2.1.1.Basics of Ecosystem Analysis

Disturbance Disturbance and and

ResilienceResilience

KristinaKristina BoeckhBoeckh

OBJECTIVESOBJECTIVES

To understand different definitions of To understand different definitions of disturbance and resilience.disturbance and resilience.To be familiar with different examples of To be familiar with different examples of the two terms.the two terms.To learn about the interconnection To learn about the interconnection between the two concepts. between the two concepts. To recognize the importance of the To recognize the importance of the concepts in terms of ecology and their concepts in terms of ecology and their incorporation into management. incorporation into management.

OUTLINEOUTLINEDefinitions

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If we don’t live within natures limits, things can go wrong.....

Ultimately benefits we gain from the environment depend on our ability to live in a sustainable way.

Definitions Disturbance:Definitions Disturbance:Disturbances are abrupt events that can drastically Disturbances are abrupt events that can drastically changechangeecosystem characteristics (Begon, ecosystem characteristics (Begon, et al.et al.1996). The 1996). The changes that occur as a result of disturbance, might be: changes that occur as a result of disturbance, might be: 1.)The 1.)The number or kindnumber or kind of species (e.g.generalists vs. of species (e.g.generalists vs. specialists, r and K Selection). specialists, r and K Selection). 2.) The amount of available2.) The amount of available resourcesresources (e.g. light, (e.g. light, nutrients).nutrients).In community ecology, “an event that removes organisms In community ecology, “an event that removes organisms and opens up space, which can be colonized by individuals and opens up space, which can be colonized by individuals of the of the samesame or or differentdifferent species” (Begon species” (Begon et al. et al. 1996).1996).

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Definitions DisturbanceDefinitions DisturbanceSuccession:Succession: “The progression from initial colonization “The progression from initial colonization of an area by organisms to the climax system” (Hale of an area by organisms to the climax system” (Hale et et al.al.1995) . 1995) . e.g. Forest as climax community in Germany or e.g. Forest as climax community in Germany or Yellowstone NP.Yellowstone NP.

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Examples of DisturbanceExamples of DisturbanceSpatial and temporal differences:Spatial and temporal differences:

Small scale (cutting a tree) or large scale (water Small scale (cutting a tree) or large scale (water pollution).pollution).Episodic events (fire, mowing a meadow…)Episodic events (fire, mowing a meadow…)Stochastic events (storms, a tsunami, flooding…)Stochastic events (storms, a tsunami, flooding…)

Natural disturbance and human induced Natural disturbance and human induced disturbancedisturbance: i.e. Storms, fire, volcanic eruption, : i.e. Storms, fire, volcanic eruption, OR pollution, land clearing, grazing, mowing etc.OR pollution, land clearing, grazing, mowing etc.

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(Fig.1. McDowall, 1996)

How to measure/ study How to measure/ study DisturbanceDisturbance

Historical Research and long term Historical Research and long term observationsobservationsExperimentsExperimentsSurveys of current ecosystemsSurveys of current ecosystemsUse Indicators: Use Indicators:

E.g.: Net primary production in g/mE.g.: Net primary production in g/m22 dry dry weight.weight.

E.g.: NDVI Index for vegetation disturbance.E.g.: NDVI Index for vegetation disturbance.

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Definitions Resilience:Definitions Resilience:

Resilience is defined as the magnitude of Resilience is defined as the magnitude of disturbance that can be absorbed by the system disturbance that can be absorbed by the system ((HollingHolling, 1973). , 1973). The speed with which a community returns to its The speed with which a community returns to its former state after it has been disturbed (Begon former state after it has been disturbed (Begon et et al. al. 1996). 1996).

MODELS OF CHANGEMODELS OF CHANGEDefinitions

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Examples of ResilienceExamples of Resilience3 Characteristics 3 Characteristics (Harrison (Harrison et alet al., 2006):., 2006):

1.The amount of change the system can undergo 1.The amount of change the system can undergo and still retain the same controls on function and and still retain the same controls on function and structure.structure.2.The degree to which the system is capable of 2.The degree to which the system is capable of selfself--organization.organization.3.The ability to build and increase the capacity for 3.The ability to build and increase the capacity for learning and adaptations.learning and adaptations.

A resilient ecosystem A resilient ecosystem is one that maintains its is one that maintains its normal functioning (its normal functioning (its integrity), despite integrity), despite disturbance disturbance ((Redman Redman et al.et al.2000)2000)..

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Fig.2. Stability landscape of social-ecological systems

How to study ResilienceHow to study Resilience

It can be measured by “the It can be measured by “the effectiveness of the effectiveness of the reorganization functionreorganization functionof the system to balance of the system to balance the destruction” the destruction” ((HollingHolling, 1986), 1986)

OR the “speed of a system OR the “speed of a system to to return to its return to its equilibriumequilibrium after after disturbance” disturbance” ((PimmPimm, 1984)., 1984).

Use ofUse of indicatorsindicatorsData gaps and issuesData gaps and issues

TopicsTopics IndicatorsIndicatorsAtmosphereAtmosphere Ozone, Air Ozone, Air

quality, quality, Greenhouse Greenhouse GasesGases

OceansOceans Fish stocks, Fish stocks, coastal water coastal water qualityquality

LandLand Land use, Land use, degradation degradation of habitats, of habitats, land coverland cover

FreshwaterFreshwater Drinking Drinking water quality, water quality, river water river water qualityquality

BiodiversityBiodiversity Percentage Percentage loss of native loss of native plants and plants and animalsanimals

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(Table.1.(Table.1.N Z official Statistics Agency, 2006).N Z official Statistics Agency, 2006).

Why is it important to think about Why is it important to think about Disturbance ?Disturbance ?

MosaicMosaic-- Theory and Biodiversity:Theory and Biodiversity:Moderate levels of occasional disturbance can Moderate levels of occasional disturbance can influence biodiversity via influence biodiversity via (Harrison (Harrison et alet al. 2006):. 2006):

1.) increasing the species richness by creating 1.) increasing the species richness by creating spatial heterogeneity.spatial heterogeneity.

2.) by preventing certain species from dominating 2.) by preventing certain species from dominating the ecosystem. the ecosystem.

Different communities and species react Different communities and species react differentlydifferently..

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ReferencesHowever, if disturbance reaches a certain However, if disturbance reaches a certain

thresholdthreshold the system crashes.the system crashes.

Why is it important to think about Why is it important to think about Resilience?Resilience?

DiversityDiversity increases resilience.increases resilience.Resilience is a property of linked socialResilience is a property of linked social--ecological systems (ecological systems (SES).SES).Reduced resilience Reduced resilience increases increases the the vulnerabilityvulnerability of a system to smaller of a system to smaller disturbances that it could previously cope disturbances that it could previously cope with. with. When resilience is lost or decreased, a When resilience is lost or decreased, a system is at high risk of system is at high risk of shifting shifting into a into a qualitatively different qualitatively different statestate, which may be , which may be undesirable.undesirable.Restoring Restoring a system to it's previous state can a system to it's previous state can be complex, expensive, and sometimes even be complex, expensive, and sometimes even impossible impossible (Resilience Alliance, 2006).(Resilience Alliance, 2006).

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How are Disturbance and How are Disturbance and Resilience interrelated?Resilience interrelated?

The The amount of resilienceamount of resilience a system possesses a system possesses relates to the relates to the magnitude of disturbancemagnitude of disturbance required required to disrupt the system, causing a dramatic shift to to disrupt the system, causing a dramatic shift to another state, controlled by a different set of another state, controlled by a different set of processes processes (Resilience Alliance, 2006). (Resilience Alliance, 2006).

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Applications of the conceptsApplications of the concepts

1. Natural systems are 1. Natural systems are inherently resilient but just inherently resilient but just as their capacity to cope as their capacity to cope with disturbance can be with disturbance can be degraded, so can it be degraded, so can it be enhanced. enhanced.

2. The key to resilience in 2. The key to resilience in socialsocial--ecological systems is ecological systems is diversity. diversity.

3. Similarly, when the 3. Similarly, when the management of a resource management of a resource is shared by a diverse is shared by a diverse group of stakeholders.group of stakeholders.

4. Adaptive management4. Adaptive management

Fig.3. Analysis of resilience in social-ecological systems (Walker et al. 2002).

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•• HOW IS RESILIENCE ENHANCED?HOW IS RESILIENCE ENHANCED?

Applications of the conceptsApplications of the conceptsManagement Management for sustainability with the aims for sustainability with the aims (Imperial, 2005):(Imperial, 2005):

1.1. To prevent the system from moving to To prevent the system from moving to undesired states in the face of external undesired states in the face of external disturbance.disturbance.

2.2. To nurture and preserve the elements that To nurture and preserve the elements that enable the system to renew and reorganize enable the system to renew and reorganize itself following a massive change.itself following a massive change.Research groups have been established Research groups have been established e.g. e.g. The Resilience Alliance The Resilience Alliance But the topic requires more researchBut the topic requires more researchUncertaintyUncertainty

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ConclusionConclusionDisturbance and resilience are two Disturbance and resilience are two important ecological concepts important ecological concepts necessary to understand changing necessary to understand changing environments.environments.Concepts are never the whole truth Concepts are never the whole truth (unpredicatbility of the environment), (unpredicatbility of the environment), but helpful to study environmental but helpful to study environmental change.change.Have been incorporated into Have been incorporated into management concepts, due to being management concepts, due to being important for sustainable important for sustainable development.development.

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REFERENCESREFERENCESBegon, M., Harper, J., L. and Townsend, C., R. 1996. Begon, M., Harper, J., L. and Townsend, C., R. 1996. Ecology, Individuals, Ecology, Individuals, Populations and CommunitiesPopulations and Communities, p. 958, Blackwell Science Ltd., Australia., p. 958, Blackwell Science Ltd., Australia.Carpenter,S., B. Walker, J. M.Carpenter,S., B. Walker, J. M. AnderiesAnderies, and N. Abel. 2001. From metaphor , and N. Abel. 2001. From metaphor to measurement: Resilience of what to what? to measurement: Resilience of what to what? EcosystemsEcosystems 4:7654:765--781.781.Gunderson, L.H., C.S. Holling, L. Pritchard Jr., and G.D. PetersGunderson, L.H., C.S. Holling, L. Pritchard Jr., and G.D. Peterson. 2002. on. 2002. Resilience of large scale resource systems. Pages 3Resilience of large scale resource systems. Pages 3--20 in L.H. Gunderson, 20 in L.H. Gunderson, and L. Pritchard Jr., editors. and L. Pritchard Jr., editors. Resilience and behaviour of largeResilience and behaviour of large--scale scale systemssystems. Island Press, Washington, . Island Press, Washington, DC.DC.HolllingHollling, C.S. and L.H. Gunderson. 2002. Resilience and adaptive cycles., C.S. and L.H. Gunderson. 2002. Resilience and adaptive cycles.Pages 25Pages 25--62 in L.H. Gunderson, and C.S.62 in L.H. Gunderson, and C.S. HollingHolling, editors., editors. PanarchyPanarchy: : Understanding Transformations in Human and Ecological SystemsUnderstanding Transformations in Human and Ecological Systems. Island . Island Press.Press.Hale, W.G.,Hale, W.G., MarghamMargham, J.P. and Saunders,V.A. 1995. , J.P. and Saunders,V.A. 1995. Dictionary of BiologyDictionary of Biology, , 2nd Ed., Harper Collins Publishers,UK.2nd Ed., Harper Collins Publishers,UK.Harrison,J.,Laverty, M. and Sterling,E. 2006. Harrison,J.,Laverty, M. and Sterling,E. 2006. Ecosystem DiversityEcosystem Diversity,,ConnexionsConnexions, viewed under: , viewed under: http://http://cnxcnx.org/content/m12156/latest/.org/content/m12156/latest/. . HollingHolling, C. S. 1973. Resilience and stability of ecological systems., C. S. 1973. Resilience and stability of ecological systems. Annu Annu Rev Rev EcolEcol SystSyst 4:14:1--23.23.

References continuedReferences continuedHolling, C.S. 1986. The resilience of terrestrial ecosystems; loHolling, C.S. 1986. The resilience of terrestrial ecosystems; local surprise cal surprise and global change. Pages 292and global change. Pages 292--317 in W.C. Clark and R.E. Munn, editors. 317 in W.C. Clark and R.E. Munn, editors. Sustainable Development of the Biosphere.Sustainable Development of the Biosphere. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, U.K.Cambridge, U.K.Imperial, M.,T. 2005. Imperial, M.,T. 2005. Complexity, Environmental Change, and InstitutionalComplexity, Environmental Change, and InstitutionalArangements Arangements for Integrated Water Resource Managementfor Integrated Water Resource Management: Lessons from : Lessons from Watershed Governance in the US, Presented at the World Water WeeWatershed Governance in the US, Presented at the World Water Weekk--Stockholm, Sweden, viewed under: Stockholm, Sweden, viewed under: http://66.249.93.104/search?q=cache:YBor4dNQ7ccJ:www.http://66.249.93.104/search?q=cache:YBor4dNQ7ccJ:www.swedishwaterhoswedishwaterhouseuse.se/images/partners/20051025112329Imperial_pres_.se/images/partners/20051025112329Imperial_pres_WorldWaterWeekWorldWaterWeek.p.pdf+Complexity,+Environmental+Change,+world+water+week&hl=de&gl=ddf+Complexity,+Environmental+Change,+world+water+week&hl=de&gl=de&e&ct=ct=clnkclnk&cd=1&cd=1..McDowallMcDowall, R.M. 1996. Volcanism and freshwater fish biogeography in the , R.M. 1996. Volcanism and freshwater fish biogeography in the northeastern North Island of New Zealand. northeastern North Island of New Zealand. Journal of BiogeographyJournal of Biogeography 2323: : 139139--148.148.New Zealand's official statistics agency, 2005. New Zealand's official statistics agency, 2005. Sustainable Development: Sustainable Development: Environment and ecoEnvironment and eco--system resilience, viewed under: system resilience, viewed under: http://www.stats.govt.nz/analyticalhttp://www.stats.govt.nz/analytical--reports/monitoringreports/monitoring--progress/progress/envmtenvmt--ecosystemecosystem--resilience/default.resilience/default.htmhtm..

References continuedReferences continuedPimmPimm, , Walker, B., Carpenter, S.,Walker, B., Carpenter, S., AnderiesAnderies, J., Abel, N., Cumming, G., S., , J., Abel, N., Cumming, G., S., Janssen, M.,Janssen, M.,LebelLebel, L.,, L., NorbergNorberg, J., Peterson, G., D. and Pritchard, R. 2002, , J., Peterson, G., D. and Pritchard, R. 2002, Resilience Management in SocialResilience Management in Social--ecological Systems: a Working ecological Systems: a Working Hypothesis for a Participatory Approach, Hypothesis for a Participatory Approach, Conservation EcologyConservation Ecology 6: 14, 6: 14, viewed under: viewed under: http://www.http://www.consecolconsecol.org/vol6/iss1/art14/.org/vol6/iss1/art14/. . Redman, C.L. , Grove, J. andRedman, C.L. , Grove, J. and Kuby Kuby , L.H. 2000. , L.H. 2000. Toward a Unified Toward a Unified Understanding of Human Ecosystems Integrating Social Science intUnderstanding of Human Ecosystems Integrating Social Science into Longo Long--Term Ecological ResearchTerm Ecological Research , viewed under: , viewed under: intranet.lternet.edu/archives/ intranet.lternet.edu/archives/ documents/Publications/sosciwhtppr/ documents/Publications/sosciwhtppr/ -- 116k .116k .Resilience Alliance, 2006, viewed under: Resilience Alliance, 2006, viewed under: http://www.http://www.resallianceresalliance.org/1..org/1.phpphp. . Walker, B., S. Carpenter, J.Walker, B., S. Carpenter, J. AnderiesAnderies, N. Abel, G. Cumming, M. Janssen, L., N. Abel, G. Cumming, M. Janssen, L.LebelLebel, J., J. NorbergNorberg, G.D. Peterson, and R. Pritchard. 2002. Resilience, G.D. Peterson, and R. Pritchard. 2002. Resiliencemanagment managment in socialin social--ecological systems: a working hypothesis for a ecological systems: a working hypothesis for a participatory approach. Conservation Ecology 6:14. Viewed under:participatory approach. Conservation Ecology 6:14. Viewed under:http://www.http://www.consecolconsecol.org/vol6/iss1/art14.org/vol6/iss1/art14..