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The first edition of this book was written by J. George Wills (Marcel Dekker, 1980).

ISBN: 0-8247-0574-2This book is printed on acid-free paper.

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Copyright � 2001 by Exxon Mobil Corporation. All Rights Reserved.

The Exxon, Esso, Mobil, and ExxonMobil logos are trademarks of Exxon Mobil Corporation.The terms Mobil SHC 600, Mobil DTE 20, and Mobil EAL 224H are trademarks or trade namesof Exxon Mobil Corporation or its affiliated companies.

Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means,electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or by anyinformation storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.

Current printing (last digit):10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

Copyright 2001 by Exxon Mobil Corporation. All Rights Reserved.

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Preface

Lubrication and the knowledge of lubricants not only are subjects of interest to all of usbut they are also critical to the cost effective operation and reliability of machinery thatis part of our daily lives. Our world, and exploration of regions beyond our world, dependson mechanical devices that require lubricating films. Whether in our homes or at work,whether knowingly or unknowingly, we all need lubricants and some knowledge of lubrica-tion. Fishing reels, vacuum cleaners, and lawn mowers are among the devices that requirelubrication. The millions of automobiles, buses, airplanes, and trains depend on lubricationfor operation, and it must be effective lubrication for dependability, safety, and minimiza-tion of environmental impact.

Many changes in the field of lubrication have occurred since the first edition ofLubrication Fundamentals was published more than 20 years ago. Today intricate andcomplex machines are used to make paper products; huge rolling mills turn out metal ingotsand sheets; metalworking machines produce close-tolerance parts; and special machinery isused to manufacture cement, rubber, and plastic products. New metallurgy, new processes,and never before used materials are often part of these machines that require lubrication.The newer machinery designs have taken advantage of these as well as other technologies,which often involve computers to assist in producing ultra-high precision parts at produc-tion rates that were once only dreamed of. These advances have led to faster machinespeeds, greater load-handling capability, higher machine temperatures, smaller capacitylubricant reservoirs, and less frequent lubrication application up to and including fill-for-life lubrication. As a result, there has been an explosion in both higher performanceand specialty application oils and greases. The impact of these lubricants on our naturalenvironment has also been a driver for new lubricant technology.

This second edition of Lubrication Fundamentals builds upon the machinery basicsdiscussed in the first edition, much of which is still applicable today. The second editionalso addresses many of the new lubricant technologies that were introduced or improvedupon in the last 20 years to meet the needs of modern machinery. As we progress throughthis century, lubricant suppliers will be faced with many challenges. Critical activities


along the lubricant value chain that are impacted by technology include new lubricationrequirements, petroleum crude selection, base stock manufacture, product formulation andevaluation, lubricant application, and environmental stewardship. These will be excitingtimes for industry, especially for those participating in the quest to develop the new lubri-cant molecule for the future.

D. M. PirroA. A. Wessol

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Lubrication Fundamentals: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, like all technical pub-lications of this magnitude, is not the work of one or two people. It is the combined effortof hundreds, even thousands, of engineers, designers, chemists, physicists, writers, andartists—the compendium of a broad spectrum of talent working over a long period oftime. The field of lubrication fundamentals starts with the scientists who study the basicinteraction of oil films with bearings, gears, and cams under various stresses and loads. Itthen takes the unique cooperation that exists between the machine designer and equipmentbuilders, on one side, and the lubricant formulators and suppliers, on the other, along withthe cooperation that takes place in the many associations such as STLE, SAE, ACEA,ASTM, ISO, DIN, NLGI, AGMA, and API, to name but a few. It culminates in the matingof superior lubricants properly applied with the requirements of the most efficient machinesoperating today.

The lubricants industry is most grateful to lubrication pioneers such as J. GeorgeWills, the author of the first edition. More than 20 years ago, Wills, an acknowledgedexpert in the field of lubrication in the nuclear power industry, identified the need for apractical resource on lubrication. He developed a vision, secured the support and resourcesto undertake such a monumental effort, and then dedicated the effort to turn his visioninto reality. We are privileged to be able to build upon this effort and share the manytechnological advances in industry.

It would be impossible to list the host of people who have helped to put this secondedition together. The book compiles the many technical publications of Exxon MobilCorporation and the cooperative offerings of the foremost international equipment builders.Impossible though it may be to acknowledge the contributions of everyone, the followingmust be singled out for thanks:

Our lubricant business leaders at ExxonMobil—John Lyon, Jeff Webster, Don Sala-mack, J. Ian Davidson, and George Siragusa—first for their acceptance of theidea and then for their encouragement to complete the project

The following engineers, researchers, and technologists at ExxonMobil, who madesignificant contributions to this edition—W. Russ Murphy, S. Levi Pearson, Mar-cia Rogers, Charles Baker, Mary McGuiness, Tim McCrory, John Doner, BetseyVarney, Carl Gerster, and Elena Portoles

The many original equipment manufacturers we have worked with for many years,for sharing their knowledge and technology

The many other marketers, engineers, formulators, and researchers (past and present)from Mobil and ExxonMobil for their contributions and comments


Contents

Preface

1 Introduction

I. Premodern History of PetroleumII. Petroleum in North America

III. Development of LubricantsIV. Future Prospects

2 Refining Processes and Lubricant Base Stocks

I. Crude OilII. Refining

III. Lubricant Base StocksIV. Lube Refining ProcessesV. Lubricating Base Stock Processing

3 Lubricating Oils

I. AdditivesII. Physical and Chemical Characteristics

III. Evaluation and Performance TestsIV. Engine Tests for Oil PerformanceV. Automotive Gear Lubricants

VI. Automatic Transmission Fluids

4 Lubricating Greases

I. Why Greases Are UsedII. Composition of Grease


III. Manufacture of GreaseIV. Grease CharacteristicsV. Evaluation and Performance Tests

5 Synthetic Lubricants

I. Synthesized Hydrocarbon FluidsII. Organic Esters

III. PolyglycolsIV. Phosphate EstersV. Other Synthetic Lubricating Fluids

6 Environmental Lubricants

I. Environmental ConsiderationsII. Definitions and Test Procedures

III. Base MaterialsIV. Product Selection ProcessV. Converting to EA Lubricants

7 Hydraulics

I. PrinciplesII. System Components

III. Controlling Pressure and FlowIV. ActuatorsV. Hydraulic Drives

VI. Oil ReservoirsVII. Oil Qualities Required by Hydraulic Systems

VIII. Special Characteristics in Hydraulic FluidsIX. Hydraulic System Maintenance

8 Lubricating Films and Machine Elements: Bearings, Slides,Ways, Gears, Couplings, Chains, Wire Rope

I. Types of Lubricating FilmII. Plain Bearings

III. Rolling Element BearingsIV. Slides, Guides, and WaysV. Gears

VI. Lubricant Characteristics for Enclosed GearsVII. AGMA Specifications for Lubricants for Open Gearing

VIII. CylindersIX. Flexible CouplingsX. Drive Chains

XI. Cams and Cam FollowersXII. Wire Ropes

9 Lubricant Application

I. All-Loss MethodsII. Reuse Methods


III. Other Reuse MethodsIV. Centralized Application Systems

10 Internal Combustion Engines

I. Design and Construction ConsiderationsII. Fuel and Combustion Considerations

III. Operating ConsiderationsIV. Maintenance ConsiderationsV. Engine Oil Characteristics

VI. Oil Recommendations by Field of Engine Use

11 Stationary Gas Turbines

I. Principles of Gas TurbinesII. Jet Engines for Industrial Use

III. Gas Turbine ApplicationsIV. Lubrication of Gas Turbines

12 Steam Turbines

I. Steam Turbine OperationII. Turbine Control Systems

III. Lubricated Components

13 Hydraulic Turbines

I. Turbine TypesII. Lubricated Parts

III. Lubricant Recommendations

14 Nuclear Reactors and Power Generation

I. Reactor TypesII. Radiation Effects on Petroleum Products

III. Lubrication Recommendations

15 Automotive Chassis Components

I. Suspension and Steering LinkagesII. Steering Gear

III. Wheel BearingsIV. Brake SystemsV. Miscellaneous Components

16 Automotive Transmissions and Drive Trains

I. ClutchesII. Transmissions

III. Drive Shafts and Universal JointsIV. Transaxles


V. Other Gear CasesVI. Automotive Gear Lubricants

VII. Torque Converter and Automatic Transmission FluidsVIII. Multipurpose Tractor Fluids

17 Compressors

I. Reciprocating Air and Gas CompressorsII. Rotary Compressors

III. Dynamic CompressorsIV. Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Compressors

18 Handling, Storing, and Dispensing Lubricants

I. HandlingII. Storing

III. Dispensing

19 In-Plant Handling and Purification for Lubricant Conservation

I. Overview of In-Plant HandlingII. Product Selection

III. In-Service HandlingIV. In-Service PurificationV. Purification Methods

VI. Reclamation and Re-Refining of Lubricating OilsVII. Waste Collection and Routing

VIII. Final Disposal


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