 and April 2003 issues ofNature and Science. See an index of these papers and

learn more about the insights gained from them
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What is gene therapy?

Gene therapy is an experimental technique that uses genes to treat or prevent disease. In the

future, this technique may allow doctors to treat a disorder by inserting a gene into a patients

cells instead of using drugs or surgery. Researchers are testing several approaches to genetherapy, including:

Replacing a mutated gene that causes disease with a healthy copy of the gene.

Inactivating, or knocking out, a mutated gene that is functioning improperly.

Introducing a new gene into the body to help fight a disease.

Although gene therapy is a promising treatment option for a number of diseases (including

inherited disorders, some types of cancer, and certain viral infections), the technique remains

risky and is still under study to make sure that it will be safe and effective. Gene therapy iscurrently only being tested for the treatment of diseases that have no other cures.

Biofertilizer

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaJump to: navigation, search

Tolypothrix, Cyanobacteria often used as fertilizer.

Blue-green algae cultured in specific media. Blue-green algae can be helpful in agriculture as

they have the -green algae is used as a bio-fertilizer.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofertilizer#mw-headhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofertilizer#p-searchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algaehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Blue-green_algae_cultured_in_specific_media.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Blue-green_algae_cultured_in_specific_media.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tolypothrix_(Cyanobacteria).JPGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tolypothrix_(Cyanobacteria).JPGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Blue-green_algae_cultured_in_specific_media.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Blue-green_algae_cultured_in_specific_media.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tolypothrix_(Cyanobacteria).JPGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tolypothrix_(Cyanobacteria).JPGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Blue-green_algae_cultured_in_specific_media.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Blue-green_algae_cultured_in_specific_media.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tolypothrix_(Cyanobacteria).JPGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tolypothrix_(Cyanobacteria).JPGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Blue-green_algae_cultured_in_specific_media.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Blue-green_algae_cultured_in_specific_media.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tolypothrix_(Cyanobacteria).JPGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tolypothrix_(Cyanobacteria).JPGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algaehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofertilizer#p-searchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofertilizer#mw-head


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A biofertilizer (also bio-fertilizer) is a substance which contains living microorganisms which,

when applied to seed, plant surfaces, or soil, colonizes the rhizosphere or the interior of the plant

and promotes growth by increasing the supply or availability of primary nutrients to the hostplant.

[1]Bio-fertilizers add nutrients through the natural processes ofnitrogen fixation,

solubilizing phosphorus, and stimulating plant growth through the synthesis of growth-

promoting substances. Bio-fertilizers can be expected to reduce the use ofchemical fertilizersand pesticides. The microorganisms in bio-fertilizers restore the soil's natural nutrient cycle andbuild soil organic matter. Through the use of bio-fertilizers, healthy plants can be grown, while

enhancing the sustainability and the health of the soil. Since they play several roles, a preferred

scientific term for such beneficial bacteria is "plant-growth promoting rhizobacteria" (PGPR).Therefore, they are extremely advantageous in enriching soil fertility and fulfilling plant nutrient

requirements by supplying the organic nutrients through microorganism and their byproducts.

Hence, bio-fertilizers do not contain any chemicals which are harmful to the living soil.

Bio-fertilizers eco friendly organic agro-input and more cost-effective than chemical fertilizers.

Bio-fertilizers such as Rhizobium, Azotobacter, Azospirillum and blue green algae (BGA) have

been in use a long time. Rhizobiuminoculant is used for leguminous crops. Azotobactercan beused with crops like wheat, maize, mustard, cotton, potato and other vegetable crops.

Azospirillum inoculations are recommended mainly forsorghum, millets, maize, sugarcane andwheat. Blue green algaebelonging to a general cyanobacteria genus,NostocorAnabaenaorTolypothrixorAulosira, fix atmospheric nitrogen and are used as inoculations for paddy crop

grown both under upland and low-land conditions.Anabaenain association with water fern

Azolla contributes nitrogen up to 60 kg/ha/season and also enriches soils with organic matter.[2]

Other types of bacteria, so-called phosphate-solubilizing bacteria, such as Pantoea agglomerans

strain P5 orPseudomonas putida strain P13,[3]

are able to solubilize the insoluble phosphate fromorganic and inorganic phosphate sources.

[4]In fact, due to immobilization of phosphate by

mineral ions such as Fe, Al and Ca ororganic acids, the rate of available phosphate (Pi) in soil is

well below plant needs. In addition, chemical Pi fertilizers are also immobilized in the soil,

immediately, so that less than 20 percent of added fertilizer is absorbed by plants. Therefore,reduction in Pi resources, on one hand, and environmental pollutions resulting from both

production and applications of chemical Pi fertilizer, on the other hand, have already demanded

the use of new generation of phosphate fertilizers globally known as phosphate-solubilizingbacteria or phosphate bio-fertilizers

Recombinant DNA (rDNA) molecules are DNA sequences that result from the use of

laboratory methods (molecular cloning) to bring together genetic material from multiple sources,creating sequences that would not otherwise be found in biological organisms. Recombinant

DNA is possible because DNA molecules from all organisms share the same chemical structure;

they differ only in the sequence ofnucleotides within that identical overall structure.

Consequently, when DNA from a foreign source is linked to host sequences that can drive DNAreplication and then introduced into a host organism, the foreign DNA is replicated along with

the host DNA.
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.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil_fertilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant-growth_promoting_rhizobacteriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pesticideshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_fertilizershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphorushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogen_fixationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofertilizer#cite_note-vessey2003-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhizospherehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microorganism


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Contents

1 Introduction

2 Creating recombinant DNA

3 Expression of recombinant DNA 4 Properties of organisms containing recombinant DNA

5 Applications of recombinant DNA technology

6 History of recombinant DNA

7 Controversy

8 See also

9 References

o 9.1 Further reading

10 External links

Introduction

Recombinant DNA molecules are sometimes called chimeric DNA, because they are usually

made of material from two different species, like the mythical chimera. R-DNA technology uses

palindromic sequences and leads to the production ofsticky and blunt ends.

The DNA sequences used in the construction of recombinant DNA molecules can originate from

any species. For example, plant DNA may be joined to bacterial DNA, or human DNA may bejoined with fungal DNA. In addition, DNA sequences that do not occur anywhere in nature may

be created by the chemical synthesis of DNA, and incorporated into recombinant molecules.

Using recombinant DNA technology and synthetic DNA, literally any DNA sequence may be

created and introduced into any of a very wide range of living organisms.

Proteins that result from the expression of recombinant DNA within living cells are termed

recombinant proteins. When recombinant DNA encoding a protein is introduced into a host

organism, the recombinant protein will not necessarily be produced.[citation needed]

Expression of

foreign proteins requires the use of specialized expression vectors and often necessitates

significant restructuring of the foreign coding sequence.[citation needed]

Recombinant DNA differs from genetic recombination in that the former results from artificialmethods in the test tube, while the latter is a normal biological process that results in the

remixing of existing DNA sequences in essentially all organisms.

Creating recombinant DNA

Main article: Molecular cloning
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Construction of recombinant DNA, in which a foreign DNA fragment is inserted into a plasmid vector. In

this example, the gene indicated by the white color is inactivated upon insertion of the foreign DNAfragment.

Molecular cloning is the laboratory process used to create recombinant DNA.[1][2][3][4]

It is one of

two widely-used methods (along with polymerase chain reaction, abbr. PCR) used to direct the

replication of any specific DNA sequence chosen by the experimentalist. The fundamentaldifference between the two methods is that molecular cloning involves replication of the DNA

within a living cell, while PCR replicates DNA in the test tube, free of living cells.

Formation of recombinant DNA requires a cloning vector, a DNA molecule that will replicate

within a living cell. Vectors are generally derived from plasmids orviruses, and represent

relatively small segments of DNA that contain necessary genetic signals for replication, as wellas additional elements for convenience in inserting foreign DNA, identifying cells that contain

recombinant DNA, and, where appropriate, expressing the foreign DNA. The choice of vector

for molecular cloning depends on the choice of host organism, the size of the DNA to be cloned,

and whether and how the foreign DNA is to be expressed.[5]

The DNA segments can becombined by using a variety of methods, such as restriction enzyme/ligase cloning orGibson

assembly.

In standard cloning protocols, the cloning of any DNA fragment essentially involves seven steps:

(1) Choice of host organism and cloning vector, (2) Preparation of vector DNA, (3) Preparation

of DNA to be cloned, (4) Creation of recombinant DNA, (5) Introduction of recombinant DNA

into the host organism, (6) Selection of organisms containing recombinant DNA, (7) Screeningfor clones with desired DNA inserts and biological properties.

[4]These steps are described in

some detail in a related article (molecular cloning).

Expression of recombinant DNA

Main article: Gene expression
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Following transplantation into the host organism, the foreign DNA contained within therecombinant DNA construct may or may not be expressed. That is, the DNA may simply be

replicated without expression, or it may be transcribed and translated so that a recombinantprotein is produced. Generally speaking, expression of a foreign gene requires restructuring the

gene to include sequences that are required for producing a mRNA molecule that can be used by

the host's translational apparatus (e.g. promoter, translational initiation signal, and transcriptionalterminator).[6]

Specific changes to the host organism may be made to improve expression of theectopic gene. In addition, changes may be needed to the coding sequences as well, to optimize

translation, make the protein soluble, direct the recombinant protein to the proper cellular or

extracellular location, and stabilize the protein from degradation.[7]

Properties of organisms containing recombinant DNA

In most cases, organisms containing recombinant DNA have apparently normal phenotypes. Thatis, their appearance, behavior and metabolism are usually unchanged, and the only way to

demonstrate the presence of recombinant sequences is to examine the DNA itself, typically using

a polymerase chain reaction (PCR) test.[8]

Significant exceptions exist, and are discussed below.

If the rDNA sequences encode a gene that is expressed, then the presence of RNA and/or protein

products of the recombinant gene can be detected, typically using RT-PCRorwesternhybridization methods.

[8]Gross phenotypic changes are not the norm, unless the recombinant

gene has been chosen and modified so as to generate biological activity in the host organism.[9]

Additional phenotypes that are encountered include toxicity to the host organism induced by therecombinant gene product, especially if it is over-expressed or expressed within inappropriate

cells or tissues.

In some cases, recombinant DNA can have deleterious effects even if it is not expressed. One

mechanism by which this happens is insertional inactivation, in which the rDNA becomesinserted into a host cells gene. In some cases, researchers use this phenomenon to knock out

genes in order to determine their biological function and importance.[10]

Another mechanism bywhich rDNA insertion into chromosomal DNA can affect gene expression is by inappropriate

activation of previously unexpressed host cell genes. This can happen, for example, when a

recombinant DNA fragment containing an active promoter becomes located next to a previouslysilent host cell gene, or when a host cell gene that functions to restrain gene expression

undergoes insertional inactivation by recombinant DNA.

Applications of recombinant DNA technology

Recombinant DNA is widely used in biotechnology, medicine and research. Today, recombinantproteins and other products that result from the use of rDNA technology are found in essentiallyevery western pharmacy, doctor's or veterinarian's office, medical testing laboratory, and

biological research laboratory. In addition, organisms that have been manipulated using

recombinant DNA technology, and products derived from those organisms have found their way

into many farms, supermarkets, home medicine cabinets and even pet shops.
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The most common application of recombinant DNA is in basic research, where it is important to

most current work in the biological and biomedical sciences.[8]

Recombinant DNA is used to

identify, map and sequence genes, and to determine their function. rDNA probes are employed inanalyzing gene expression within individual cells, and throughout the tissues of whole

organisms. Recombinant proteins are widely used as reagents in laboratory experiments and to

generate antibody probes for examining protein synthesis within cells and organisms.

[2]

Many additional practical applications of recombinant DNA are found in industry, food

production, human and veterinary medicine, in agriculture, and in bioengineering.[2]

Somespecific examples are identified below.

Recombinant chymosin

found in rennet, is an enzyme required to manufacture cheese. It was the first genetically

engineered food additive to be used commercially. Traditionally, processors obtained chymosin

from rennet, a preparation derived from the fourth stomach of milk-fed calves. Scientists

engineered a non-pathogenic strain (K-12) ofE. colibacteria for large-scale laboratoryproduction of the enzyme. This microbiologically produced recombinant enzyme, identical

structurally to the calf derived enzyme, costs less and is produced in abundant quantities. Today

about 60% of U.S. hard cheese is made with genetically engineered chymosin. In 1990, FDA

granted chymosin "generally-recognized-as-safe" (GRAS) status based on data showing that the

enzyme was safe.[11]

Recombinant human insulin

almost completely replaced insulin obtained from animal sources (e.g. pigs and cattle) for the

treatment of insulin-dependent diabetes. A variety of different recombinant insulin preparations

are in widespread use.[12]Recombinant insulin is synthesized by inserting the human insulin

gene intoE. coli, which then produces insulin for human use.[13]

Recombinant human growth hormone (HGH, somatotropin)

administered to patients whose pituitary glands generate insufficient quantities to support

normal growth and development. Before recombinant HGH became available, HGH for

therapeutic use was obtained from pituitary glands of cadavers. This unsafe practice led to some

patients developing Creutzfeldt-Jacob disease. Recombinant HGH eliminated this problem, and

is now used therapeutically.[14]

It has also been misused as a performance enhancing drug by

athletes and others.[15]

DrugBank entry

Recombinant blood clotting factor VIII

a blood-clotting protein that is administered to patients with forms of the bleeding disorder

hemophilia, who are unable to produce factor VIII in quantities sufficient to support normal

blood coagulation.[16]Before the development of recombinant factor VIII, the protein was

obtained by processing large quantities of human blood from multiple donors, which carried a
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very high risk of transmission ofblood borne infectious diseases, for example HIV and hepatitis

B. DrugBank entry

Recombinant hepatitis B vaccine

prevention ofhepatitis B infection is controlled through the use of a recombinant hepatitis B

vaccine, which contains a form of the hepatitis B virus surface antigen that is produced in yeast

cells. The development of the recombinant subunit vaccine was an important and necessary

development because hepatitis B virus, unlike other common viruses such as polio virus, cannot

be grown in vitro. Vaccine information from Hepatitis B Foundation

Diagnosis of infection with HIV

each of the three widely-used methods for diagnosing HIV infection has been developed using

recombinant DNA. The antibody test (ELISA or western blot) uses a recombinant HIV protein to

test for the presence ofantibodies that the body has produced in response to an HIV infection.

The DNA test looks for the presence of HIV genetic material using reverse transcriptasepolymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). Development of the RT-PCR test was made possible by the

molecular cloning and sequence analysis of HIV genomes. HIV testing page from US Centers for

Disease Control (CDC)

Golden rice

a recombinant variety of rice that has been engineered to express the enzymes responsible for

-carotene biosynthesis.[9]This variety of rice holds substantial promise for reducing the

incidence ofvitamin A deficiency in the world's population.[17]

Golden rice is not currently in use,

pending the resolution of intellectual property, environmental and nutritional issues.

Herbicide-resistant crops

commercial varieties of important agricultural crops (including soy, maize/corn, sorghum,

canola, alfalfa and cotton) have been developed which incorporate a recombinant gene that

results in resistance to the herbicide glyphosate (trade name Roundup), and simplifies weed

control by glyphosate application.[18]

These crops are in common commercial use in several

countries.

Insect-resistant crops

Bacillus thuringeiensis is a bacterium that naturally produces a protein (Bt toxin) withinsecticidal properties.[17]The bacterium has been applied to crops as an insect-control strategy

for many years, and this practice has been widely adopted in agriculture and gardening.

Recently, plants have been developed which express a recombinant form of the bacterial

protein, which may effectively control some insect predators. Environmental issues associated

with the use of these transgenic crops have not been fully resolved.[19]
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History of recombinant DNA

Main article: History of biotechnology

The idea for recombinant DNA was first proposed by Peter Lobban, a graduate student of Prof.Dale Kaiser in the Biochemistry Department at Stanford University Medical School.

[20]The first

publications describing the successful production and intracellular replication of recombinantDNA appeared in 1972 and 1973.

[21][22][23]Stanford University applied for a US patent on

recombinant DNA in 1974, listing the inventors as Stanley N. Cohen and Herbert W. Boyer; this

patent was awarded in 1980.[24]

The first licensed drug generated using recombinant DNAtechnology was human insulin, developed by Genentech and Licensed by Eli Lilly and

Company.[25]

Controversy

Scientists associated with the initial development of recombinant DNA methods recognized that

the potential existed for organisms containing recombinant DNA to have undesirable or

dangerous properties. At the 1975 Asilomar Conference on Recombinant DNA, these concernswere discussed and a voluntary moratorium on recombinant DNA research was initiated for

experiments that were thought to be particularly risky. This moratorium was widely observeduntil the National Institutes of Health (USA) developed and issued formal guidelines for rDNA

work. Today, recombinant DNA molecules and recombinant proteins are usually not regarded as

dangerous. However, concerns remain about some organisms that express recombinant DNA,

particularly when they leave the laboratory and are introduced into the environment or foodchain. These concerns are discussed in the articles on genetically-modified organisms and

genetically-modified food controversies.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_biotechnologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recombinant_DNA#cite_note-20http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recombinant_DNA#cite_note-20http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recombinant_DNA#cite_note-20http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recombinant_DNA#cite_note-pmid.7C4342968-21http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recombinant_DNA#cite_note-pmid.7C4342968-21http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recombinant_DNA#cite_note-pmid.7C4594039-23http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanford_Universityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanley_N._Cohenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbert_W._Boyerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recombinant_DNA#cite_note-pmid.7C11810894-24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recombinant_DNA#cite_note-pmid.7C11810894-24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recombinant_DNA#cite_note-pmid.7C11810894-24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genentechhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eli_Lilly_and_Companyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eli_Lilly_and_Companyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recombinant_DNA#cite_note-pmid.7C6337396-25http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recombinant_DNA#cite_note-pmid.7C6337396-25http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recombinant_DNA#cite_note-pmid.7C6337396-25http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asilomar_Conference_on_Recombinant_DNAhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_organismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food_controversieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_organismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asilomar_Conference_on_Recombinant_DNAhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recombinant_DNA#cite_note-pmid.7C6337396-25http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eli_Lilly_and_Companyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eli_Lilly_and_Companyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genentechhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recombinant_DNA#cite_note-pmid.7C11810894-24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbert_W._Boyerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanley_N._Cohenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanford_Universityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recombinant_DNA#cite_note-pmid.7C4594039-23http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recombinant_DNA#cite_note-pmid.7C4342968-21http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recombinant_DNA#cite_note-pmid.7C4342968-21http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recombinant_DNA#cite_note-20http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_biotechnology

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