WORLD WAR IEyewitness

Early gas helmet

Model of British motor ambulanceused on the Western Front

Early Britishreconnaissance

aircraft

German incendiarybomb, droppedduring first air raid on London

Book that stopped a bullet

British 20 lb (9 kg)Hales bomb

British carcassincendiary bomb

French tin soldiers

Signboard fromYpres station, 1916

IN ASSOCIATION WITHTHE IMPERIAL WAR MUSEUM

US DistinguishedService Cross

Prussian IronCross

Written by

SIMON ADAMSPhotographed by

ANDY CRAWFORD

Caricature puzzle ofHerbert Asquith,

British primeminister from

190816

British Maxim Mark 3machine gun

Figurine of GrandDuke Nicolas,commander-

in-chief of theRussian armies at

the start of the war

WORLD WAR I

Eyewitness

German steelhelmet adaptedfor use with a

telephone

British steel helmet with visor

British andGerman

barbed wire

Grenade

Britishofficerscompass

Germanmedicalorderlys

pouch

Dummy riflesused by Britisharmy recruits,

191415

French Croix deGuerre medalawarded for

valour

Project editor Patricia MossArt editors Julia Harris, Rebecca Painter

Senior editor Monica BylesSenior art editors Jane Tetzlaff, Clare Shedden

Category publisher Jayne ParsonsManaging art editor Jacquie Gulliver

Senior production controller Kate OliverPicture research Sean Hunter

DTP designers Justine Eaton, Matthew Ibbotson

PAPERBACK EDITIONManaging editor Linda Esposito

Senior editor Shaila AwanManaging art editor Jane ThomasCategory publisher Linda Martin

Art director Simon WebbEditor and reference compiler Clare Hibbert

Art editor Rebecca JohnsProduction Jenny Jacoby

Picture research Sean HunterDTP designer Siu Yin Ho

This Eyewitness Guide has been conceived by Dorling Kindersley Limited and Editions Gallimard

Hardback edition first published in Great Britain in 2001.This edition first published in Great Britain in 2004

by Dorling Kindersley Limited,80 Strand, London WC2R 0RL

Copyright 2001, 2004, Dorling Kindersley Limited, LondonA Penguin Group

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted

in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the copyright owner.

A CIP catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

ISBN 1 4053 0298 4

Colour reproduction by Colourscan, Singapore

Printed in China by Toppan Co., (Shenzhen) Ltd.

See our complete catalogue at

LONDON, NEW YORK, TORONTO, MELBOURNE, MUNICH, and DELHI

Contents6

Divided Europe8

The fatal shot10

War in the west12

Fighting men14

Joining up16

Digging the trenches18

Life in the trenches20

Ready to fight22

Communication and supplies24

Observation and patrol26

Bombardment28

Over the top30

Casualty32

Women at war34

War in the air36

Zeppelin38

War at sea40

Gallipoli42

Verdun

Highexplosive

shells

44Gas attack

46The Eastern Front

48War in the desert

50Espionage

52Tank warfare

54The US enters the war

56Under enemy lines

58The final year

60Armistice and peace

62The cost of the war

64Did you know?

66Key people and places

68Find out more

70Glossary

72Index

62

AT THE START of the 20th century, the countriesof Europe were increasingly hostile to eachother. Britain, France, and Germany competedfor trade and influence overseas, whileAustria-Hungary and Russia both tried

to dominate the Balkan states ofsouth-east Europe. Military tension

between Germany and Austria-Hungaryon the one hand and Russia and France onthe other led to the formation of powerfulmilitary alliances. A naval arms race addedto the tension. In 191213 two major wars

broke out in the Balkans as rival statesbattled to divide Turkish-controlled

lands between them. By 1914the political situation in Europewas tense, but few believed thata continental war was inevitable.

HMS DREADNOUGHTThe launch of HMS Dreadnought inFebruary 1906 marked a revolution inbattleship design. With its 10 12-inch(30-cm) guns and a top speed of 21knots, the British ship outperformedand outpaced every other battleship of the day. As a result, Germany,France, and other maritime nationsbegan to design and build their ownDreadnoughts, starting a worldwidenaval armaments race.

Divided Europe

KAISER WILHELM IIWilhelm II becameemperor of Germanyin 1888, when he wasjust 29. He had awithered arm andother disabilities, butovercame them throughhis strong personality. Asemperor, he tried to turnGermany from a European power to a world power, but his aggressivepolicies and arrogant behaviour upset other European nations,particularly Britain and France.

Some children had modelsof HMS Dreadnoughtand could recite everydetail of her statistics

Hand-painted,tinplate toybattleship

THE POWER HOUSEThe factory, shown above, in theRuhr valley of western Germany

belonged to the Alfred KruppArms Company. The Kruppfamily was the largest arms

supplier in the world. Germanywas a largely agricultural nationwhen it became a united country

in 1871. Over the next 30 years,new iron, coal, steel, engineering,

and shipbuilding industriesturned Germany into the third

biggest industrial country in theworld, after the USA and Britain.

Key to wind upclockwork motor

THE GERMAN FLEETIn 1898 Germany began an ambitiousnaval building programme designed tochallenge the supremacy of the BritishRoyal Navy. While German admiralscommanded these new ships in the Balticand North Seas, German children playedwith tin battleships in their baths.

EUROPEAN RIVALRIESIn 1882 Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italysigned the Triple Alliance to protect themselvesagainst invasion. Alarmed by this, France andRussia formed an alliance in 1894. Britain signedententes (understandings) with France in 1904 and Russia in 1907. During the war, Serbia,Montenegro, Belgium, Romania, Portugal, andGreece fought with the Allies. Bulgaria and Turkeyfought alongside Germany and Austria-Hungary the Central Powers. Italy joined the Allies in 1915.

Central Powers

Allied Nations

Neutral

Tsar Nicholas II of Russia George V of Britain

A FAMILY AFFAIR?Although George V and TsarNicholas II look very similar,

they were not directly related.Nicholass wife, Alexandra,

however, was a cousin ofGeorge V, as was Emperor

Wilhelm of Germany.

7

OTTOMANEMPIRE

(TURKEY)

RUSSIA

GERMANY

FRANCE

BULGARIA

GREECE

SPAIN

BRITAIN

IRELAND

NORWAY

SWEDEN

NETHERLANDS

BELGIUM

SWITZERLAND

ITALYPORTUGAL

ALBANIA

SERBIAROMANIA

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY

DENMARK

MediterraneanSea

Black Sea

NorthAtlanticOcean

NorthSea

BalticSea

MONTENEGRO

8The fatal shot

MOBILIZE!During July1914, militarynotices wereposted up acrossEurope informingcitizens that theircountrys army wasbeing mobilized(prepared) for warand that all thosebelonging to regular and reserve forcesshould report for duty.

28 June Archduke Franz Ferdinandis assassinated in Sarajevo5 July Germany gives its ally,Austria-Hungary total support forany action it takes against Serbia

23 July Austria issuesa drastic ultimatum toSerbia, which wouldundermine Serbian independence25 July Serbia agrees to most of

Austria-Hungarys ultimatums,but still mobilizes as a safety

precaution28 July Austria-Hungary ignoresSerbias readiness to seek a peaceful

end to the crisis and declares war30 July Russia mobilizes in supportof its ally, Serbia 31 July Germany demands thatRussia stop its mobilization

ONE DAY IN SARAJEVOThe six assassins five Serbs and oneBosnian Muslim lay in wait alongArchduke Ferdinands route to theAustrian governors residence inSarajevo. One of them threw a bomb at Ferdinands car, but it bounced offand exploded under the following car, injuring two army officers. TheArchduke and his wife went to visitthe injured officers in hospital 45minutes later. When their car took a wrong turning, Gavrilo Principstepped out of the crowd and shot the couple. Ferdinands wife diedinstantly and he died 10 minutes later.

THE AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN ARMYThe Austro-Hungarian empire had three armies Austrian,Hungarian, and the Common Army. Ten main languages

were spoken! The official one was German, but officers had to learn their mens language, leading to frequent

communication difficulties. The complex structure of thearmy reflected Austria-Hungary itself, which in reality

was two separate monarchies ruled by one monarch.

ON 28 JUNE 1914 the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne,Archduke Franz Ferdinand, was assassinated in Sarajevo,Bosnia. Bosnia had been part of Austria-Hungary since 1908, but it was claimed byneighbouring Serbia. Austria-Hungary blamed Serbia for

the assassination, and on 28 July declared war.What began as the third Balkan war rapidlyturned into a European war. Russia supportedSerbia, Germany supported Austria-Hungary,and France supported Russia. On 4 August,Germany invaded neutral Belgium on its wayto France. It intended to knock France out ofthe war before turning its attention to Russia,thus avoiding war on two fronts. But Britainhad guaranteed to defend Belgiums neutrality,and it too declared war on Germany. The Great War had begun.

Bomb bounced offcanopy and landedunder following car

Princip fired at closerange from therunning board

Archduke and his wifeSophie sat in the backof the open-top car

THE ASSASSINSGavrilo Princip, aboveright, fired the fatalshot. He belonged to the Black Handterrorists, who believedthat Bosnia should bepart of Serbia.

GERMANY REJOICESGermany prepared its armyon 1 August, declaring war

against Russia later the sameevening and against France on

3 August. Most Germans in thecities were enthusiastic for the

war and many civilians rushed tojoin the army in support of Kaiser

and country. Germans in thecountryside were less enthusiastic.

Austro-Hungarian Reiter(Trooper) of the 8th Uhlan

(Lancer) Regiment

9VIVE LA FRANCEThe French army mobilized on 1 August. For manyFrenchmen, the war was an opportunity to seek revengefor the German defeat of France in 187071 and the lossof Alsace-Lorraine to German control.

ALL ABOARD!The German slogans on thiswestbound train read Daytrip to Paris and See youagain on the Boulevard, asall Germans believed thattheir offensive against Francewould soon take them toParis. French trains headingeast towards Germany carriedsimilar messages about Berlin.

1 August Germany mobilizesagainst Russia and declares war;France mobilizes in support of itsally, Russia; Germany signs a treaty with Ottoman Turkey; Italy

declares its neutrality2 August Germany invadesLuxembourg and demands theright to enter neutral Belgium,which is refused

3 August Germany declares war on France4 August Germany invadesBelgium on route to France; Britain enters the war to safeguard

Belgian neutrality6 August Austria-Hungarydeclares war on Russia12 August France and Britaindeclare war on Austria-Hungary

The lamps aregoing out all over Europe

SIR EDWARD GREYBRITISH FOREIGN SECRETARY, 1914

German (above) and French (right) mobilization posters

War in the westEVER SINCE THE 1890s, Germany had feared that itwould face a war on two fronts against Russia in the east and against France, Russias ally since 1893, in the west. Germany knew the chances of winningsuch a war were slim. By 1905, the chief of the Germanstaff, Field Marshal Count Alfred von Schlieffen, haddeveloped a bold plan to knock France swiftly out ofany war before turning the full might of the Germanarmy against Russia. For this plan to work, the

German army had to pass through Belgium, a neutral country. In August1914, the plan went into operation. German troops crossed the Belgianborder on 4 August, and by the end of the month, invaded northernFrance. The Schlieffen Plan then required the army to sweep around thenorth and west of Paris, but the German commander, General Moltke,modified the plan and instead headed east of Paris. This meant his rightflank (side) was exposed to the French and British armies. At the Battleof the Marne on 5 September, the German advance was held and pushedback. By Christmas 1914, the two sides faced stalemate along a line fromthe Belgian coast in the north to the Swiss border in the south.

CHRISTMAS TREATThe London TerritorialAssociation sent each oftheir soldiers a Christmaspudding in 1914. Othersoldiers received gifts in the name of PrincessMary, daughter of KingGeorge V.

IN RETREATThe Belgian army was too smalland inexperienced to resist theinvading German army. Here,soldiers with dog-drawnmachine guns are withdrawingto Antwerp.

Third gunner firesthe gun on command

Second gunnerloads the shellIN THE FIELD

The British Expeditionary Force (B.E.F.)had arrived in France by 22 August1914. Its single cavalry divisionincluded members of the Royal HorseArtillery, whose L Battery fired this 13-pounder quick firing Mark I gunagainst the German 4th CavalryDivision at the Battle of Nry on 1September. This held up the Germanadvance into France for one morning.Three gunners in the battery receivedVictoria Crosses for their valour.

Shaft to attach gunto horses that pullthe gun along

Steel helmet

Soldiers woreputtees, long strips

of cloth wrappedaround their legs

First gunnerhands shell tosecond gunneron command

11

Rope wrappedaround recoilmechanism

EYEWITNESSCaptain E.R.P. Berryman of the 2nd Battalion 39thGarwhal Rifles, wrote a letter home describing thetruce. He told his family that the Germans had put up Christmas trees in theirtrenches. This cartoonillustrates the absurdity of his situation shooting theenemy one day and greetingthem as friends the next.

Fires 12.5-lb (5.6-kg)shells a distance of5,395m (5,900 yards)

HEADING FOR THE FRONTThe German advance into northern France was so rapid that

by early September, its troops were along the River Marne,only 40 km (25 miles) east of Paris. General Gallieni, military

governor of Paris, took 600 taxis and used them to convey6,000 men to the front line to reinforce the French 6th Army.

Soldier shooting atenemy with a notesaying Christmas

Eve Get em!

British and Germansoldiers greeting each

other on Christmas Day

THE CHRISTMAS TRUCE On Christmas Eve 1914, soldiers on

both sides of the Western Front sangcarols to each other in comradely

greeting. The following day, troopsalong two-thirds of the front observeda truce. All firing stopped, and church

services were held. A few soldierscrossed into no-mans-land to talk to

their enemy and exchange simplegifts of cigarettes and other items.

Opposite Ploegsteert Wood, south ofYpres, Belgium, a game of football

took place between members of theGerman Royal Saxon Regiment and

the Scottish Seaforth Highlanders.The Germans won 32. In some

places, the truce lasted for almost a week. A year later, however,

sentries on both sides were ordered to shoot anyone attempting a

repeat performance.

German trench

THE OUTBREAK OF WAR in Europe inAugust 1914 changed the lives of millionsof men. Regular soldiers, older reservists,eager recruits, and unwilling conscriptsall found themselves caught up in thewar. Some of them were experiencedsoldiers, but many had barely held a riflebefore. In addition to the European forces,both Britain and France drew heavily on armies recruited from their overseascolonies and from the British dominions.The design and detail of their uniformsdiffered considerably, although brightercolours soon gave way to khaki, dullblue, and grey.

12

Fighting men

GRAND DUKE NICOLASAt the outbreak of war, the Russian army was ledby Grand Duke Nicolas, uncle of Tsar Nicholas II.In August 1915, the Tsar dismissed his uncle andtook command himself. As commander-in-chief,the Tsar dealt with the overall strategy of the war.The Russian armies were led by generals whodirected the battles. The other warring countriesemployed similar chains of command.

Jerkin could bemade of goat-or sheepskin

Hat flaps could bepulled down to

keep out the cold

Ammunitionpouch

France

Russia

EASTERN ALLIESIn Eastern Europe,Germany faced the vastRussian army, as well as smaller armies fromSerbia and Montenegro.In the Far East, Germancolonies in China and the Pacific Ocean wereinvaded by Japan. Theseillustrations come from a poster showingGermanys enemies.

THE BRITISH ARMYAt the start of war, the Britisharmy contained 247,432regulars and 218,280reservists. Soldiers wore akhaki uniform consisting of a single-breasted tunic with a folding collar, trousers,puttees or leggings worn toprotect the shins, and ankle-boots. In the winter soldierswere issued with additionalitems such as jerkins. Manywore knitted scarves andbalaclavas sent from home.

Woollenputteeswrappedaroundshins

Thick boots toprotect feet

Britishsoldier

EMPIRE TROOPSThe British and French armies includedlarge numbers of recruits from theircolonial possessions in Africa, Asia, thePacific, and the Caribbean. In addition,the British dominions of Australia, NewZealand, Canada, and South Africa senttheir own armies to take part in theconflict. Many of these troops had neverleft their home countries before. TheseAnnamites (Indo-Chinese), above, fromFrench Indo-China were stationed withthe French army at Salonika, Greece, in1916. They wore their own uniformsrather than those of the French army.

Lee Enfield rifleNo. 1 MkIII

13

Tent cloth

Mauser rifle

Gasmask

Stick grenade

Cartridgepouch

Field tunic(Waffenrock)

France Belgium

Russia

Germansoldier

Serbia Montenegro Japan

Britain

French infantryman,known as

le poilu

THE FRENCH ARMYThe French army was oneof the largest in Europe.Including reservists andcolonial troops, the Frencharmy totalled 3,680,000trained men at the

outbreak of war.

THE GERMAN ARMYThe German armywas the strongest inEurope because it hadbeen preparing forwar. At the outbreakof hostilities, itconsisted of 840,000men. All men underthe age of 45 weretrained for militaryservice and belongedto the reserve army.On calling up thereserves, the Germanarmy could expand to over four milliontrained men.

Steel helmetswere issuedin 1916

WESTERN ALLIESIn Western Europe, Britain,France, and Belgium were

allied against Germany.The British and Frencharmies were large, but the Belgian army was

small and inexperienced. These illustrations come

from a German posteridentifying the enemy.

Lebel rifle

Haversack withpersonal items

Water bottle

French infantrymen photographed in 1918

AT

TH

EO

UT

BR

EA

KO

FW

AR

, eve

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coun

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but o

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ad a

larg

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14

Join

ing

up

TH

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TE

very

Bri

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rec

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had

to u

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go a

med

ical

test

to m

ake

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rec

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took

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oath

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loya

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e ki

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nd w

as th

en a

ccep

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into

the

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it o

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Kit

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as u

sed

as

a re

crui

ting

pos

ter.

By

the

tim

e it

app

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d in

late

Sep

tem

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1914

, how

ever

,m

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rec

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s ha

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lrea

dy

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.

QU

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t the

out

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, lon

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arou

nd

the

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try.

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me

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oupe

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geth

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to f

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the

fam

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Pals

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so th

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ould

fig

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geth

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y m

id-

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lf a

mill

ion

men

had

volu

ntee

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to f

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elt

WA

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riti

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rim

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oman

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plac

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Dec

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16.

15

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TIO

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Eac

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as g

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PAY

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to th

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s fa

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s Fr

ench

post

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to s

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vern

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econ

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nal

def

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loan

wit

h th

e w

ord

s O

n le

s au

ra!

(W

ell

get t

hem

!).

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sol

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noug

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to s

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tren

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his

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uppl

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of a

mm

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in p

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17, e

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it in

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ashi

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it, a

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pare

clot

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Whe

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wen

t int

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, he

tran

sfer

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th

e m

ost n

eed

ed it

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out o

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Soci

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fig

htin

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kers

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oth

grou

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non

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s sm

all k

it

Hol

dall

EM

PIR

E T

RO

OP

S

Whe

n w

ar w

as d

ecla

red

, tho

usan

ds

of m

envo

lunt

eere

d f

rom

acr

oss

the

Bri

tish

Em

pire

.E

xist

ing

regi

men

ts, s

uch

as th

ese

Ben

gal L

ance

rs,

wer

e au

gmen

ted

by

new

rec

ruit

s. I

ndia

n tr

oops

serv

ed w

ith

dis

tinc

tion

on

the

Wes

tern

Fro

nt, i

nG

erm

an E

ast A

fric

a, a

nd in

the

Mid

dle

Eas

t.

16

Digging the trenchesAT THE OUTBREAK OF WAR, both sides on the Western Front expected to take partin massive military manoeuvres overhundreds of kilometres of territory, and to fight fast-moving battles of advance and retreat. No-one expected a static fightbetween two evenly matched sides. Astalemate occurred mainly becausepowerful long-range artillery weapons andrapid-fire machine guns made it dangerousfor soldiers to fight in unprotected, openground. The only way to survive suchweapons was to dig defensive trenches.

Front line of trenches

POSITIONING THE TRENCHNeither side had great expertise indigging trenches at the outbreak of war,but they quickly learned from their mistakes.The Germans usually built trenches where theycould best observe and fire at the enemy while remainingconcealed. The British and French preferred to capture asmuch ground as possible before digging their trenches.

THE FRONT LINEBy December 1914, a network of trenches stretched along theWestern Front from the Belgiancoast in the north down througheastern France to the Swiss border,645 km (400 miles) in the south. By1917, it was possible in theory towalk most of the length of the frontalong the winding trench network.

THE FIRST TRENCHESEarly trenches were just deep

furrows, which provided minimalcover from enemy fire. These troopsfrom the 2nd Scots Guards dug this

trench near Ypres in October 1914.Their generals believed that suchtrenches were only temporary, as

the normal war of movementwould resume in the spring.

ENTRENCHING TOOLSEach soldier carried an entrenching tool.With it, the soldier could dig a scrape abasic protective trench if he was caught

out in the open by enemy fire. He couldalso use it to repair or improve a trench

damaged by an enemy artillerybombardment.

Bladecover

SIGNPOSTSEach trench wassignposted to makesure no-one lost his way during anattack. Nicknamesfrequently becamesignposted names.

PasschendaeleYpres

Verdun

AmiensRiver Somme

ParisRiver Marne

BELGIUMGERMANY

LUXEMBOURG

FRANCE

American M1910entrenching tool

17

BOARDED UPOne of the main dangers of trench life was the possibility ofbeing buried alive if the walls collapsed. By summer 1915,many German trenches were reinforced with wooden wallsto prevent this happening. They were also dug very deep tohelp protect the men from artillery bombardments.

HOME SWEET HOME?The Germans constructed very elaborate trenchesbecause, as far as they were concerned, this was thenew German border. Many trenches had shutteredwindows and even doormats to wipe muddy boots on! Allied trenches were much morebasic because the Allies expected torecapture the occupied territory.

Officersshelter

Passing point

Front-line trench

Latrine

Section ofshell trench

Shelltrench

TRENCH PLANA trench system consisted ofa series of trenches runningroughly parallel to the enemytrenches. The front-linetrench zig-zagged to stop anenemy raiding party killingeveryone along its lengthwith a well-positionedmachine gun, and to reducethe effects of a shell landingin a fire bay.

COPING WITH THE MUDRain, snow, and natural seepage soon filledtrenches with water. Wooden slats, known asduckboards, were laid on the ground to keepsoldiers feet reasonably dry, but the constantmud remained one of the major features of trench life.

Fire bay

Communication trench

Second linesupport trench

Communicationtrench

18

Life in the trenchesDAYTIME IN THE TRENCHES alternated between shortperiods of intense fear, when the enemy fired, andlonger periods of boredom. Most of the work was doneat night when patrols were sent out to observe and raid enemy trenches, and to repair their own front-lineparapets and other defences. Dawn and dusk were themost likely times for an enemy attack, so all the troopsstood to, that is manned the fire bays, at these times.The days were usually quiet, so the men tried to catchup on sleep while sentries watched the enemy trenches.Many soldiers used this time to write home or keep adiary of events. There were no set mealtimes on thefront line, and soldiers ate as and when transport wasavailable to bring food to the front by carrying parties.To relieve the boredom, soldiers spent one week to 10days in the front line, then moved into the reserve lines,and finally went to a rear area to rest. Here, they weregiven a bath and freshly laundered clothes beforereturning to the trenches.

CLEAN AND TIDYThe cleaning of kit and the waterproofing of boots was as much a part of life in the trenches as it was in the barracks back home.These Belgian soldiers cleaning their rifles knew that such taskswere essential to maintaining combat efficiency.

A LITTLE SHELTERThe trenches were usually very narrow and often exposedto the weather. The Canadian soldiers in this trench havebuilt a makeshift canopy to shelter under. The sides aremade of sandbags piled on top of each other.

OFFICERS DUG-OUTThis re-creation in Londons Imperial War Museum of an

officers dug-out on the Somme in autumn 1916 shows thecramped conditions people endured in the trenches. The

officer on the telephone is calling in artillery support for animminent trench raid, while his weary comrade is asleep

behind him on a camp bed. Official notices, photographs,and postcards from home are pinned around the walls.

A RELAXING READ?This re-creation from Londons

Imperial War Museum shows a soldier reading. While there

was plenty of time for thesoldiers to read during the day,they were often interrupted by

rats scurrying past their feet and itching lice in their clothes.

Soldier removing mudfrom ammunition pouchwith a piece of cloth

Artists and poetsSome soldiers used their spare time in the trenches to write poemsor make sketches. A huge number wrote long letters home, or kept a diary. After the war, many of these writings were published.Literary records of trench life made fascinating and

shocking reading. In 1916, the Britishgovernment began to

send officialwar artists,

such as PaulNash (18891946), to thefront to recordthe war in paint.

19

French authorHenri Barbusse

(18731935)wrote of life inthe trenches,

denouncing thewar in his novel

Le Feu (UnderFire) of 1916.

Poem and self-portrait by British poet and

artist IsaacRosenberg

(18901918)

The Menin Road (1918) by Paul Nash

CAVE MENOrdinary soldiers such as these members of the British BorderRegiment at Thiepval Wood on the Somme in 1916 spent their timeoff duty in funk holes, holes carved out of the side of the trench, orunder waterproof sheets. Unlike the Germans, the British did notintend to stay in the trenches too long, so did not want the soldiers to make themselves comfortable.

TRENCH CUISINEThese French officers are dining well in

a reserve trench in a quiet area. Others were less fortunate, enduring tinned food or mass-produced meals cooked and brought up from

behind the lines and reheated in the trench.

Soldiers servedalongside aregiment ofrats and lice

Paints and brushesbelonging to Britishwar artist Paul Nash

20

PREPARE TO FIREThese German troops on the Marne in 1914 are firing through purpose-built gun holes.This enabled them to view and fire at theenemy without putting their heads above theparapet and exposing themselves to enemyfire. Later on in the war, sandbags replaced the earth ramparts. On their backs, the troopscarry leather knapsacks with rolled-upgreatcoats and tent cloths on top.

WRITING HOMECanon Cyril Lomax served in

France in 191617 as a chaplain tothe 8th Battalion Durham Light

Infantry. As a non-combatant, hehad time to describe in illustrated

letters home some of the horrorshe encountered. The armies of

both sides had chaplains andother clergy at the front.

IT IS EASY TO imaginethat most of the actionon the Western Fronttook place when soldiersleft their trenches andfought each other inopen ground, or no-mans-land, between thetwo opposing front lines.In reality, such events werefar rarer than the constantbattle between soldiers in theirfacing lines of trenches. Botharmies took every opportunity to take shots at anyone foolish orunfortunate enough to be visible to theother side. Even soldiers trying to rescuewounded comrades from no-mans-land orretrieve bodies caught on the barbed-wire fences wereconsidered fair targets. Raiding parties from one frontline to the other added to the danger. This relentless warof attrition kept every soldier on full alert, and meantthat a watch had to be kept on the enemy lines everyhour of the day.

Ready to fight

IN CLOSE QUARTERSSoldiers were armed with a range ofclose-combat weapons when they wenton raiding parties in case they needed to kill an enemy. The enemy could be killed silently so that the raidingsoldiers did not draw attention tothemselves. Theweapons were rarely used.

Germanstick

grenade

Frenchtrenchknife

British Millsbomb

German timedand fused ball

grenade

Germanclub

21

WALKING WOUNDEDThis recreation in Londons

Imperial War Museum shows a wounded German prisoner

being escorted by a medicalorderly from the front line backthrough the trench system to a

regimental aid post. Many,however, were not so fortunate.

A soldier wounded in no-mans-land would be left until it was

safe to bring him back to histrench, usually at nightfall.

Many soldiers risked their livesto retrieve wounded comrades.

Sadly some soldiers diedbecause they could not be

reached soon enough.

REGIMENTAL AID POSTBattalion medical officers, as shown in this recreation fromLondons Imperial War Museum, worked through the heat

of battle and bombardment to treat the flood of casualties asbest they could. They dressed wounds, tried to relieve pain,

and prepared the badly wounded for the uncomfortablejourney out of the trenches to the field hospital.

SAVED BY A BOOKThe soldier carrying this book was lucky. By the time the bullet had passed through thepages, its passage was slowed enough tominimise the injury it caused.

Path of bullet

The German that I shot was a fine

looking man ... I didfeel sorry but it was

my life or his BRITISH SOLDIER JACK SWEENEY,

21 NOVEMBER, 1916

ALWAYS IN ACTIONThis photograph of Bulgarian soldiers

was taken in 1915. It shows thatsoldiers could never let their guard

down while in a trench. A permanentlook-out must be kept, and

guns always primed andready in case the enemy

mounted a sudden attack.The soldiers had to eat in

shifts to ensuretheir constant

readiness forbattle.

PIGEON POSTCarrier pigeons were often used to carrymessages to and from the front line wheretelephone lines did not exist. In fact, thenoise and confusion of the front meant thatthe birds easily became bewildered andflew off in the wrong direction. Germanyused war dogs specially trained to carrymessages in containers on their collars.

22

Communicationand supplies

GETTING IN TOUCHTeams of engineers such as this Germangroup were trained to set up, maintain, andoperate telephones in the field. This allowedcloser and more regular contact between thefront line and HQ than in previous wars.

MISSILE MESSAGESEnemy fire often cut telephone lines,so both sides used shells to carrywritten messages. Flares on the shellslit up to signal their arrival. Signalgrenades and rockets were alsowidely used to convey pre-arrangedmessages to front-line troops.

French armypigeon handlers

badge

Germanmessage shell

Message rolledup in base

Britishnightsignal

Canvas topsecured

with ropes

COMMUNICATING WITH andsupplying front-line troops is thebiggest problem faced by everyarmy. On the Western Front, thisproblem was particularly acutebecause of the length of the front line and the large number of soldiersfighting along it. In mid-1917, forexample, the British army required500,000 shells a day, and million-shell days were not uncommon. Tosupply such vast and hungry armies,both sides devoted great attention tolines of communication. The main form of transport remained the horse, but increasing use was made of mechanized vehicles.Germany made great use of railways to move men and suppliesto the front. Both sides set up elaborate supply systems to ensurethat front-line troops never ran out of munitions or food. Front-line troops also kept in close touch with headquarters and otherunits by telephone and wireless.

FIELD TELEPHONETelephones were the maincommunication method between the front line and headquarters. They relayed voice and Morse code messages.

TWO-WAY TRAFFICOne of the main

problems on the WesternFront was the lack of good roads

to and from the front line. Quietcountry lanes suddenly became major

thoroughfares as columns of marching men, supply lorries, munitions wagons, fieldambulances, and other vehicles forced their waythrough. The traffic was frequently two-way, withsoldiers ready for combat marching to the front,passing their exhausted and often woundedcomrades heading in the opposite direction.

23

Supply trucksheading forthe front

Sides dropped downfor access

Open drivers cab

FABULOUS BAKER GIRLSBehind the lines, vast quantities of food wereproduced every day to feed the soldiers at thefront. British kitchens, canteens, and bakeries,such as this one in Dieppe, France, were oftenstaffed by members of the Womens ArmyAuxiliary Corps (W.A.A.C.). The Corps was setup in February 1917 to replace the men needed to fight on the front line. Women also played amajor role as clerks, telephone operators, andstorekeepers, ensuring that the front line wasadequately supplied and serviced at all times.

WHEEL POWERBoth sides used lorries and vans to ferry menand supplies to the front line. This British 3-ton (3,050-kg) Wolseley transport lorry was specially built for war service, but othersmaller lorries and vans were also used.

Soldier hitching alift to the front ona supply wagon

Wounded Britishtroops returningfrom the trenches in November 1916

British Wolseley 3-ton(3,050-kg) transport lorry

24

AE

RIA

LR

EC

ON

NA

ISS

AN

CE

B

oth

sid

es u

sed

air

craf

t to

obse

rve

enem

ypo

siti

ons

on th

e W

este

rn F

ront

. At f

irst

, Alli

edco

mm

and

ers

wer

e su

spic

ious

of

this

new

met

hod

. But

in S

epte

mbe

r 19

14, F

renc

h A

irSe

rvic

e pi

lots

saw

the

adva

ncin

g G

erm

anar

mie

s ch

ange

dir

ecti

on n

ear

Pari

s. T

his

info

rmat

ion

enab

led

the

Alli

es to

sto

p th

eG

erm

an a

dva

nce

into

Fra

nce

at th

e B

attl

e of

the

Mar

ne. T

he B

E2a

, abo

ve a

nd le

ft, w

asst

rong

, sta

ble,

and

eas

y to

fly

, mak

ing

it id

eal

for

reco

nnai

ssan

ce w

ork.

The

cra

fts

pilo

t,L

ieut

enan

t H.D

. Har

vey-

Kel

ley

was

the

firs

tB

riti

sh p

ilot t

o la

nd in

Fra

nce

afte

r th

eou

tbre

ak o

f w

ar.

Sold

ier

rest

s on

inte

rnal

ste

p-la

dder

whi

le lo

okin

g th

roug

hca

mou

flage

d sp

y-ho

le

Art

ifici

al t

ree

was

an

exac

tre

plic

a of

the

rea

ltr

ee it

rep

lace

d

Obs

erva

tion

and

patr

ol

CO

MPA

SS

BE

AR

ING

SA

nigh

t pat

rol c

ould

eas

ily g

et lo

stin

no-

man

s-l

and

bec

ause

obv

ious

feat

ures

of

the

land

scap

e, s

uch

as la

nes,

woo

ds,

fie

lds,

and

even

hill

s ha

d a

ll be

en b

low

naw

ay. A

refl

ecti

ve c

ompa

ssw

as th

eref

ore

esse

ntia

l if

the

patr

ol w

as to

navi

gate

saf

ely

and

get b

ack

aliv

e to

its

own

tren

ch b

efor

ed

aybr

eak.

Twin

-pro

pelle

ren

gine

Solid

whe

els

Twin

-sea

ter

cock

pit

Gla

ss fr

ont

Mot

her-

of-p

earl

face

to

catc

h th

e lig

ht

Roy

al A

ircr

aft F

acto

ryB

lri

ot E

xper

imen

tal (

BE

)2a

used

for

rec

onna

issa

nce

and

ligh

t bom

bing

Leat

her

case

Can

vas

win

g ov

erw

oode

n fr

ame

Ger

man

ster

eosc

opic

peri

scop

e

GA

TH

ER

ING

INT

EL

LIG

EN

CE

AB

OU

Tth

e en

emy

is o

f gr

eat i

mpo

rtan

ce d

urin

g w

ar, b

ecau

se

that

info

rmat

ion

can

be u

sed

to m

ount

a

succ

essf

ul a

ttac

k or

rep

el a

n en

emy

adva

nce.

Int

erro

gati

ng p

riso

ners

was

a v

ery

succ

essf

ul m

etho

d o

f ga

ther

ing

info

rmat

ion.

Ad

dit

iona

lly, a

long

the

Wes

tern

Fro

nt, b

oth

sid

es w

ere

inge

niou

s in

dev

isin

g ne

w m

etho

ds

to g

athe

r in

telli

genc

e. N

ight

-tim

e pa

trol

s pr

obed

the

stre

ngth

s an

d w

eakn

esse

s of

ene

my

lines

. Thi

sw

as h

azar

dou

s w

ork,

as

it m

eant

cro

ssin

g ro

ws

ofba

rbed

-wir

e en

tang

lem

ents

and

per

haps

dis

turb

ing

an u

nexp

lod

ed s

hell

or a

ttra

ctin

g en

emy

gunf

ire.

Obs

erva

tion

turr

ets

and

peri

scop

es w

ere

also

used

. Air

craf

t bec

ame

incr

easi

ngly

pop

ular

sin

ceth

ey c

ould

fly

vir

tual

lyun

hind

ered

ove

r th

e en

emy,

obse

rve

thei

r tr

ench

es a

nd g

unem

plac

emen

ts, a

nd p

hoto

grap

hth

e fr

ont l

ine.

Thi

s in

form

atio

nco

uld

then

be

used

to p

rod

uce

map

s of

the

enem

y lin

es.

25

SIL

EN

T P

OS

TS

The

fir

st b

arbe

d-w

ire

enta

ngle

men

ts w

ere

stru

ng a

long

woo

den

pos

ts k

nock

ed in

toth

e gr

ound

wit

h m

alle

ts. T

he n

oise

of

stri

king

mal

lets

oft

en a

ttra

cted

ene

my

fire

,so

met

al p

icqu

ets

wer

e so

on u

sed

by

the

Alli

es. T

he p

icqu

ets

wer

e sc

rew

edsi

lent

ly in

to th

e gr

ound

and

rol

ls o

fba

rbed

-wir

e w

ere

hung

on

the

loop

s.Bri

tish

w

ire

cutt

ers

Scre

w s

ecur

edpi

cque

t in

th

e gr

ound

BIR

DS

EY

E V

IEW

Bot

h si

des

con

stru

cted

art

ific

ial

tree

s as

an

arti

llery

obs

erva

tion

post

to d

irec

t fir

e at

the

enem

y.

Aso

ldie

r cl

ambe

red

up

a la

dd

erin

sid

e th

e tr

ee a

nd p

eere

d w

ith

bino

cula

rs a

t the

ene

my

lines

thro

ugh

a sp

y-ho

le in

the

sid

e of

the

trun

k. T

he s

old

ier

pass

ed o

nw

hat h

e sa

w to

a s

econ

d s

old

ier

at th

e ba

se o

f th

e po

st. T

hefo

rwar

d o

bser

vati

on o

ffic

er th

enre

laye

d d

irec

tion

s by

tele

phon

e to

an

arti

llery

bat

tery

beh

ind

the

lines

. Thi

s in

form

atio

n en

able

dth

e ar

tille

ry b

atte

ry to

dir

ect i

tsfi

re a

t the

ene

my

mor

e ac

cura

tely

than

bef

ore.

The

rec

reat

ion,

ri

ght,

is a

t Lon

don

s I

mpe

rial

W

ar M

useu

m.

Bri

tish

dou

ble-

stra

nd b

arbe

dw

ire

Loop

s at

var

ying

heig

hts

to h

ang

barb

ed-w

ire

enta

ngle

men

ts o

n

AL

ON

G T

HE

WIR

ET

he tr

ench

es a

long

the

Wes

tern

Fron

t wer

e pr

otec

ted

by

row

s of

bar

bed

-wir

e en

tang

lem

ents

.Pa

trol

s w

ent o

ut a

t nig

ht to

repa

ir e

ntan

glem

ents

and

tore

conn

oitr

e en

emy

lines

. If

an a

ssau

lt w

as p

lann

ed f

or th

ene

xt d

ay, p

atro

ls c

lear

ed a

pat

hth

roug

h th

e en

tang

lem

ents

toal

low

thei

r in

fant

ry u

nhin

der

edac

cess

to th

e en

emy

s fr

ont l

ine.

Ger

man

wir

e cu

tter

s

PE

RIS

CO

PE

SSo

ldie

rs lo

okin

g at

the

enem

y ov

er th

e to

p of

atr

ench

ris

ked

bei

ng s

hot

at. A

s a

resu

lt, b

oth

sid

esd

evel

oped

sop

hist

icat

edpe

risc

opes

. The

Bri

tish

als

oad

apte

d a

rif

le f

or u

se in

the

tren

ches

. Tw

o m

irro

rs w

ere

atta

ched

to th

e ri

fle

so, w

hile

held

upr

ight

, the

sol

die

rco

uld

use

it a

s a

peri

scop

e.

Bri

tish

O

cent

ric

rifl

e pe

risc

ope

Mir

ror

tovi

ew e

nem

ypo

siti

on

Adj

usta

ble

eye

piec

es

Ger

man

sing

le-s

tran

dba

rbed

wir

e

26

BombardmentARTILLERY DOMINATED the battlefields ofWorld War I. A well-aimed bombardment could destroy enemy trenches, and knock out artillery batteries and communication lines. It could also help break up an infantryattack. But as defensive positions strengthened,artillery bombardments became longer andmore intense. New tactics were required tobreak down enemy lines. The most effective was the creeping barrage, which rained down a moving curtain of heavy and insistent fire just ahead of attacking infantry.

BEWARE!Soldiers at the front neededconstant reminders to keeptheir heads down as they wereso used to shells flying past.Warning signs were common.

Breastplate

Articulatedplates to cover

lower body

HIDING THE GUNTwo main types of artillerywere used during the war light field artillery, pulledby horses, and heavierguns, such as howitzers,moved by tractor and setup on reinforced beds.Once in place, artillerypieces were camouflagedto conceal them from the enemy.

British 8-in (20-cm)Mark V howitzer

SHELL POWERThe huge number of

shells needed to maintain a constant artillery barrage

against the enemy can beseen in this photograph of a British shell dump

behind the Western Front.

GERMAN ARMOURIn January 1916 the German army replacedits distinctive spikedPickelhaube with a rounded steel helmet. Body armour was first issued in 1916 to machine gunners.

Helmet

SIGHT SAVERIn 191617 a chain-mail visorwas added to the basic Britishhelmet to protect the eyes. Visorswere soon removed as they weredifficult to see through.

Visor for extraprotection

27

LOADING A HOWITZERLarge pieces of artillery required a teamof experienced gunners to load and firethem. This British 15-in (38-cm)howitzer was used on the MeninRoad near Ypres in October 1917.The huge shell on the left ofthe picture is too largeand heavy to lift, so itis being winchedinto position.

CLASSIFYING SHELLSShells were classified by weight or diameter. High-explosiveshells exploded on impact. Anti-personnel shrapnel shellsexploded in flight and were designed to kill or maim.

German 15-cm (5.9-in)shrapnel shell

British 4.5-in(11.4-cm) high-explosive shell

French 75-mm(2.9-in)

shrapnelshell

British 13-pounder(5.9-kg) high-

explosive shell

EXPLOSION!The devasting impact of artilleryfire can be seen in this dramaticpicture of a British tank hit by a shell and bursting into flames. To its right, another tank breaksthrough the barbed wire. It was unusual for moving targets,such as tanks, to be hit, and mostartillery fire was used to soften upthe enemy lines before an attack.

Fired froma howitzer

Over the top

Water-cooledbarrel

Tripodmounting

British .303-in (7.7-mm)Maxim Mark 3 medium

machine gun

QUICK FIRINGMachine guns fired up to 600 bullets a minute.Ammunition was fittedinto a fabric or metal-link belt, or in a metaltray fed into the gunautomatically. The gunbarrel was surroundedwith a cold-water jacketto cool it.

Steel water jacketto cool gun barrel

Disc is part of theflash hider assembly,making the gunharder to spot

IN ACTIONThis German machine-gun crew isprotecting the flank (side) of an advancinginfantry troop on the Western Front. Thereliability and firepower of machine gunsmade them effective weapons. Also, theirsmall size and manoeuvrability made them difficult for the enemy to destroy.

ONCE THE ARTILLERY bombardment had poundedthe enemys defences, the infantry climbed out of their trenches and advanced towards enemy lines. The advance was very dangerous. Artillerybombardments rarely knocked out every enemydefence. Often, many gun emplacements andbarbed-wire fences were still intact. Gaps in the defensive line were filled by highly mobilemachine-gunners. Against them, a soldier armedwith only a rifle and bayonet and laden withheavy equipment was an easy target. On the first day of the Battle of the Somme in July 1916,German machine-gun fire accounted for twoBritish soldiers killed or injured along eachmetre (three feet) of the 28-km(16-mile) front.

German MG08 Maxim

machine gun

LEAVING THE TRENCHThe most frightening moment

for a soldier was scrambling upa ladder out of his trench and

into no-mans-land. Few men knew the horrors

that awaited them.

Trenchmounting

FUTILE ATTACKThe Battle of the Somme lasted

from 1 July 1916 until 18November, when snowstorms

and rain brought the attack to amuddy halt. The Allies capturedabout 125 sq km (48 sq miles) ofland, but failed to break through

the German lines, reducing much of the area to a desolatewasteland. The Germans had

been on the Somme since 1914, soknew the terrain well. The British

belonged to Kitcheners newarmy. Young and inexperienced,this was the first battle many of

them had fought in.

Below: Soldiers of the 103rd(Tyneside Irish) Brigade attack

La Boisselle on the first day of the Somme

TENDING THE WOUNDEDThe cramped conditions in a trench

can be seen in this picture of an armymedical officer tending a wounded

soldier at Thiepval near the Somme inSeptember 1916. Movement along atrench was often difficult and slow.

First day on the Somme The Allies planned to break through the German lines north of the River Somme, France, in 1916. On 24 June, the British

began a six-day artillery bombardment on German lines, butthe Germans retreated into deep bunkers and were largelyunharmed. As the British infantry advanced at 7.30 am on

1 July, German machine gunners emerged from their bunkersand opened fire. Believing the artillery bombardment had

destroyed German lines, the infantry marched in long, slowwaves towards the enemy who literally mowed them down.

The sunkenroad ... (was) ...filled with pieces

of uniform,weapons, anddead bodies.

LIEUTENANT ERNST JUNGER,GERMAN SOLDIER, THE SOMME, 1916

30

Casualty NO-ONE KNOWS how many soldiers were wounded in the war, but a possible figure is 21 million. Caringfor casualties was a major military operation. Theywere first treated at regimental aid posts in thetrenches. Then, they were taken to casualty clearingstations behind the front line. Here, they receivedproper medical attention and basic surgery, if required,before being transported to base hospitals still furtherfrom the front. Soldiers with severe injuries went hometo recover in convalescent hospitals. Over 78% ofBritish soldiers on the Western Front returned to activeservice. Sickness was a major cause of casualty inMesopotamia over 50% of deaths were due to disease.

LUCKY MANDespite a splinterfrom a shell piercinghis helmet, this soldierescaped with only aminor head wound.Many soldiers werenot so fortunate,receiving severeinjuries that stayedwith them for life ifthey survived at all.

Inventorylistingcontents andwhere to findthem in thepouch

Bottles of liquidantisepticsand pain-killers

THE GERMAN KITGerman Sanittsmannschaften (medicalorderlies) carried two first-aid poucheson their belts. The pouch on the right(above) contained basic antiseptics,pain-killers, and other treatments,while the pouch on the leftcontained dressings andtriangular bandages.

Germanbandages

TRENCH AIDInjured soldiers had their wounds

dressed by medical orderlies in thetrench where they fell. They were then

transferred to the regimental aid post, where their injuries

could be assessed.Strip oflace curtain

RECYCLED BANDAGESFollowing the naval blockade by Britain,Germany ran out of cotton and linen.Wood fibre, paper, and lace curtainswere used to make bandages instead.

31

AMBULANCEThe British Royal ArmyMedical Corps, like itsGerman counterpart, had a fleet of field ambulancesto carry the wounded tohospital. Many of theseambulances were staffedby volunteers, oftenwomen, and those fromnon-combatant countriessuch as the USA.

THE FIELD HOSPITALFarmhouses, ruined factories, and even bombed-out churches, such as this

one in Meuse, France, were used as casualty clearing stations to treat thewounded. Care was basic, and many were left to help themselves.

Forceps andclamps heldsecurely in ametal tray

Bunks for the injuredto lie on

Shellshock Shellshock is the collective name that was used to describeconcussion, emotional shock, nervous exhaustion, and othersimilar ailments. Shellshock was not identified before World War I,but trench warfare was so horrific that large numbers of soldiersdeveloped symptoms. Most of them eventually recovered, butsome suffered nightmares and other effects for the rest of theirlives. The condition caused great controversy, and in 1922 theBritish War Office Committee announced that shellshock didnot exist and was a collection of already known illnesses.

A medicalorderly helps a

wounded soldieraway from the

trenches

Red Cross symbol to signify non-combatant status of the ambulance

TOOLS OF THE TRADEArmy doctors carried a standard set of

surgical instruments, as in this set issued bythe Indian army. Their skills were in greatdemand, as they faced a wide variety ofinjuries from bullets and shell fragments that required immediate attention.

Lower traycontains sawsand knives foramputation

32

Women at warWHEN THE MEN went off to fight, the women were called upon totake their place. Many women were already in work, but their rolewas restricted to domestic labour, nursing, teaching, agricultural workon the family smallholding, and a few other jobs considered suitablefor women. Now they went to work in factories, drove trucks andambulances, and did almost everything that only men had done

before. Many working womenleft their low-paid, low-statusjobs for higher-paid work in munitions and other

industries, achieving a new status in the eyes of

society. Such gains, however,were short-lived, as most

women returned to the homewhen the war ended.

FRONT-LINE ADVENTUREFor some women, the war was abig adventure. English nurse ElsieKnocker (above) went to Belgiumin 1914 where she was joined byScottish Mairi Chisholm. Thewomen set up a dressing station atPervyse, Belgium, and dressed thewounded until both were gassed in1918. They were almost the onlywomen on the front line. The twobecame known as the Women ofPervyse and were awarded theOrder of Leopold by Belgian KingAlbert, and the British MilitaryMedal. Elsie later married aBelgian officer, Baron de TSercles.

ARMY LAUNDRYTraditional pre-war womens work, such asworking in a laundry or bakery, continuedduring the war on a much larger scale.The French women employed at thisBritish Army laundry at Prevent,France in 1918 were washing andcleaning the dirty clothes of manythousands of soldiers every day.

QUEEN MARYS AUXILIARYFew women actually fought in

the war, but many were enlistedinto auxiliary armies so that men

could be released to fight on thefront line. They drove trucks,

mended engines, and did much of thenecessary administration and supply work.

In Britain, many women joined The Womens(later Queen Marys) Army Auxiliary Corps,whose recruiting poster featured a khaki-cladwoman (left) with the words The girl behindthe man behind the gun. The women remainedcivilians, despite their military work.

33

WOMENS LAND ARMYThe war required a huge increase in food production at home as both sidestried to restrict the enemys imports of food from abroad. In Britain, 113,000women joined the Womens Land Army, set up in February 1917 to provide a well-paid female workforce to run the farms. Many members of the LandArmy, such as this group of healthy looking women, came from the middleand upper classes. They made a valuable contribution, but their numberswere insignificant compared with the millions of working-class womenalready employed on the land in the rest of Europe.

SUPPORT YOUR COUNTRYImages of ideal women were used to gain support for acountrys war effort. This Russian poster urges people tobuy war bonds (fund-raising loans to the government) bylinking Russian women to the love of the motherland.

WORKING IN POVERTYThe war brought increased status and

wealth to many women but this was not the case everywhere. These Italian

women worked in terrible conditions in amunitions factory. Many were very youngand could not even afford shoes. This was

common in factories across Italy, Germany,and Russia. The women worked long, hard

hours but earned barely enough to feedtheir families. Strikes led by women

were very common as a result.

MEMENTOS FROM HOMEWomen kept in contact with their absenthusbands, brothers, and sons by writingletters to them at the front. They alsoenclosed keepsakes, such as photographsor pressed flowers, to reassure the men thatall was well in their absence and to remindthem of home. Such letters and mementosdid much to keep up the morale ofhomesick and often very frightened men.

RUSSIAS AMAZONSA number of Russian women joined the Legion of Death to fight for their country. The first battalion from Petrograd (St Petersburg)distinguished itself by taking more than 100 German prisoners during a Russian retreat, although many of the women died in the battle.

Letters to men at thefront describing events

at home

Lace handkerchief

Familyphotographs

34

SOPWITH CAMELThe Sopwith F1 Camel first flew in battle in June 1917 and becamethe most successful Alliedfighter in shootingdown German aircraft.Pilots enjoyed flyingthe Camel because ofits exceptional agility andability to make sharp turnsat high speed.

War in the airWHEN WAR BROKE OUT in August 1914, the history ofpowered flight was barely 10 years old. Aircraft had fought brieflyin the ItalianTurkish war of 1911, but early aircraft development hadbeen almost entirely for civilian use. Some military leaders could noteven see how aircraft could be used in war but they soon changedtheir minds. The first warplanes flew as reconnaissance craft,looking down on enemy lines or helping to direct artillery fire

with great precision. Enemy pilots tried to shoot them down,leading to dogfights in the sky between highly skilled and

immensely brave aces. Specialized fighter planes, suchas the Sopwith Camel and the German Fokker line, weresoon produced by both sides, as were sturdier craft

capable of carrying bombs to drop on enemy targets. By the end of the war, the role of military aircraft had changed from being a minor help to the ground

forces into a major force in their own right.

DRESSED FOR THE AIRPilots flew in opencockpits, so theywore soft leathercoats and balaclavas,sheepskin-lined furboots, and sheepskin-lined leather gloves tokeep out the cold. Laterin the war, one-piecesuits of waxed cottonlined with silk and furbecame common.

8.2-m (26-ft 11-in)wingspan

Pouch to keep maps in

Sheepskin-linedleather gloves toprotect againstfrostbite

Coat of soft,supple leather

Turned-upcollar to keep

neck warm

DOGFIGHTSPilots engaged indogfights with enemyaircraft above the WesternFront. Guns weremounted on top of thecraft, so pilots had tofly straight at theenemy to shoot.

Anti-splinter glass goggles

Leather face mask

Leather balaclava

Fins to stopthe bomb fromspinning on its descent

Perforated casingto help bomb catchfire on impact

British Carcassincendiary

bomb

Wooden box-structurewings coveredwith canvas

Sheepskin boots

Thick sole togive a good grip

Propeller to guidethe bomb

British 9.1-kg(20-lb) Marten

Hale bomb,containing 2 kg (4.5 lb)

of explosives

BOMBS AWAYThe first bombs were literally droppedover the side of the aircraft by the pilot.Specialized bomber aircraft soonappeared, equipped with bombsights,bomb racks beneath the fuselage,and release systems operatedby the pilot or anothercrew member.

MANOEUVRESThe art of aerial warfarewas unknown to pilots atthe start of the war andhad to be learned fromscratch. This Britishinstruction poster showsthe correct method ofattacking a Germanfighter, althoughtheory on theground was no substitute for actualexperience in the sky.

35

ANTI-AIRCRAFT GUNSThe first anti-aircraft guns,such as this British QF 1-pounder, were originallyinstalled on ships to fire

at torpedo boats. Onceadapted for high-angleshooting, they becameuseful anti-aircraftguns on land.

GERMAN FIGHTERThe formidable German Fokker DVIIappeared in April 1918. Althoughslower than the Sopwith Camel, itclimbed rapidly, recovered quicklyfrom a dive, and flew well atall altitudes.

AIR ACESTo qualify as an air ace, a pilot had to bringdown at least 10 enemy aircraft. Those whodid became national heroes. Baron vonRichthofen the Red Baron was thehighest-scoring ace of the war, shooting down80 Allied aircraft. The British ace, CaptainAlbert Ball, had more decorations for braverythan any other man of his age, including theVictoria Cross; he was only 20 when he wasshot down and killed in 1917.

Wooden struts

Captain EddieRickenbacker(USA) 24 13

hits (18901973)

Captain Albert Ball(Britain) 44 hits

(18961917)

Rittmeister Manfredvon Richthofen

(Germany), centre 80 hits (18921918)

Captain RenFonck (France)

75 hits(18941953)

Symbol of British RoyalFlying Corps, later the Royal Air Force

Barrel couldfire 1-pound(453.6-g) shell

Pivot to changedirection andangle of gun

"You ask me to letthe devils have it ...

when I fight ... I dontthink them devils ... I only scrap because

it is my duty."CAPTAIN ALBERT BALL, 1916

Germanaircraft holds a steady course

British fightercomes up frombelow andbehind

Fokker DV11

Side cutaway toshow internalsteel-tubingframework

BMW engine

36

ZeppelinIN THE SPRING OF 1915, the first Germanairships appeared in Britains night sky. Thesight of these huge, slow-moving machinescaused enormous panic at any moment ahail of bombs could fall from the airship. Yet in reality, airships played little part in the war. The first airship was designed by the German Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin in 1900. Airships are often called zeppelins,but technically only those designed by himshould bear the name. Early in the war,airships could fly higher than planes, so itwas almost impossible to shoot them down.This made them useful for bombing raids. But soon, higher flying aircraft and the use ofincendiary (fire-making) bullets brought theseaerial bombers down to earth. By 1917, mostGerman and British airships were restricted to reconnaissance work at sea.

GETTING BIGGERThis L3 German airshiptook part in the firstairship raid on Britainon the night of 1920January 1915, causing 20 civilian casualties.Eyewitnesses werescared by its size, but by 1918 Germany wasproducing ships almostthree times as big.

INSIDE THE GONDOLAThe crew operated the airship from the gondola a spacious cabinbelow the main airship. The gondola had open sides, so the crewhad little protection from the weather.

BOMBS AWAY!Crews in the first airshipshad to drops their bombs,such as this incendiarybomb, over the side of thegondola by hand. Latermodels had automaticrelease mechanisms.

Fuel tank Gondola

German incendiary bombdropped by Zeppelin LZ38

on London, 31 May 1915

CAPITAL TARGETThe first German airship raid on London tookplace on 31 May 1915, and was followed by a more powerful attack on 8 September. Theartist R. Schmidt from Hamburg recorded onesuch night raid. In total, there were 51 airshipattacks on British cities. They dropped 196 tons(2,000 kg) of bombs, killing 557 people andwounding 1,358.

HIGH ABOVE THE SEASThe British used airshipschiefly to patrol the seaslooking for German U-boats.The machine gunnerprotected the crew and shipagainst an enemy fighter,while other crew memberswere on look-out. These twocrew members are perchingon a flimsy gantry mountedto the side of the gondolastrung beneath the airship.

SEA SCOUT ZEROThe British SSZ (Sea Scout Zero) was firstintroduced into service in 1916. It was a non-rigid airship, meaning it had no internalframework. Its light weight gave it animpressive top speed of 72 km/h (45 mph)and it could stay airborne for 17 hours. Its crew of three were employed mainly on submarine patrol or on escort duty for convoys.

Gantry

Lewis gunner

The engine gantry waslinked to the gondola

by a rope ladder

Float in case airshiplanded on sea

Engine andpropeller toprovide powerand steer airship

Observer

Stabilizer

Emblem of BritishRoyal Naval AirService

38

War at seaSINCE THE LAUNCH OF Britains Dreadnoughtbattleship in 1906, Britain, Germany, and othercountries had engaged in a massive navalbuilding programme. Yet the war itself wasfought largely on land and both sides avoidednaval conflict. The British needed their fleet tokeep the seas open for merchant ships bringingfood and other supplies to Britain, as well as toprevent supplies reaching Germany. Germanyneeded its fleet to protect itself against possibleinvasion. The only major sea battle offDanish Jutland in the North Sea in 1916 wasinconclusive. The main fight took place underthe sea, as German U-boats waged a damaging

war against Allied merchant andtroop ships in an effort to forceBritain out of the war.

CONSTANT THREATThis German propaganda poster, The U-boatsare out!, shows the threat posed to Alliedshipping by the German U-boat fleet.

SUCCESS AND FAILUREGerman U-boats operated both underthe sea and on the surface. Here, thecrew is opening fire with a deckcannon to stop an enemy steamer.German U-boats sank 5,554 Allied and neutral merchant ships as well as many warships. Their own losses,however, were also considerable. Outof a total fleet of 372 German U-boats,178 were destroyed by Allied bombs or torpedoes.

Gun

LIFE INSIDE A U-BOATConditions inside a U-boat werecramped and uncomfortable. Fumesand heat from the engine and poorventilation made the air very stuffy.The crew had to navigate their craft through minefields, and avoiddetection from reconnaissance aircraft,in order to attack enemy ships.

I WANT YOUWhen the USA enteredthe war in April 1917, a poster showing anattractive woman innaval uniform (above)urged volunteers to enlist.

LAND AND SEASeaplanes are able to take off and land

on both water and ground. They were used for reconnaissance and

bombing work. This version of theShort 184 was the first seaplane

to sink an enemy ship with a torpedo.

Observationballoon

Floats forlanding onwater

39

Medalsawarded to

Jack Cornwall

Flight deck

THE BRITISH GRAND FLEETThe British Royal Navy was the

biggest and most powerful in theworld. It operated a policy known as the two-power standard thecombined might of the British fleetshould be the equal of the two next

strongest nations combined. Despitethis superiority, the navy played a

fairly minor role in the war comparedwith the army, keeping the seas free of

German ships and escorting convoysof merchant ships to Britain.

DAZZLEDDuring the war, many artistscontributed to their countrys wareffort, some in surprising ways. Themodern British painter EdwardWadsworth supervised the applicationof dazzle camouflage to ships hulls.He later painted a picture (above),Dazzle ships in dry dock at Liverpool,showing the finished result.

BOY (1ST CLASS) John Travers Cornwall was only 16 when he first

saw action at the Battle of Jutland on 31 May 1916. He was a ships boy (1st class) aboard HMS Chester and

was mortally wounded early in the battle. While othercrew members lay dead or injured, Cornwall stayed at his post until the end of the action. He died of his wounds on

2 June and was posthumously awarded the Victoria Cross.

CONFUSE AND SURVIVEIn 1917 the British Admiralty began tocamouflage merchant ships with strange and garish designs.These grey, black, and blue geometric patterns distorted thesilhouette of the ship and made it difficult for German U-boatsto determine its course and thus aim torpedoes at it with anyaccuracy. More than 2,700 merchant ships and 400 convoyescorts were camouflaged in this way before the war ended.

HMS FURIOUSAircraft carriers firstsaw service during WorldWar I. On 7 July 1918, sevenSopwith Camels took off from the deck of HMS Furious to attackthe zeppelin base at Tondern innorthern Germany, destroying bothsheds and the two Zeppelins inside.

VictoriaCross (VC)

BritishWar

Medal

VictoryMedal

THE CASUALTY RATEDespite the efforts of the medical staff, some of whomeven carried portable surgical kits, the treatment andevacuation of casualties from Gallipoli was complicatedby the enormous numbers of soldiers who were sick, aswell as those who were wounded.

IN EARLY 1915 the Allies decided toforce through the strategic, but heavilyfortified, Dardanelles straits andcapture the Ottoman Turkish capital of Constantinople. Naval attacks on 19 February and 18 March both failed.On 25 April, British, Australian, andNew Zealand troops landed on the

Gallipoli peninsula, while French troops staged adiversion to their south. In August, there was a secondlanding at Suvla Bay, also on the peninsula. Although thelandings were a success, the casualty rate was high andthe Allies were unable to move far from the beaches dueto fierce Turkish resistance. As the months wore on, thedeath rate mounted. The Allies eventually withdrew inJanuary 1916, leaving the Ottoman Empire still in controlof the Dardanelles and still in the war.

40

Gallipoli

GALLIPOLI PENINSULAThe Gallipoli peninsula lies to the north of theDardanelles, a narrow waterway connecting the AegeanSea to the Black Sea via the Sea of Marmara. Control ofthis waterway would have given Britain and France adirect sea route from the Mediterranean to the Black Seaand their ally, Russia. But both sides of the waterwaywere controlled by Germanys ally, the Ottoman Empire.

TASTY GREETINGSBritish army biscuits wereoften easier to write onthan to eat, as this hard-baked Christmas cardfrom Gallipoli illustrates.

IMPROVISED GRENADESThe fighting at Gallipoli

was often at very closerange. Hand-thrown

grenades were particularlyeffective in knocking out

enemy positions. During amunitions shortage, Allied

troops improvised bymaking grenades out

of jam tins.

Gallipolipeninsula

BlackSea

Sea ofMarmara

MediterraneanSea

Dardanellesstraits

AegeanSea

CRETE

GREECE

OTTOMANEMPIRE

Privately purchased medical kit usedby a British officer on the front line

Jetty for boatscarrying sick andwounded soldiers

Scissors Tweezers

Pouch

Scalpel

Hypodermicneedles

GERMAN HELPThe Allies expected theGallipoli peninsula to be lightlydefended, but with the helpof Germany, the Turks hadbuilt strong defensivepositions. They dug trenches,erected barbed-wire fences, andbuilt well-guarded artillerypositions. Germany alsoequipped the Turks withmodern pistols, rifles,and machine guns.

THE SICK BEACHBoth sides had their food contaminated by flies carrying diseasefrom the many corpses. Dysentery was endemic in September1915, 78% of the Anzac troops in the No. 1 Australian StationaryHospital at Anzac Cove (above) were being treated for the disease.

41

Narrow beach unprotectedagainst Turkish fire

Turkish defences lookdown on beach

ANZAC MEMORIALDuring the war, both Australia andNew Zealand suffered large numbersof deaths in proportion to their smallpopulations. Australia lost 60,000 menfrom a population of less than fivemillion. New Zealand lost 17,000 froma population of one million. Of those,11,100 died at Gallipoli. Today,Australia and New Zealand remembertheir war dead on Anzac Day, 25 April.

FOR DISTINCTIONThe Turkish Order of the Crescentwas instituted on 1 March 1915 for distinguished service. It wasawarded to German and Turkishsoldiers who fought at Gallipoli.

British soldiers evacuated by raftfrom Suvla Bay, 19 December 1915

Large horse-drawn gun

Many soldiers weresuffering from frostbite

WINTER EVACUATIONOn 7 December 1915, the Allies decided to withdrawfrom Gallipoli. A flotilla of ships evacuated thetroops and their supplies. Unlike the chaos andcarnage of the previous six months, the withdrawalsunder the cover of darkness went without a hitchand not a single person was injured. British andAnzac forces withdrew from Anzac and Suvla on thenight of 1819 December, with the rest of the Britishforces at Cape Helles following on 89 January 1916.

ANZAC COVEOn 25 April, the Australian and NewZealand Army Corps, known as the Anzacs,landed on the western coast of the Gallipolipeninsula. All hopes of swiftly capturing thepeninsula were thwarted by the unyieldingterrain. The beach was very narrow and thesteep, sandy hills gave the men no cover.They were under constant fire from thewell-hidden Ottoman Turks above. Thebeach is now known as Anzac Cove as a sign of remembrance.

KEMAL ATATURKBorn in 1881, Mustafa Kemaldistinguished himself fighting for the Ottoman Turkish army in Libya in 1911 and against the Bulgarians in 191213. At Gallipoli, Kemal wasappointed divisional commanderwhere he helped to strengthen theOttoman Turkish defences. Kemalthen brilliantly led the 19th Divisionon the ridges above AnzacCove, preventing the Alliesfrom penetrating inland.After the war, Kemal led a revolt to prevent thedismemberment of Turkey.In 1923 he became the firstpresident of the TurkishRepublic, later gaining the name Atatrk (Father of the Turks).

Sultans Cypher with the year 1333in the Muslim calendar, which is

1915 in the Western calendar

Hyde ParkMemorial,

Sydney,Australia

42

VerdunON 21 FEBRUARY 1916, Germany launched a massive attackagainst Verdun, a fortified French city. Verdun lay close to theGerman border and controlled access into eastern France. After a huge, eight-hour artillery bombardment, the German infantryadvanced. The French were caught by surprise and lost control ofsome of their main forts, but during the summer their resistancestiffened. By December, the Germans had been pushed backalmost to where theystarted. The cost to bothsides was enormous over 400,000 Frenchcasualties and 336,831German casualties. The German GeneralFalkenhayn later claimedhe had tried to bleedFrance to death. He did not succeed and,including losses at theBattle of the Somme,German casualties thatyear were 774,153.

BURNING WRECKAGEOn 25 February, the ancient city of Verdunwas evacuated. Many buildings were hit bythe artillery bombardment, and even moredestroyed by the fires that raged often fordays. Firefighters did their best to controlthe blazes, but large numbers of houseshad wooden frames and burned easily.

FORT DOUAUMONTVerdun was protected by three rings of fortifications. FortDouaumont, in the outer ring, was the strongest of theseforts. It was built of steel and concrete and surrounded byramparts, ditches, and rolls of barbed wire. But althoughthe fort itself was strong, it was defended by just 56 elderlyreservists. The fort fell to the Germans on 25 February.

LE POILUThe French slang for aninfantry soldier was le poilu,or hairy one. Les poilusbore the brunt of theGerman attack, enduringthe muddy, cold, and wetconditions and sufferingdreadful injuries fromshellfire and poison gas.

GENERAL PETAINGeneral Henri-Philippe Ptaintook command of the Frenchforces of Verdun on 25February, the same day as theloss of Fort Douaumont. Heorganized an effective defenceof the town and made sure

the army was properlysupplied. His rallying cry,

"Ils ne passeront pas!"(They shall not pass!),

did much to raiseFrench morale.

Machine-gun postExposed concrete

fort wall

Haversack

Horizon-blueuniform

Double-breastedgreatcoat

Lebel rifle

Steel helmet

Thick boots withputtees wrappedaround the legs

Background picture: Ruined Verdun cityscape, 1915

43

SURROUNDING VILLAGESThe village of Ornes was one ofmany French villages attacked andcaptured during the German advanceon Verdun. The devastation was sogreat that this village, along witheight others, was not rebuilt after thewar, but is still marked on maps as asign of remembrance.

LEGI