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DISTANCE LEARNING AND TEACHING EFFECTIVENESS : THE IMPACT OF THE DISTANCE
LEARNING SCHEME OF THE NATIONAL TEACHERS’ INSTITUTE (NTI) IN NIGERIA
Project Mentor: Professor K. A. Adegoke, Distance L earning Institute,
University of Lagos, Nigeria
Annual ERNWACA Fees paid
CV Submitted Researchers
Family Name and First
Name Institution Status E-mail Sex Age Country
Yes No Yes No
1 Etuk, Grace
Koko University
of Uyo Associate Professor
F 60 Nigeria Yes Yes
2 Akpanumoh, Uduak Dan
University of Uyo
Ph. D. Applicant
M 47 Nigeria Yes Yes
3 Etudor, Eno
E. University
of Uyo Lecturer presdor@yah
oo.com F 35 Nigeria Yes Yes
4 Ngerebara,
Ataisi University
of Uyo Ph. D.
Student ataisimkpas
@yahoo.com F 44 Nigeria Yes Yes
Country: Nigeria
Research financed by
Education Research Network for West and Central Africa (ERNWACA)
With project support from UEMOA regional Centre of Excellence and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Netherlands
ROCARE / ERNWACA • Tel: (223) 221 16 12, Fax: (223) 221 21 15 • BP E 1854, Bamako, MALI Bénin • Burkina Faso • Cameroun • Côte d’Ivoire • Gambia • Ghana • Guinée • Mali • Mauritanie • Nigeria • Niger • Sénégal •
Sierra Leone • Togo www.rocare.org
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We wish to acknowledge the Regional Management of the Educational
Research Network for West and Central Africa (ERNWACA), the UEMOA
Regional Centre of Excellence and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the
Netherlands for their financial and other supports, for beneficiaries of their
small grant for research, which we are one. Our special thanks also go to the
national co-ordination officials of ERNWACA, Nigeria, Prof. K. A. Adegoke
(chairman) and Dr. D. Olukoya (secretary), who have relentlessly sensitized
and mentored this research work.
We wish also to say thank you to the Vice-Chancellor of the University
of Uyo, Prof. Akaneren Essien, the Registrar, Mr. J. E. Udo, the Dean of the
Faculty of Education, Prof. E. Udo, the Head of Department of Curriculum
Studies and Educational Management, Dr. B. E. Udoukpong, for their support
of our research efforts. We cannot fail to bring to record the unalloyed
support of the Proprietor of Ritman College, Senator and Mrs. E. Ibokessien,
who right from the inception of this work enlisted their interest and accepted to
utilize the result of our research work.
Worthy of mention are the officials of the National Teachers’ Institute
(NTI), Kaduna, the Akwa Ibom State Coordinator of the NTIDLS, the
education officer, the course tutors and the NTIDL-students in Akwa Ibom
State, who cooperated with us in a wonderful way to bring this research work
to completion. It would be grossly lopsided if we failed to appreciate the
outstanding cooperation of Heads of Schools, the parents and teachers of the
primary schools in Akwa Ibom State, who responded to our clarion call for
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help. Permit us to give our kudos to post-graduate and undergraduate
students in the Department of Curriculum Studies and Educational
Management, University of Uyo, who helped us collect and collate data for the
work, particularly Mrs. Eno E. Akpan and Lucy Ituen.
We appreciate our children, nephews and nieces for their ICT-skills,
which were utilized to our advantage and for standing behind us to see that
we succeed, in particular Mr. E. J. Akpan, Miss Glory J. Akpan, Miss and Miss
G. J. Akpan. Others are Mr. Idongesit Kendy, Ekomobong Effiong, Mrs.
Immaculata E. Akpan, Miss Glory U. Akpanumoh Miss Idongesit Etuk and
Honesty, Otobong and Ubong Ituen, her precious friends.
We must not forget the services rendered by the Corporate Business
Services and the Divine Links Computers who helped in data analysis and
computation respectively. We do not forget to mention members of our
immediate families who bore with us within the choking period of this study.
Above all, to God be the Glory for health wisdom, strength and protection that
He endowed on us to carry this work to a successful end.
Grace K. Etuk
Uduak D. Akpanumoh
Eno E. Etudor
Ataisi Ngerebara
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS Cover Page .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. i Acknowledgements .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ii List of Tables .. .. .. .. .. ... .. .. vi List of Figures .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. viii List of Plates .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ix Executive Summary .. .. .. .. .. .. .. x CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION AND STATEMENT OF PURPOSE
• Background of the Study .. .. .. .. .. 1 • Statement of the Problem .. .. .. .. .. 11 • Purpose of the Study .. .. .. .. .. 13 • Research Questions .. .. .. .. .. 14 • Research Hypotheses .. .. .. .. .. 15 • Scope of the Study .. .. .. .. .. .. 15 • Significance of the Study .. .. .. .. .. 16 • Study Assumptions .. .. .. .. .. .. 17 • Explanation of Terms and Abbreviations .. .. .. 18
TWO: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND REVIEW OF LITERATURE
• The Theoretical Bases of Distance Learning .. .. 22 • The Theoretical Framework for the Study .. .. 26 • Conceptualization of Distance Learning .. .. .. 36 • Distance Learning Development Trends .. .. .. 38 • Characteristics and Study Strategies of Distance Learners 41 • Instructional Concerns and Roles of Distance Learning
Teachers and Supervisors .. .. .. .. .. 44
• Comparisons of Distance and Traditional Education: Empirical and Non-Empirical Findings .. .. .. 46
• Educational Contents and Learning Activities of a Curriculum .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 55
• Curriculum Evaluation .. .. .. .. .. 68
• Criteria for Teacher effectiveness .. .. .. .. 84
• Quality Assurance Emphasis and Teacher Education by the NTI .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 97
• Quality Assurance in Education through Examinations .. 105
THREE: THE STUDY SITE • State Boundaries and Political Divisions .. .. .. 114
• Educational Institutions .. .. .. .. .. 115
• Physical Features and Occupations .. .. .. 117 • People, Language, Culture and Social Conditions .. 120
• Map of Nigeria Showing States and State Capitals .. 123
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• Map of Akwa Ibom State Showing the 31 Local Government Areas .. .. .. .. .. .. 124
FOUR: RESEARCH METHOD
• Design of the Study .. .. .. .. .. .. 125 • Research Population .. .. .. .. .. 125
• Sampling Technique and Sample .. .. .. .. 126
• Instrumentation .. .. .. .. .. .. 129
• Validation of the Instruments .. .. .. .. 132 • Administration of the Instruments .. .. .. .. 132
• Method of Data Analysis .. .. .. .. .. 134 FIVE: PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF RESULTS
• Analysis of Research Questions .. .. .. .. 136 5.1: Average (mean) Scores of Selected NTI Course
Texts (Curriculum) on Known Criteria for a Good Curriculum .. .. .. .. .. .. 136
5.2A: % Analysis of NTIDL Students’ Perception of Their Learning Contexts and Study Strategies .. 138
5.2B: Analysis and Interpretation of Table 5.2A .. 140 5.3: Performance of NTIDL students in Four Core
Subjects - English Language, Mathematics, Primary Science and Social Studies .. .. 142
5.4: Analysis of Course Tutors’ Opinions of the NTIDLS 147 5.5: Analysis of Classroom Behaviour of NTI-produced
Teachers .. .. .. .. .. .. 148 5.6A: Analysis and Rank Order of Means of NTIDLS-
produced and Non-NTIDLS-Produced Teachers 149 5.7A: Rank Order of Means (0) of Parents’ and
Administrators’ Rating of Teaching .. .. 151 5.8: Percentage Analysis of the Frequency of
Occurrence of Test Items in the 6-Cognitive Categories .. .. .. .. .. .. 153
• Analysis of Hypotheses .. .. .. .. .. 155 5.6B: An independent t-test Analysis of the difference
between Effective Classroom Behaviours of NTIDLS-produced and Non-NTIDLS Produced Teachers .. .. .. .. .. .. 155
5.7B: Independent t-test Analysis of the Difference Between the Opinions of Parents and Administrators on Teaching Effectiveness of NTI-produced Teachers .. .. .. .. .. .. 157
• Summary of Findings .. .. .. .. .. 158
vi
• A Conceptual Model showing the Connections between the Independent Variables and the Dependent Variable 162
SIX: SUMMARY, DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
• Discussion of Findings .. .. .. .. .. 163 * Ratings of NTI Course Texts .. .. .. 163 * The Learning Contexts and Study Strategies of
NTIDL-Students .. .. .. .. .. 166 * Students’ Performances in Four Core Subjects .. 172 * Course Tutors’ Rating of NTIDLS .. .. .. 177 * Classroom Behaviours of NTIDLS-produced
Teachers .. .. .. .. .. .. 178 * Differences Between Teaching Behaviours of
NTIDL-produced and Non-NTIDL-produced Teachers .. .. .. .. .. .. 181
* Differences in School Head-teachers’ and Parents’ Ratings of Teaching Behaviours of NTIDL-produced Teachers .. .. .. .. 185
* Quality Assurance through Examinations .. 188
• Conclusion .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 189
• Recommendations .. .. .. .. .. .. 191
• Suggestion for Further research .. .. .. .. 192 • Limitations of the Study .. .. .. .. .. 193
• Problems Encountered in the Study .. .. .. 195 REFERENCES .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 198 APPENDIX
1. Evaluation Scale for Curriculum Content Instrument (ESCC) .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 206
2. Learning Contexts, Study Strategies and Performance Questionnaire (LCSSAPQ) .. .. .. 207
3. Course Tutors’ Assessment of Distance Learning Questionnaire (COTADLQ) .. .. .. .. 212
4. Evaluation Scale for Teachers’ Effective Classroom Behaviour (ESTECB) Questionnaire .. .. .. 215
5. Administrators’ and Parents’ Evaluation of Teachers’ Effectiveness Questionnaire (APETEQ) .. 219
6. Names of Data Collectors/Collators .. .. .. 221
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LIST OF TABLES Table:
4.1: Sampling distribution of Primary School Teachers, Administrators, Parents in the Study .. .. 127
5.1: Average (mean) Scores of Selected NTI Course Texts (Curriculum) on Known Criteria for a Good Curriculum .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 136
5.2A: % Analysis of NTIDL Students’ Perception of Their Learning Contexts and Study Strategies .. .. .. 138
5.2B: Analysis and Interpretation of Table 5.2A .. .. 140 5.3: Performance of NTIDL students in Four Core Subjects –
English Language, Mathematics, Primary Science and Social Studies .. .. .. .. .. .. 142
5.4: Analysis of Course Tutors’ Opinions of the NTIDLS .. 147 5.5: Analysis of Classroom Behaviours of NTIDL-produced
Teachers .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 148 5.6A: Analysis and Rank Order of Means of NTIDLS-produced
and Non-NTIDLS-Produced Teachers .. .. .. 149
5.7A: Rank Order of Means (0) of Parents’ and Administrators’ Rating of NTIDL –Produced Teacher .. .. .. 151
5.8: Percentage Analysis of the Frequency of Occurrence of Test Items in the 6-Cognitive Categories .. .. .. 153
5.6B: An Independent t-test Analysis of the difference between Effective Classroom Behaviours of NTIDLS- produced and Non-NTIDLS Produced Teachers .. 155
5.7B: An Independent t-test Analysis of the Difference Between the Opinions of Parents and Administrators on Teaching Effectiveness of NTI-produced Teachers .. 157
viii
LIST OF FIGURES Figure:
2.1: Determinants of Individual Behaviour, Performance in Organizations .. .. .. .. .. .. 33
5.1: Conceptual Model of the Relationship between the Independent and the Dependent Variables of the Study 162
ix
LIST OF PLATES Plate:
3.1: Map of Nigeria showing the 36 States and the federal Capital Territory of Abuja .. .. .. .. .. 123
3.2: Map of Akwa Ibom State showing the 31 Local Government Areas .. .. .. .. .. .. 124
x
Executive Summary
The study was titled “Distance Learning and Teaching Effectiveness”. It
assessed the educational inputs of the NTIDLS in Akwa Ibom State of Nigeria.
It assessed the course texts which are used by the NTIDL-students and
course tutors in the four core subject areas of interest. It sampled the
opinions of current NTIDL-students on their learning contexts, study strategies
and other particulars, and the opinions of current NTIDLS course tutors (site
facilitators) about the quality of inputs into the programme. It also assessed
the behaviours of primary school teachers and drew inferences on the
differences between effective classroom behaviours of teachers who were
products of the NTIDLS and those who were not.
It sampled the opinions of head-teachers and parents on the effectiveness of
products of the NTIDLS, and assessed the quality control measures of the
NTIDLS with particular reference to the quality of examinations set in four
core subject areas of interest.
The study design was a combination of the causal comparative (ex-post-
facto), the descriptive survey and the analysis of documents. The study was
based in Akwa Ibom State, in the extreme Southern corner of Nigeria located
between latitude 40o 32” and 5o 33” North and longitude 70o 20” and 8o 25”
East.
The research population comprised all the primary school teachers in Akwa
Ibom State. The population size was 16,100, the stratified sampling
technique was used to select 1,000 teachers (650 NTIDLS-products and 350
others) by the researchers, 800 teachers by 120 head-teachers and 500
teachers by 360 parents.
Five instruments were used for data collection. These included the ESTECB,
a 128-items instrument used by the researchers; the APETEQ, a 37-items
instrument used by the head-teachers and parents; the COTALDQ, a 54-
items instrument used by the course tutors; the LCSSAPQ, a 47-item
instrument used by the students currently studying in NTIDL centres; and the
ESCC, a 15-items instrument used in evaluating the NTIDL course texts. In
addition to all these, a 5-point evaluation scale made from the six categories
of the cognitive domain of objectives – knowledge, comprehension,
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application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation was used in assessing the
examination qualities of the four core subjects of interest.
All the research questions were analysed using the mean scores weighted to
a 5-point scale. The cut-off point for judging the significance/non significance
of scores was set at 3.50. Two hypotheses formulated to guide the study
were analysed at 0.05 level of significance and 998, 1298 degrees of freedom
for hypothesis one and two respectively.
The findings were as follows:
1. The NTIDL course texts rated high in appropriate ness but low in
readability.
2. The NTIDL-students had a lot of face-to-face contacts both with the
course tutors and with fellow students.
3. The NTIDL-students in Akwa Ibom State performed best in English
language and worst in Mathematics.
4. Generally, the performances of the students in centres located in rural
communities were better than those of students in centres located in
the urban areas.
5. The NTIDL course tutors rated the NTIDL programme high not low on
the availability of teaching/learning materials.
6. The NTIDL-produced teachers rated high on instructional planning and
classroom management but low on the knowledge of the subject-
matter.
7. NTIDL-products were rated to be less effective in teaching and in the
knowledge of the subject-matter than teachers produced through other
educational agencies.
8. Parents rated most teaching behaviours of NTIDL-products more
negatively than primary school-heads did when specific rating items
were used. However, when a global item was used, both parents and
school-heads rated the teaching behaviours of NTIDL-products
negatively.
9. A large proportion of examination questions set in the NTDLS were
limited to the lowest level of the cognitive domain – knowledge.
Applicational item were fewest in number among the test items
examined.
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION AND STATEMENT OF PURPOSE
Background of the Study
Recent changes information and communications technology have
occasioned non-conventional education delivery modes, which assumes
different names in different parts of the world. Terms such as
correspondence education, home study, independent study, continuing
education, part-time studentship, sandwich programmes, outreach
programmes, open learning systems and distance learning systems are often
in common use. Although these different educational delivery systems have
their peculiarities depending on the needs, aims and objectives of the
designers and consumers of these programmes, the common thread which
runs through them all, is to widen access to education and to develop human
resources for economic and social development.
Nigeria, being one of the nine countries in the world with the fastest
growing population rates (UNESCO, 2000) equally has fast-growing
educational systems but huge short-falls in the supply of qualified teachers,
especially at the primary school level (Essien, 2000; Etuk, 2005, 2006; Salau,
2005; Mohammed, 2006a.). In the attempt to solve the problem of teacher-
shortage, primary and secondary school teachers are urged to avail
themselves of educational opportunities offered by higher institutions of
learning, which provide ample opportunities for educational and professional
development.
2
While their counterparts overseas nowadays enjoy on-line distance
learning but loose out on face-to-face contact, the Nigerian primary school
teachers now have the opportunity to work and study by benefiting from
distance learning of different models. These opportunities are available in the
Faculties of Education in all the conventional universities in Nigeria, which
mount vocational teacher-education programmes variously called the
sandwich programme (mounted during vacations), continuing education
(mounted after working hours), which afford teachers the opportunity to work
and study for higher qualifications. Greater opportunities are made available
through the Distance Learning Scheme of the National Teachers’ Institute
(NTIDLS)
The NTI was instituted in 1976 and established in 1978 through decree
number 7 of 1978 (NTI, 2005). It was originally set up to manage Teacher
Grade II (TCII) examinations in English Langue, Mathematics and the General
Paper. Those were the three core subjects which were federally-examined for
the award of the TCII, which was then the highest qualification needed for
careers in primary-school teaching.
In due course, the National Policy on Education promulgated in 1977,
pronounced the Nigeria Certificate in Education (N.C.E.), the minimum
qualification for teaching in primary schools. The N.C.E. was then awarded
only in Advanced Teachers’ Colleges / Colleges of Education.
When in the course of time, all the teacher-training colleges were
eventually scraped, the responsibilities of the NTI was widened to include
testing and awarding TCII certificate to teachers who failed in their earlier
attempts. To help boost the supply of N.C.E.-holder teachers needed to teach
3
in primary schools, in response to the new National policy, the role of the
N.T.I. was further widened to include mounting courses leading to the award
of the N.C.E. (primary) certificate in certain subject disciplines to qualify
graduands to teach in primary schools. Thus, a question might be asked,
does the NTI operate in fulfillment of the charge of “providing courses of
instruction leading to the development, upgrading and certification of
teachers”, as specified in Act no. 7 of 1978, which empowered its operation
(NTI, 2005)?
The objectives of the NCE-DLS programme are:
i) to train and upgrade all qualified grade II teachers to NCE level;
ii) to provide the basic background for those teachers who may
later wish to pursue their studies at higher levels; and
iii) to help produce the number of teachers required for the
successful implementation of the National Policy on Education.
The NCE programme of the NTI prepares students to pursue courses
leading to obtaining an intermediate teaching diploma, which qualifies the
holders to pursue careers in primary school teaching and teaching at the
lower levels of the secondary school system.
Courses Offered and Academic Structure
Courses offered at the N.C.E. level are in the humanities – English
language, Christian Religious Studies, Islamic Religious Studies, Cultural and
Creative Arts; in the sciences – Integrated Science, Mathematics, Physical
and Health Education; in the social sciences, Social Studies. The general
courses are offered by every student and they include Primary Education
Studies, Education Studies, Education Foundations, and supervised teaching
4
practice. The last one is offered in the second and fourth cycles of the
programme. There are various combinations of these courses. Those
offering Primary Education Studies, as majors must in addition, study one
single subject.
Each course of study is organized in four cycles corresponding to four
Calendar years. A cycle corresponds to a year’s work lasting 52 weeks. A
cycle has two semesters and each semester is organized into:
• 13 weeks of face-to-face contact hours;
• three weeks of Christmas holidays;
• three weeks of Easter holidays; and
• seven weeks of long vacation contact hours (NTI, 2005, p.3).
The 13 weeks of face-to-face contact hours per cycle is shared out as follows:
• four weeks of practical/field trips;
• two weeks of tests/examinations; and
• three weeks allowance for eventualities like religious festivals
and so on (NTI, 2005, p.3).
In addition, each subject also has 80 contact hours specifically designated for
tutorials, split into the first and second semesters, with an average of 2 hours
of tutorials per month, within the non-holiday months and two hours per day in
the holiday months.
There is also continuous assessment scheduled into two assignments
and two tests in each of the two semesters of work. First semester
examinations are held in July/August while second semester examinations
are held in December (NTI, 2005). Besides, each student is expected to put
in a minimum of two-hours of private studies per day to be able to meet up. In
5
effect, an individual student is expected to cover a minimum of 130 modules
of course materials, through private and non-private studies, using 1,950
hours, out of a total of 2,184 hours available in the four-year period. Thus,
allowance is made for slow learners and for completion of assignments built
into the programmes.
Entry Requirements
The N.C.E. programme of the NTI offers admissions both to teachers in
service who go in as in-service trainees and to the non-teaching members of
the population, who are interested in finding careers in teaching. As specified
in the students’ handbook (NTI, 2005, pp.6-7), the NTI offers admissions to
various categories of people wishing to obtain the N.C.E. certificate. These
include:
(i) holders of Teachers’ Grade II (TCII) certificate with or without
merits in three subjects. Those without merit should have at
least, 5 years of post-qualification teaching experience;
(ii) holders of Associate Certificate in Education or its equivalent;
(iii) holders of Pivotal Teachers’ Certificate (PTC) with credits in
three subjects (including the subject the candidate intends to
study); or PTC with 5 passes and at least two years of post-
qualification teaching experience;
(iv) successful completers of pre-NCE programme of the NTI.
(v) holders of the Senior Secondary School Certificate (SSCE),
G.C.E. ‘O’ level or their equivalents with three credits and five
passes with English language included.
6
Additional entry requirements include a credit in English language and
at least a pass in Mathematics for all admission-seekers. There are additional
entry requirements based on the subject of specialization. For instance,
candidates applying to study English language must have credit passes either
in ‘O’ level English language or literature and those wishing to study
Mathematics must have credit in ‘O’ level Mathematics.
Study Texts
Course materials are produced by teams of subject specialists. Each
curriculum team plans the subject content, its sequential organization, its
pedagogy and writes the course materials for that particular subject. Subject-
teams are drawn from Colleges of Education, from Polytechnics, from
Universities and from other educational establishments working in conjunction
with the NTI staff in each subject area (NTI, 2005).
NTI textbooks have the same pattern. Each subject is broken into ten
units and 10 units constitute a module. At the end of each unit there are 10
review questions and at the end of module, there are answers to the
questions.
Study Centres:
The NTI has 253 study centres distributed into the 36 states in Nigeria
and in the Federal Capital Territory, Abuja. The administration of the study-
centres are hierarchically structured with the course tutors in direct contact
with students, one centre co-ordinator each, the state co-ordinators and the
Director of the NTI at the peak, located at Kaduna, North-central Nigeria.
Since Nigeria has 774 Local Government Areas, it then means that the study
centres do not go round every local government area. Each study centre
7
services two-three local government areas. Some of the students may cover
long distances to benefit from the NTIDL scheme. Course tutors are drawn
from the corpse of secondary school teachers, college tutors and even
university teachers.
School Fees
The NTI is fee-paying. Fees are paid in bank drafts and bank transfers
into NTI accounts in individual states of operation. Fees charged are in two
categories:
• fees paid for subjects that do not require practicals/laboratory
sessions; and
• fees paid for subjects that have practical sessions, in which
token fees are charged for reagents and work materials. These
include integrated science, health and physical education,
cultural and creative arts. Fees paid in each semester fit into 6
major heads for practical-inclined courses. These are:
(i) for practicals;
(ii) registration;
(iii) tuition;
(iv) examinations;
(v) course books; and
(vi) cassette fees.
In addition to these, new students pay acceptance and deposit fees
and students whose courses are not practical-inclined do not pay practical
charges.
8
Programmes
As indicated by Yaya (2005), the Distance Learning Scheme of the
N.T.I. uses user-friendly self-study materials; makes face-to-face contact at
study centres compulsory and there are instructors who are in continuous
tutorial relationship with the correspondence students. The instructor is the
daily monitor and motivator of the distant student.
The distance learning scheme of the N.T.I. offers the following
educational programmes:
* Grade two teachers certificate (TCII), which is almost moribund.
* Nigeria Certificate in Education (N. C. E.);
* Pivotal Teachers Training Programme (PTTP);
* Advanced Diploma; and
* Post-Graduate Diploma in Education (Yaya, 2006, p. 3)
These various programmes were instituted to ensure that enough
quality and quantity of teachers are produced to meet up with the continuous
teaming population of the Nigerian school children:
The under-qualified and untrained teachers are upgraded;
young people who prematurely dropped out of school and
later rediscover themselves are given the opportunity to
improve themselves and government/private employees
who wish to improve themselves academically, socially and
otherwise, enroll in the Distance-Learning Scheme (Yaya,
2006, p. 3).
9
Problems
Of recent, the public seemed to cast aspersions on the effectiveness of
the NTIDLS-produced teachers to the extent that the Universal Basic
Education Board in Akwa Ibom State even refused to recruit holders of TCII
produced through the NTIDLS. Holders of the N.C.E.(primary) who were
products of the N.T.I. specifically trained to teach in primary schools were not
easily employed either. Rather, holders of the N.C.E. from the State College
of Education, which offers full-time study educational programmes, were given
preferential treatment in recruitment and selection even though the N.C.E.
programmes in the State College of Education were designed for teachers
pursuing careers in lower secondary schools.
In the opinion of NTI-insiders, the NTI has stepped into play a vital role
of producing quality and appreciable numbers of teachers within a very short
time. (Salau, 2005). People outside the NTI-establishment, however, seem
to have a different view. They blame it on teachers, the general tendency
noticed among primary school-leavers, who don’t seem to have sufficiently-
acquired literacy and numeracy skills (Okedara, 1989, in Etuk, 2005). In
effect, primary school teachers are said to be major contributors to low
academic achievement of primary school pupils. Teachers are often accused
of having a divided attentions between studying to get higher diplomas
(Adeboyeje, 1992) and engaging in out-of school businesses while placing
teaching last in their daily plans (Okeowo, 2006) in NTI (2006). There seems
to be a public outcry in the national dailies of low quality of teaching in public
primary schools, resulting in high levels of failures in public examinations, high
drop out rates among pupils and a transfer of poor performance to the
10
secondary and tertiary levels of education (Etuk, 2001). This is said to defeat
the aim of establishing the NTI, which was meant to be the panacea for
solving the problems of indigent and working students (Okeowo, 2006) in NTI
(2006).
The levels of literacy of some NTI-produced teachers are also in doubt.
They are said to be barely more literate than some of the pupils they teach
(Musa, 2006). This may explain why the Universal Basic Education Board in
Akwa Ibom State was reluctant to recruit N.C.E.-holders who are NTI products
and bluntly refused to recruit their TCII counterparts in the 2006, recruitment
exercise.
Some researches have however, established that distance learning is
as effective as traditional instruction when appropriate methods and
technologies are used; when there is sufficient student-student interaction;
and there is timely teacher-to student feedback (Verdium & Clark, 1991;
Schutte, 1996; Tucker, 2001; Jegede, 2005; Hanser, 2006).
Subject-monitoring findings on the NTIDLS by Mbaya (2005), indicated
that the NTIDLS is weak in the area of programme delivery, which border on
late and inadequate supply of instructional materials to study centres;
inadequate and unqualified personnel in the course-tutor and supervisory
ranks and unqualified students being admitted into the scheme. Some
student-teachers were said to be lazy in studying to develop themselves and
in associating for experience (Mbaya, 2005).
In a recent interview, the chief executive of the NTI (Mohammed, 2006)
admitted the weaknesses inherent in the scheme and announced to the world,
the ‘strategic plan’ of the NTI in the attempt to ‘reposition the NTI for the
11
challenges ahead’. (Mohammed, 2006, p.11). The Director and Chief
Executive of the NTI (Mohammed, 2005) had earlier admitted that
effectiveness of teachers depends largely on the extent to which their
knowledge and skills are regularly upgraded. This may explain why the
Federal Government of Nigeria retained 145,000 primary school teachers in
the long vacation of 2006, through a work-shop organised by the NTI for
teachers in the four core subject areas: English Language, Mathematics,
Social Studies and Integrated Science (NTI, 2006).
On the whole, primary school teachers seem to be ill-equipped and not
sufficiently motivated to face the challenges posed by the dynamic nature of
knowledge and skills and the existential realities of the nation’s primary
schools (Mohammed, 2005). In a study conducted by Undie, Udida & Ugal,
(2005), primary schools pupils were found to show evidence of low
achievement. An earlier study by Okebukola (2002) established that primary
school pupils in Nigeria were deficient in the life-coping skills. Ironically, a
pilot study of primary school teachers in Akwa Ibom State by Etuk & Etudor
(2006) reported that a significant number of NTI-produced teachers rated
themselves to be very effective (f = 96; 48%) while administrators perceived
that none of them was very effective. In the same study, 48 per cent of school
administrators rated the NTI-produced teachers to be ineffective. Hence, this
study was designed to thoroughly investigate into the Distance Learning
Scheme of the NTI and teaching effectiveness.
Statement of the problem
The problem for investigation in this study is that the National
Teachers’ Institute, which was set up to produce qualitative and quantitative
12
numbers of teachers to solve the problem of teacher shortage in the primary
and lower secondary schools seems to live not up to expectation. It seems to
be churning out teachers of low quality who do not meet academic needs of
their pupils. This outcome seems to negate not just the aim for setting up the
NTI, but the general literacy rate in Nigeria and consequently, the
development status of Nigeria, which is listed among the educationally
backward (E-9) nations of the world (Obanya, 2002, 2003; Jegede, 2005).
Many primary school-leavers from public primary schools are reportedly not
literate. They do not attain the literacy level expected of them. There are
strong insinuations that teachers contribute greatly to the illiteracy of primary
school-leavers, because some teachers are not sufficiently literate to be
entrusted with the responsibility of effectively teaching primary school children
to read and write.
The fundamental problem for the study center around the curriculum
content of NTIDLS; the teaching/learning materials, particularly
appropriateness of the course texts; the learning context and study strategies
of the NTIDL students, their performances in the core subjects; the opinions of
students and course tutors, on the effectiveness of the education delivery
strategies of the NTIDLS; effectiveness of the products of the NTIDLS as
rated by the head-teachers, parents and researchers and comparison of those
ratings; comparison of effectiveness of NTI-products with those of teachers
produced in other systems; and the quality control measures of the NTIDLS
as seen in the examination questions.
13
Purpose of the study
The purpose of the study was to evaluate teaching effectiveness of
teachers produced through the Distance Learning Scheme of the National
Teachers Institute. The specific objectives were:
1. To appraise the curriculum of the NTIDLS in the core subject areas
using known criteria for curriculum content formulation.
2. To examine the opinions of NTI students about their learning contexts
and study strategies.
3. To evaluate the NTIDL students on common knowledge in the four
core subject areas of English Language, Mathematics, Social Studies
and Integrated Science.
4. To assess the opinions of course tutors on the effectiveness of the NTI
delivery mode.
5. To assess classroom behaviors of teachers produced through the
NTIDL scheme.
6. To compare teaching effectiveness of teachers produced through the
NTIDL scheme with those of teachers produced through other
agencies.
7. To compare the opinions of parents and administrators on teaching
effectiveness of NTIDLS produced teachers.
8. To assess the quality control measure of the NTDL scheme
9. To offer recommendations towards improvement of the NTIDL scheme
using examination.
14
Research Questions
(1) What aspects of the curriculum content of the NTIDLS meet known
criteria for a good curriculum?
(2) What are the opinions of NTIDL students about their learning contexts
and study strategies?
(3) How do the NTIDL students perform on common knowledge in the four
core-subject areas?
(4) What is the opinion of course tutors on the effectiveness of NTIDLS
delivery mode?
(5) What are the effective classroom behaviours of NTIDLS produced
teachers?
(6) How do teachers produced through the NTIDL scheme compare in
effectiveness with teachers produced through other educational
agencies?
(7) What difference is there in the opinion of parents and school
administrators on the effectiveness of NTIDLS-produced teachers?
(8) How do the quality control measures of the NTIDLS through
examinations compare with known criteria?
(9) What recommendations can the researchers make towards improving
the NTIDL scheme, for improved school effectiveness?
15
Research Hypotheses
The hypotheses which guided this study, stated in the null are:
Ho1: There is no significant different between teaching effectiveness of
teachers produced through the NTIDLS and those produced through
other educational agencies.
Ho2: There is no significant differences between the opinions of parents and
administrators on teaching effectiveness of NTI-produced teachers.
Scope of the Study
The study was conducted in Akwa Ibom State, one of the 36 states in
Nigeria, located in the extreme southern end of Nigeria, bordered by the
Atlantic Ocean. Details of Akwa Ibom State is contained in the unit on study-
site. The study was delimited to measure teaching effectiveness of the
primary school teachers in the State with particular reference to teachers’
educated through the Distance Learning Scheme of the National Teachers’
Institute (NTI). The study was delimited to assessment of the NTIDL course
texts, measuring the perceptions of the current students and course tutors of
the NTIDLS. The study involved rating of teaching behaviours of NTI-
products by the researchers, by parents (through Parents-Teachers’
Association members), and by the primary school head-teachers comparing
the ratings by these different groups; and comparing the ratings of NTIDL-
products with those of other teachers. It also involved rating the examination
quality of the NTIDLS. The study was conducted only in public primary
schools. Teachers in private schools were not assessed. Although the
researchers were aware of the current emphasis on gender issues, and data
had been collected to reflect gender differences, time did not permit data
16
analysis on the basis of gender, age and other demographic variables of
possible interest. The study was conducted between November 2006, and
March 2007. All the data collected especially from the internet are delimited to
that period.
Significance of the study
This study is significant in the sense that since 1976, the National
Teachers’ Institute (NTI) was set up to help primary school teachers. In 1990
it was commissioned to float a Distance Learning Scheme for the award of the
Nigerian Certificate in Education (N.C.E.), which was stipulated as the
minimum qualification for teaching in primary schools. Since then, the NTI
has been extensively-involved in educating teachers for the primary school
system in Nigeria. At the time the NTI was set up, all the regular teacher-
colleges which, awarded Teacher Grade II (TCII) diploma to primary school
teachers were scrapped in all of Nigeria, in preference for the NTI, that was
said to be a panacea teachers who found difficult to leave the jobs to develop
themselves.
The NTI was made to take up all the functions performed by all
scrapped teacher-colleges in Nigeria. The NTI is currently, the mega-teacher
distant college that produces most of the primary school teachers through its
distance learning, scheme, to teach in the Nigerian primary and lower
secondary school systems. Reports indicate that the NTI is currently foraging
into producing teachers with higher diplomas and even hoping to mount
university degree programmes through its Distance Learning Scheme (Yaya,
2006). The importance of the primary system of education need not be
emphasized here. It is very significant in the sense that it is the educational
17
level at which societal members acquire their basic reading, writing and
numeracy skills, which are some of the indices used internationally, to rate the
development levels of nation states. Presently, the literacy rate in Nigeria is
fixed at 40 percent (Jegede, 2005) and Nigeria is categorised among the nine
educationally backward (E-9) countries of the world (Unesco, 2000; Obanya,
2002, 2003; Jegede, 2005).
That being the case, efforts should be made by all and sundry toward
clearing such a stigma from Nigeria, one of the oil-rich nations of the world.
The NTI therefore has a high stake in generating quality teachers into the
Nigerian school systems. The NTI organization should be genuinely informed
through a privately and an independently-collected data, such as it is in this
report, those areas that it needs to take a second look at its Distance Learning
scheme. Stakeholders need to be duly informed too. These include the
government that funds both the NTI and the primary school system, the
parents, the school administrators and the whole society. The NTI must be
sensitized to act so as to close its loose ends. This research is the modest
contribution by ERNWACA researchers based at the University of Uyo, Akwa
Ibom State, towards improving the NTI organization in the said State.
Study Assumptions
The study was conducted under the assumptions that:
(1) The primary schools earmarked for data collection would be
accessible enough to allow the researchers to reach the
respondents by car or motorcycle.
(2) Both the State Universal Basis Education Board and the State Co-
ordinator of the National Teachers’ Institute Distance Learning
18
Scheme, would co-operate with the researchers and give them the
authority to collect responses from their subjects.
(3) The head-teachers would be paid their salaries and allowances so
that they would be happy and willing to supply the needed
information.
(4) Members of the Parents-Teachers Association who would be
contacted would be literate individuals, people who take interest in
what is happening in their community primary schools and people
who are willing to share their experiences with researchers.
(5) Members of the research team would show utmost individual
involvement in every stage of the work.
(6) There would be adequate supply of electricity so that data collation
could go on day and night.
(7) The fuel situation in Nigeria would not create transportation difficulty
through increased prices.
(8) The NTI Distance Learning centres in Akwa Ibom State would re-
open early enough (in January) after the Christmas break to permit
timely data collection.
Explanation of Terms and Abbreviations
NTI: National Teachers’ Institute. The body responsible for organizing
distance learning for primary and secondary school teachers in Nigeria.
NTIDLS: National Teachers’ Institute Distance Learning Scheme.
Course Tutors: Distance learning facilitators who are employed to have face-
to-face contact with students.
19
Contact Hours: Periods within which course tutors meet to have face-to-face
interaction with students and students interact with one another. For
the NTI, the contact hours within semesters are on Saturdays and
Monday through Thursday in the vacation period.
Centre Co-ordinator: The supervisor of distance learning at individual
learning centres.
State Co-ordinator: The co-ordinator of distance learning activities in a given
State in Nigeria.
Director of the NTI: The national co-ordinator of distance learning activities in
the aegis of the NTI in Nigeria.
Teaching Effectiveness: Teachers’ classroom behaviours which signify hard
work and evidence through the performances of students taught by the
teachers.
Synchrous Delivery Modes: Distance learning strategies where teachers
interact with students immediately.
Assynchrous Delivery Modes: Distance learning strategies where teachers’
interaction with students is not immediate.
Reproductive Conception of Learning: Having a deep understanding of
learning as a permanent change in behaviour.
Primary Cognitive Study Strategies: Listening actively to utilize information.
Secondary Cognitive Strategies: Ability to work independently of the
teacher.
EFL: English as a foreign language
ESL: English as a second language
MLA: Modern Languages Association
20
WAEC: West African Examinations Council. Until recently, was the only
examination body that conducts external examinations for the final year
secondary school students in Nigeria.
NECO: National Examinations Council. This is a national examination body
that was recently established to compete with the WAEC.
SSCE: Senior Secondary School Certificate Examinations. This is the final
examination taken by secondary school students in Nigeria, under
WAEC.
21
CHAPTER TWO
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND REVIEW OF
LITERATURE
This chapter is devoted to the theoretical framework and literature
review in the areas of distance learning, curriculum evaluation, teacher
appraisal and teaching effectiveness. Literature includes pertinent opinions
and empirical data and will be reviewed under the following headings:
• The Theoretical Bases of Distance Education
� Information Processing Theory
� The Theory of Cognitive Learning
� Keegan’s Theory of Distance Learning
• The Theoretical Framework for this Study
� The Skinnerian Behaviour Modification Theory
� Teaching Effectiveness Theory
• Conceptualisation of Distance Learning
• Distance Learning Developmental Trends
• Characteristics and Study Strategies of Distance Le arners
• Instructional Concerns and Roles of Distance Learni ng
Teachers and Supervisors
• Comparison of Distance And Traditional Education
� Summary of Merits of Distance Learning
22
• Educational Content And Learning Activities of A
Curriculum
� Textbook Evaluation
• Curriculum Evaluation
� Programme Evaluation
� Students Evaluation and Performance in Schools
� Teachers Evaluation and Ratings of Teaching
Effectiveness
* Peer Ratings of Teaching Effectiveness
* Employer and Administrator’s Ratings of Teaching
Effectiveness
* Ratings of Teaching Effectiveness Through
Learning Outcomes
* Self-assessment of Teaching Effectiveness
* Students’ Ratings of Teaching Effectiveness
• Criteria for Teaching Effectiveness
• Quality Assurance and Teacher Education by the NTI
• Quality Assurance in Education Through Examinations
The Theoretical Bases of Distance Learning
The theoretical basis on which instructional models are based affects
not only the way in which information is communicated to the student but also
the way in which the student makes sense and constructs new knowledge
from the information which is presented. According to Sherry (1996), the two
23
opposing views which impact on distance learning instructional designs are
symbols processing and situated cognition.
Information Processing Theory
Information processing approach is based on the computer performing
formal operations on symbols (Seamans, 1990, in Sherry, 1996). The key
concept is that the teacher can transmit a fixed body of information to the
students through an external representation. The teacher does this by
representing an abstract idea as a concrete image and then presenting the
image to the learner via a medium. The learner in turn perceives, decodes
and stores the information. A modified version of this approach adds two
additional factors, namely the students’ context and the students’ mind. The
student’s context includes the student’s environment, current situation, and
other sensory inputs, while the students’ mind includes memories,
associations, emotions, inferences and reasoning, curiosity and interest. In
the final analysis, the learner develops his own image and uses it to construct
new knowledge, in context, based on his own prior knowledge and abilities
(Horton, 1994, in Sherry, 1996). Until recently, information processing
approach had been the dominant traditional view affecting instructional
designs in distance learning. However, new approaches have emerged in
recent times (Sherry, 1996).
The Theory of Cognitive Learning
In the opinion of the cognitive psychologists, something important
misses from the operant-conditioning conception of learning and of all
behavioral approaches (respondent, contiguity or observational). All these
behavioral approaches seem to ignore the student’s perception or insight into
24
and cognition of the essential relationships between the elements of the
situation. The use of mental processes ignored by the behaviourists are
important in the learning theory of cognitive psychologists (Gage & Berliner,
1977). In the view of cognitive psychologists, the things teachers do to foster
students’ perceptions and cognition are important in teaching.
Teachers can tell students about such relationships or they may
arrange for students to discover them. Whichever means is used is not
important. The important thing is that students restructure or acquire desirable
perceptions and cognitions (Carroll, 1968, in Gage & Berliner, 1977). Such
processes are especially important and useful when the relationships to be
perceived are non-arbitrary. The relationships hang together in a way that is
determined by the structure of ideas in individual disciplines studied. How the
students acquire insight and understanding is the special concern of cognitive
theorists. The different teaching methods deal with different ways that
teachers can foster those perceptions and cognitions.
Cognitive theorists do not emphasize reinforcement aspect of the
learning process as an operant conditioning theorist. Rather, they emphasize
the relationship between important variables contained in the piece of
information. Whatever channel a student uses; whether the student merely
listened to the teacher’s explanation, whether he/she read it in a textbook,
whether he saw it in a diagram or he derived it inductively by trial and error is
not important. The important thing is that the student should acquire the
correct perception. The students’ perception should change. It is the
perception, cognition or understanding of a set of relationships between
concepts that is essential and important.
25
The cognitive theory is built on the assumption that people possess
very active minds; people work over the information they receive, rather than
storing information without making any transformation. Cognitive theorists
have preference for letting students arrive at their own perception on their own
– the discovery method of learning. Discovery method however arose
accidentally from the history of the development of cognitive psychology
(Gage & Berliner, 1977). This approach is based on constructivist principles,
in which a learner actively constructs an internal representation of knowledge
by interacting with the material to be learned.
According to this view point, both physical and social interaction enter
into both the definition of a problem and the construction of its solution.
Neither the information to be learned nor its symbolic description is specified
outside the process of inquiry and the conclusion that emerge from the
process. The focus is shifted from the traditional transmission model to a
more complex, interactive and evolving model. Situated cognition and
problem-based learning have the same basis (Sherry, 1996). The essential
point about cognitive conception of learning is that perception and cognitions
result from, ‘internal mental processes of a person in interaction with ideas
and phenomena presented by the environment’ (Gage & Berliner, 1977, p.
274).
Keegan’s Theory of Distance Learning
The tenet of Keegan’s (1986) theory is that distance learning systems
artificially decrease the teaching-learning interaction and re-integrate it back
into the instructional process. The aim is to offer to the distance learners the
experience much like traditional face-to-face instruction, via intact classrooms
26
and live two-way interaction. Keegan’s theory combines mediated distance
learning with face-to-face interaction. This model is practiced in Norway
(Sherry, 1996). The role of the course tutors is to meet the distance students
face to face, thus becoming a facilitator of learning rather than a
communicator of a fixed body of information.
This model allows students to hear and see teachers as well as allow
teachers to react to the students’ comments and questions. Thus, this
distance learning model meets the requirement for interactivity stressed by
the office of Technology Assessment of the US Congress, (1988, Sherry,
1996 p. 3).
What is lacking is the formation of virtual learning communities, in
which students, who are part of a class or study group can contact one
another at any time of the day or night to share observations, information and
expertise with one another (Sherry, 1996).
The Theoretical Frameworks for this Study
The theoretical bases of this study include:
• Skinnerian behaviour modification theory, and
• teaching effectiveness theory.
Skinnerian Behaviour Modification Theory
The behaviour modification theory of interest is the Skinnerian operant
conditioning model. The Skinnerian model of behaviour modification
maintains that organisms can emit responses, which implies that organisms
can think. Thus, the Skinnerian behaviour modification theory is tilted towards
the theory of cognitive learning. This is different from earlier forms of
27
behaviour modification theories by experts like Thorndike and Hull who
maintained that organisms only elicit responses due to external stimuli (TIP,
2006). The Skinnerian theory is rooted in operant conditioning, which sees
the organism in the process of operating on its environment. This, according
to Boeree (2006, pp. 1-2) means that the organism is, “bouncing around its
world, doing what it does”. In the course of operating, the organism develops
a tendency to repeat or not to repeat the behaviour in the future (extinction).
As indicated by Wertheim (2006) the Skinnerian operant conditioning
works under certain assumptions. These include the assumptions that:
• behaviour produces consequences;
• behaviour is a function of its consequences;
• behaviour followed by positive consequences tends to be
repeated and behaviour followed by negative consequences
tends to stop and how we behave in the future depends upon
what those consequences are;
• all complex behaviours are learned, shaped and subject to
observable laws;
• one can change behaviour through rewards and punishments;
• behaviour is determined by the environment/the consequences
or anticipated consequences of that behaviour;
• some of what we learn is not the direct result of reinforcers but
rather the result of observing others and the consequences of
their actions and by modelling our behaviours after them;
28
• virtually all work behaviours are operant in the sense that they
generate consequences in their environment and these
consequences in part shape and control behaviour (pp. 1 – 2).
• Operant conditioning assumptions are derived from the Law of
Cause and Effect, which states that:
“if our actions have pleasant effects, then we will be more likely to
repeat them in the future. If however, our actions have unpleasant effects, we
will less likely to repeat them in the future” (Wertheim, 2006, p. 1).
The operant conditioning approach to understanding human behaviour
focuses on observable outcomes. It does not make attempt at understanding
the internal state of the individual. It recognizes four different kinds of
reinforcements:
• positive reinforcement, where a pleasant reward follows a right
act;
• negative reinforcement, where a right act is brought about by
discouraging a wrong act;
• extinction, where a wrong act not reinforced discontinues; and
• punishment, where a wrong act is blamed.
Behaviour modification programmes are rooted in the operant
conditioning principles utilized to shape behaviours of both animals and
humans. The issues involved in behaviour modification, according to
Wertheim (2006) are:
• seeking out the desired behaviours;
• nothing whether these behaviours are observable/ measurable;
• seeking out what reinforces these behaviours;
29
• noting when to apply the reinforcers;
• noting the consequences of the reinforcements, and
• looking for ways to improve the reinforcement pattern (p. 2)
Based on the same source, the steps involved in behaviour modification
include:
• targeting specific behaviours;
• analyzing the causes and antecedents of existing behaviours or
barriers to new behaivours;
• explicitly settling concrete measurable goals;
• training the individual to adopt the behaviours;
• clearly reinforcing the behaviours through reinforcers like
praising, recognizing, giving good grades, promotion and giving
incentives like money, books and other physical gifts, and
• giving concrete continuous feedback to the individual to
strengthen positive performances and weaken unapproved and
poor performances.
Behaviour modification is in effect, the act of shaping more complex
behaviours through the method of ‘successive approximations’ (Boeree, 2006,
p.3). It involves reinforcing a behaviour which is similar to the one desired
until the animal or human being performs a behaviour that would never show
up in ordinary life. Behaviour modification principles have had much usage in
clinical psychology where behaviours of people who have certain behavioural
problems have been changed to normal behaviours. These include phobias,
addictions, neurosis, shyness and Schizophrenia (Boeree, 2006; Wertheim,
2006). Beyond its usage in clinical psychology laboratories, behaviour
30
modification principles account for the shaping of most complex behaviours in
humans (Boeree, 2006). We are gently shaped by our environment to do
certain things, like to:
- go to school
- study hard in school;
- like certain subjects in school;
- enter into chosen professions; and
- become specialists in the chosen fields (Boeree, 2006).
Relevance of Skinnerian Behaviour Modification Theo ry to this Study
Behaviour modification theory is often criticized as being applicable to
animals, mental patients, autistic children and people who are limited in
intelligence. It is often more criticized on the basis of its side effects like its
tendency to make elicitation of appropriate behaviours to be over-dependent
on reinforcing stimuli.
Yet, schools have been constantly involved in shaping human
behaviours just like parents, bosses, governmental agencies and some
voluntary organisations do, using assumptions on how people learn.
Behaviour modification theory has been highly-utilized in educational
organizations including the National Teachers Institute (NTI) to shape the
behaviours of learners.
Even the Nigerian government that conceived the NTI between 1976 –
78 (NTI, 2005) did it out of concern to modify behaviours of teachers who
could not benefit much from the regular teachers’ college system. With time,
the services offered by the NTI extended to recruiting and shaping the
behaviour of new intakes into the teaching profession. This study on distance
31
learning and teaching effectiveness was designed to measure the degree of
success of the NTI Distance Learning Scheme (NTIDLS) in modifying the
teaching behaviours of its products. This appraisal is designed to involve
important stakeholders in education, including the students themselves, the
course tutors, school administrators who directly deal with NTIDL products
released into public schools, parents of children taught by NTIDL – produced
teachers and the researchers themselves.
Teaching Effectiveness Theory
The gist of teaching effectiveness theory is that the real source of
organizational effectiveness is people, because the organizational structure is
formed by people (Ukeje, Okorie & Nwagbara, 1992). Thus, in order to
understand what determines effective organizations, it is necessary to unravel
what determines individual behaviour, performance and effectiveness within
the organization. An individual’s behaviour refers to the concrete actions he
engages in, whereas an individual’s performance refers to those sets of
behaviours expected of the individual by the organization (Ukeje et al, 1992)
In other words, performance refers to those behaviours that are congruent
with the demands of the organization. If for instance two individuals apply the
same kinds of behaviours on different tasks, the individual whose behaviour
agrees with the demands of the tasks could be said to be performing
effectively. In the corollary, if two individuals apply different kinds of
behaviours on the same task, the one whose behaviour meets the demands
of the task is said to performing effectively. This boils down to saying that
there is a clear distinction between behaviour, performance and effective
performance. An individual’s performance can be assessed only when
32
standards are well-defined and there is a clear knowledge of the
organization’s expectations and demands.
Since organizations and management generally encourage
organization members to engage in behaviours which result in effective
performance for the organization, the factors that influence the behaviours of
organization members must be understood and those factors as contained in
Ukeje et al (1992, p. 259) comprise:
• the individual’s level of motivation for the task;
• the internal state of the individual that causes him to engage in
effective performance;
• the individual’s ability, which includes possession of the skills and
capacities for effective performance on that job;
• the individual’s perception – the way the individual interprets
sensory experiences;
• the individual’s personality – personal traits of character of the
individual; and
• a wide variety of organizational systems and resources.
Each of these five effectiveness attributes have sub-categories and both
behaviour and effective performance are influenced by factors in the external
environment. The relationship between individuals’ attributes and effective
performance of individuals in the system is shown in figure 2.1.
33
Fig. 2.1: Determinants of Individual Behaviour, Pe rformance and
Effectiveness in Organisations .
Source: Adapted from Ukeje, Okorie & Nwagbara (199 2, p. 260).
Educational Administration: – Theory and practice . Owerri:
Totan.
MOTIVATION Beliefs, Attitudes, Values, Needs, Goals.
ABILITY Aptitude & Skills.
PERCEPTION Objects, People, Situation.
PERSONALITY Objects, People, Situation.
ORGANISATIONAL SYSTEM AND RESOURCES Leadership, Rewards, Facilities, Structure.
INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOUR INDIVI-
DUAL PERFOR-MANCE
INDIVI-
DUAL EFFEC- TIVENESS
JOB REQUIRE-MENTS
STANDARD OF PERFORMANCE
34
Among the five factors that are said to contribute to individual
effectiveness, the last one organizational systems and resources is worth
elaborating upon here since it is the factor which is external to the individual
and is under the control of the organization, for better or for worse.
Organizational systems/Resources and Individual Eff ectiveness.
The organizational systems and resources such as the physical
facilities, the reward structure, the organizational structure, leadership,
communication patterns, the system of interrelationships and the levels of
interactions are very influential in determining behaviour and effective
performance of individual members (Ukeje et al, 1992).
In respect to facilities, it is essential to provide organizational members
with things like space, working tools and equipment in order for them to
perform well in the organization. In reference to an educational organization,
both the teachers and the learners must be provided with the necessary
resources for effective work.
The general observation is that teachers teach the way they were
taught in schools (Charles, 1975). If when in schools, teachers were well
taught, they would teach well. If they were poorly taught, they would teach
poorly when they get to teach others. If teachers were taught orally they would
teach orally. If materials were used in teaching when they were in schools,
they would use materials to teach their students. Needless to elaborate on the
other organizational variables like structure, leadership, communication and
interrelationships, which when well-managed are conducive to effective
performance of organizational members.
35
Relevance of Individual Effectiveness Theory to Thi s Study.
Individual effectiveness theory is relevant to this study in the sense that
the study is designed to measure teaching effectiveness of individuals
produced through the Distance Learning Scheme of the National Teachers’
Institute, Kaduna. The organizational systems and resources factor is most
relevant because it is the attribute that links individuals’ effectiveness to the
NTI organization in terms of the latter’s mode of organization, its structural
patterns, facilities, educational leadership, communication and
interrelationships within the organization. Organizational systems and
structure commands much importance in this study because, since the
Distance Learning Scheme does not conform with the regular educational
system, much attention should be given to the organizational strategies and
the structuring of the scheme for effective education delivery. In a state like
Akwa Ibom State with 31 Local Government Areas, but with only eleven study
centres, will physical distance permit many to benefit from the scheme? Even
those who can brace up and overcome the barriers imposed by physical
distance, will modalities of organisation of the NTI permit them to learn
effectively and will they correspondingly effectively demonstrate their skills
when they are called upon to do so in due course?
In terms of facilities, the distance Learning Scheme of the National
Teachers’ Institute is semi-Distance. Course tutors are employed to have
face-to-face interaction with the Distance Learning students. The interest in
this study is the quality of interaction between the learners and the tutors. Do
they explain orally or do they sometimes use teaching/learning materials to
demonstrate some points?
36
In terms of leadership, what is the quality of leadership at the study
centres? In respect to communication, what media and channels of
communication are used in the Distance Learning Scheme? Is multi-media
utilized in the scheme? Is there a free flow of communication in every
direction? What is the interrelationship between the course tutors and the
students’ like? All these are of interest in this study. Hence, the theory of
individual effectiveness, in particular, the organizational systems and
resources aspect, is most relevant to this study.
Conceptualization of Distance Learning
According to Sherry (1996), the terms, distance education or distance
learning have been applied interchangeably by many different researchers to
a great variety of programmes, providers, audiences and media. Keegan
(1986) perceived distance learning as non-contiguous communication
between student and teacher, mediated by print or some form of technology.
Perraton (1988), however, perceived distance learning simply as the
separation of teachers and learners in space and time while Jonassen (1992)
perceived distance learning as the volitional control of learning by the student
rather than by the distant instructor. The office of Technology Assessment of
the US Congress (1992) in Boettcher (1996,p3) defined distance education as
“the transmission of education or instructional programming to geographically-
dispersed individuals or groups”.
Other synonyms of distance learning include: independent study, home
study, correspondence education, distributive learning and remote education
(Mbaya, 2005a).
37
i. Seven elements of distance education collected from Maduka
(1982) and Keegan (1990), all in Mbaya (2005a) are:
ii. the quasi permanent separation of teacher and learner
throughout the length of the learning process as against face-to-
face interaction in regular classes;
iii. the influence of an educational organization both in the planning
and preparation of learning materials and in the provision of
independent study programmes;
iv. the use of technical media; print, audio, video or computer to
unite teachers and learners and to carry the content of the
course;
v. the provision of two-way communication so that the student may
benefit from or even initiate dialogue;
vi. the quasi-permanent absence of learning groups throughout the
length of the learning process, so that people are usually taught
as individuals, with the possibility of occasional meeting for both
didactic and socialization process;
vii. the presence of more technologies than conventional oral
education; and
viii. the privatization of instructional learning (p.21).
The major characteristics of distance education, according to
definitions (n.d.) are three factors, which are:
• the teacher and the students are separated by a distance, which
could mean different classrooms in the same school or different
locations thousands of miles apart,
38
• the instruction are delivered via print, voice, video or computer
technologies; and
• the communication are interactive in the sense that the teacher
receives some feedback from the student (the feedback may be
immediate or delayed).
Based on these different authorities, distance learning as used in this
work, is an educational programme where the instructor and the student may
be separated in space, but they maintain communication, through some
instructional media which the student’s learning opportunities are facilitated to
enable the student acquire a permanent change in behaviour.
Distance Learning Developmental Trends
Based on Sherry (1996), each form of instructional media evolved from
prints. They then evolved to instructional television to the current interactive
technologies. The earliest form of distance learning took place through
correspondence courses in Europe. That was the accepted norm until the
1950s when instructional radio and television were in vogue. Early television
production technology was largely confined to studios and to live broadcasts
in which widely-broadcast classes were conducted by a master-teacher
(Sherry 1996). In the 1970s, emphasis changed from bringing master
teachers to the classrooms to taking children from the classrooms into the
outside world. Instructional television programmes then became mere
enrichment programmes, which were perceived to be not very related to the
school work.
39
According to Sherry (1996), the major drawback in the radio and
television instructional programming was lack of two-way communications
channel between the teacher and the student.
As increasingly sophisticated interactive communication technologies
became available, they were adopted by distance educators. Currently, the
most popular media are computer-based communication, including electronic
mail (e-mail), bulletin board systems, the internet, telephone-based audio-
conferencing, videoconferencing with one or two-way video and 2-way audio
through broadcast, cable, telephone, fiber optics, satellite hook-up, micro-
wave closed-circuit or low-power television, audio graphic teleconferencing,
slow scan or compressed video and fax. These are low-cost solutions for
transmitting visuals as well as audios. There is also the mosaic, a graphical
interface to the world wide web which has become popular in some parts of
Canada, Europe and Australia (Sherry, 1996).
Based on information from the definitions (n.d.), distance learning can
be divided into two types – the synchronous and the asynchronous delivery
types. The synchronous type means that the teacher interacts with students
in real time e.g. in 2-way video-conferencing, students interact with ‘live’ video
of an instructor. Synchronous distance education also includes less complex
technologies as the telephone conversation. In asynchronous delivery,
communication does not take place simultaneously. Rather the teacher
delivers the instruction via video, computer or other means and the students
respond at a later time. For example, instruction may be delivered via web or
videotape and feedback could be sent through e-mail messages.
40
There is still another variety of synchronous distance education, not
mentioned by these writers, but which is practiced where telecommunication
facilities are limited in the developing countries of the world. In this model
students rely heavily on stand-alone texts, which constitute the curriculum of
the distance educational programme. In such models the students do not
need additional reading materials (Lankbeck & Mugler, 2005). Learning
facilitators (tutors) are employed to have occasional face-to-face contacts with
the distance students, and to give and mark assignments, tests and
examinations. This is the type of distance learning in the Southern Pacific
(Lankbeck & Mugher, 2005), and it is this model that NTI adopts in Nigeria.
Such impoverished models of distance learning programmes are used
in the developing countries, which have neither constant supply of electricity
nor the technology or even the financial capability to support modern distance
learning programmes, which are on-line for the most part. Distance students
in the developing countries study under hard conditions, oftentimes with
kerosene lamps and without a library and other educational supports. They
depend mostly on the course texts and on interaction with course tutors for
most of what they acquire from distance education. However, this model
provides them with the two-way face-to-face interaction necessary for
distance learning, without which distance, learning degenerates into the
correspondence courses or independent study (Garrison, 1990, in Sherry,
1998).
Sherry (1996) advised on a number of issues for successful distance
learning schemes including adopting designs which:
41
* encourage interactivity, not only between students and teachers
but between students and students;
* makes students active participants of learning;
* uses visual imagery;
* makes for effective communication;
* encourages inquiry learning; and
* encourages team work.
Characteristics and Study Strategies of Distance Le arners
Boettcher (1996) identified two types of distance students as being:
* those who dropped out of school and decide to come back later
in life; and
* those who combine work and study.
These two groups of students are usually adults who have families so
that their family responsibilities compete for time with their studies.
Nevertheless, distance education provides a way for these groups to reach
their personal goals despite constraining personal circumstances. Students in
the NTDLS belong in the second group. Sherry (1996) mentioned still another
group of distance education beneficiaries as being the secondary school
students, who use distance education mainly as enrichment programmes.
Despite the different backgrounds of distance learners, factors which
influence success are the same, and these are: active listening and the ability
to work independently in the absence of a live instructor (Sharp, 1994, in
Sherry, 1996). Sherry (1996) in effect reported of research which identified
two study strategies used by distance students. These are what he called:
42
* primary, cognitive strategies such as the ability to work
independently of the instructor; and
* secondary affective strategies such as active listening (p.7).
Students who passed their courses differed significantly in primary
strategies from those who failed, in terms of test-wise-ness, concentration and
time management skills. In contrast the research found little difference
among them in the use of secondary strategies, such as diligence and
positive attitudes (Sherry, 1996).
Enquiries from instructors indicated that those who dropped out of the
distance learning scheme were fond of poor time management and
procrastination. Moreover, learning conditions (context) such as climate,
geography, efficiency of the postal system telecommunication facilities,
hearing problems and the institutions support system influenced success in
Alaska (Spunder, in Sherry, 1996). One other factor which was established to
influence success of distance students was teacher mediation. Sherry (1996)
advised that organizers of distance learning should not assume that all
students have sharpened their primary study skills to the same extent, nor
that a positive attitude will make the difference between success and failure.
Students need support and direction to help them make the transition from the
traditional classroom environment to self-directed learning. In particular, there
should be tools to help them monitor their progress and obtain timely
feedback on their activities (Sherry, 1996). The NTDLS in Nigeria may be
better-off in these. Lankbeck & Mugler (2005) reported of two study strategies
used by distance students in the Pacific. These were what they called:
programmatic strategies and sequential strategies (pp. 7-9).
43
Users of programmatic strategies focus their attentions on materials
relevant to the assignment and limit themselves to what needs to be done to
pass the course, by ignoring all other materials. The pragmatic approach is
not a consequence of a low conception of learning as merely absorbing,
storing and reproducing information, but out of the constrains faced by most
distance students and their observation that this strategy often results in
passing courses (Lankbeck & Mugler, 2005).
The sequential strategy consists in proceeding step by step through the
study guide and following the instructions closely. Those who use the
sequential strategy read the course book several times, look up words in the
dictionary, thus taking a long process to understand and grasp. Other skim
through the course texts, write summary notes on the main points in their own
words, which they use for revision during examinations. The sequential
students however resort to the programmatic strategies when deadlines for
assignments and examinations are impending. (Lankbeck & Mugler, 2005).
Four out of six conceptions of learning (Marton, 1993, in Lankbeck &
Mugler, 2005, p. 10) were identified among distance learners in the Southern
Pacific, which were:
(a) learning as an increase in knowledge – learning new things, gaining
more knowledge;
(b) learning as applying – putting into practice the new knowledge gained;
(c) learning as memorizing and reproducing;
(d) learning as understanding;
(e) learning as seeing something in a different way; and
(f) learning as helping persons to change.
44
Conception (a) – (c) are usually regarded as characteristic of
reproductive learning whereas (d) to (f) demonstrates transformative learning,
where the learner works with knowledge to derive meaning and comes to see
the word in a new way (Lenkbeck & Mugler, 2005).
The importance of students’ conceptions of learning is that it is closely
related to how students approach learning tasks. Reproductive conceptions is
usually associated with surface approach to learning whereas, transformative
conception of learning helps students to gain a deep understanding of a
subject rather than mechanical reproduction of knowledge. This later
conception should be a must for every student who is desirous of contributing
usefully and creatively to their countries and themselves (Lankbeck & Mugler,
2005).
Instructional Concerns and Roles of Distance Learni ng Teachers and
Supervisors
Instructional designs and classroom management concerns, which are
often voiced by site facilitators, according to Talab & Newhouse (1993) in
Sherry (1996) and by Apple (1994) all in (Sherry, 1996, pp. 9-10) are the
need for preparation, facilitating rather than traditional teaching, timing and
scheduling, classroom logistics and their responsibilities. Others include, how
to handle students’ misbehaviour and attitudes, physical environment,
technical problems and classroom dynamics. The conclusion reached by
Apple in Sherry (1996) was that classroom management, like technology
expertise, is not a skill that is mastered once and for all by instructors in high-
tech classrooms. They progress through a three-stage model of survival,
mastery and impact. It may take them at least two years for their focus to
45
change from being anxious about themselves, their new physical
environment, equipment malfunctioning and student misbehaviour, to
anticipating problems and developing alternative strategies, exploring
software more aggressively, sharing ideas more freely, increasing student
motivation and interest, and using technology to their advantage. “As
classroom context change, so do classroom management issues” (Sherry,
1996, p. 10). In general, distance learning teachers tend to focus on
increased work load and draw back associated with an innovation before the
benefits of change emerge and the innovation takes hold (Sherry, 1996).
According to Sherry (1996) distance learning teachers must have
sufficient training and field experience to enable them be effective distance
teachers and to use technology successfully in their classrooms. Some of the
classroom behaviours which make for success in distance teaching, are:
advanced preparation, student interaction, use of visual materials, planned
activities for independent study and follow-up activities (US Congress, 1989,
in Sherry 1996, p. 9). Proper training helps distance learning teachers to
change from regular teacher behaviours to developing new teaching skills.
The new skills which distance learning teachers should acquire include:
* understanding the nature and philosophy of distance education;
* identifying learner characteristics at distant sites;
* adapting teaching technologies to deliver instruction at a
distance;
* organizing instructional resources in a format suitable for
independent study;
* training and practice in the use of telecommunication systems;
46
* becoming involved in organization, collaborative planning and
decision-making;
* evaluating student achievement, attitudes, and perceptions at
distant sites; and
* dealing with copyright issues (Schlosser & Anderson, (1992) in
Sherry (1996, p. 9).
Roles of site facilitators include motivating and encouraging the
students, keeping their enthusiasm and maintaining disciple in the classroom.
They are also responsible for the smooth-running of equipment, helping
students with interaction, handing out, collecting and grading papers, guiding
collaborative groups who are working with manipulatives, answering
questions when necessary and assisting the teacher when asked. The site
facilitator also carries out assessment procedures defined by the teacher via
print, portfolio, on-line communications or FAX (Sherry, 1996). Site facilitators
should not be beginning teachers, who are anxious to use new technology,
but should be mid-career staff who are selected because of their subject
backgrounds, availability and general teaching ability rather than mere
volunteers. These roles are performed by course-tutors serving the NTIDLS
and they differ in Nigeria, because the teachers are in direct contact with
students. A study is needed to find out the roles played by centre-
coordinators in NTIDLS in Nigeria.
Comparisons of Distance and Traditional Education: Empirical and Non-
Empirical Findings
Some researchers claim that that education offered by distance
learning is better because it is more cost-effective; the lower the unit costs,
47
the larger the number of students compared to the traditional system of
education (Rumble, 1982). In a similar vein, Ayeni (1983) maintained that
primary school teachers choose the correspondence system to continue their
education primarily because the programme is offered on an in-service basis.
The teachers are able to work and earn income during the correspondence
period in order to pay the fees charged and at the same time put something
away to maintain their families. This flexible arrangement enables the teacher
to maintain his family and at the same time improve educationally, while in the
ultimate, the employer benefits from the teacher’s improved level of
professional competence.
Other researchers perceive effectiveness of distance learning in
relation to its interactivity. According to Sherry (1996), the interaction is not
limited to audio and video, nor solely to teacher-student interactions but
represents the connectivity the students feel with the distance teacher, the
local teacher, aids, facilitators, and their peers. The two-way communication
between the students and others makes distance education not an
independent and isolated form of learning. Students learn not only from their
instructors, who provide content expertise and feedback to each individual,
but also from other adult learners in the classroom setting (Hanser, 2006).
After ten years of involvement in teaching (1976 – 1985) at Ahmadu
Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria, an NCE programme which combined two
educational models (face-to-face contact sessions and correspondence
sessions) Agboola (2000) made an evaluative study of the two educational
models.
48
The research designs used were descriptive survey and analysis of
students’ records for scores. The study population was the 1984 final year
NCE students in face-to-face cum correspondence educational programme at
Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. The stratified random sampling method was
used to select 120 students from the population of 370 students. The selected
sampled cut across all teaching subject areas. The survey instrument was
researcher-constructed. The number of items was not indicated as well as the
measurement scale. But, it was meant for students to assess the
correspondence materials in terms of:
(i) the language used;
(ii) the illustrations and sketches used;
(iii) the contents of the lectures;
(iv) the activities and the tutor-marked assignments; and
(v) the textbook references (Agboola, 2000, p. 12).
Records were also checked to obtain students scores in both sections
of the programme. Methods of data analysis included frequency counts,
percentages, analysis of variance (ANOVA) and the coefficient of consensus.
Data analysis involved weighting the students’ scores, converting them
to percentages, establishing a statistical difference between the two sets of
scores and then the coefficient of consensus between the two sets of scores.
Findings about the correspondence section were as follows:
• the language used scored 42.1 percent;
• the illustrations used scored 60.7 percent;
• adequacy of the content of the lectures scored 53.6 percent;
• adequacy and suitability of the activities scored 32.4 percent;
49
• textbook references were indicated to be not readily available;
and
• the marking of tutor assignment was scored 51.9 percent by the
correspondent students. (Agboola, 2000, pp. 72 – 73).
On the whole, 92 percent of the student felt satisfied with the contact
sessions. The final results of the correspondence section were very
encouraging with a pass range of 88 – 100 percent. The respondents
preferred the merging of face-to-face contact sessions and correspondence
sessions rather than have face-to-face contact all through (Agboola, 2000).
With regard to the relationship between the correspondence and contact
sections the following results were obtained:
(1) a high positive correlation (0.8) between the quality of scores in
the correspondent section and the face-to-face section of the
course.
(2) there was a low positive correlation (0.048) between the quality
of semester scores of the correspondence students and their
final results but a negative correlation (-0.048) between the
quality of semester scores in the face-to-face sessions and their
final results.
(3) there was a very low correspondence (concordance) between
the quality of semester scores and final NCE examination
scores for both the correspondence sessions and the face-to-
face contact sessions.
The author identified certain problems that faced that particular
correspondence method of teaching. These were lack of sufficient
50
duplicating/printing materials, poor co-operation of the few commercial
printers employed, and slow rate at which correspondence course-writers
complete their assignments which often caused problems. The poor supply of
the correspondence study materials affected the rate and mode of submission
of the tutor-marked assignments (Agboola, 2000). Most of the contact
session teachers were hard working and dedicated to the course of the
students they taught while others were not. The contact sessions’ timetables
were often overloaded beyond the official courses supplied by some subject
departments. This robbed the students of their free time and the time to do
extra reading and writing of assignments given.
Agboola (2000) maintained that the effectiveness of distance teaching
skills is in no doubt identical with that of the non-distance teaching methods.
For instance, the quality rating of the content of lectures in the NCE guides
showed that they were of high quality and adequate for the NCE level in all
subjects except in mathematics, where there was a split decision, which might
have arisen due to the textbooks which were to supplement the study guide
lectures, but which were not readily available. Agboola (2004) further
intimated that textbook references were not up to-date, while the journal
articles were not accessible to the students; much work was done during
contact session; the contact sessions contributed more in quality than the
correspondence sessions shown in the high ratings for most of the subjects;
poor teachers’ attitude; long duration of the course; high fees for tuition and
feeding and good academic performance of students in their NCE final
results. The author declined to draw a conclusion on the excuse that the
51
study was a general survey. He however recommended further investigation
into the effectiveness of distance and face-to-face methods of teaching.
Having taught on-line, many courses on criminal justice systems of
many nations around the world, Hanser (2006) made quantitative and
qualitative analysis of on-line education as compared to in-class education.
The quantitative analysis was made while teaching a course titled, “CJUS
250: Courts and Criminal Justice”, at the University of Louisiana, Monroe, in
the year, 2004. One section of the class with a population of 44 students was
taught in the traditional classroom while the other with a population of 22
students was taught online. The research design was classical experimental,
having both the experimental and control groups. Both groups were enrolled
in the identical course and took identical examinations. Both sections of the
course ran simultaneously. Three separate examinations given during the
course provided data for the study as well as students’ ratings of the
instructor’s teaching effectiveness.
Each test was a 50-items multiple choice, which students took using
the open-book format. Data which resulted from the test scores were
computer-analyzed.
Two research questions which guided the study were:
• will on-line formats of instruction produce significantly different
learning?
• will students express more or less satisfaction with on-line forms of
educational delivery? (Hanser 2006, p.84).
Results indicated that whichever version of the course was taken by
students, the average grades received was 71 or letter grade C at the end of
52
the semester. The minute differences between test scores in the in-class and
on-line sections of the course was not statistically significant when subjected
to t-test for significance.
From students’ survey, it was discovered that students in the on-line
class felt that the class was more challenging. The instructor received an
overall rating of 4.9 out of 5 in the on-line course as compared to 4.8 out of 5
in the in-class section of the course. Generally, the instructor was given very
high ratings in both sections of the course and the students in the on-line
class seemed to like their learning experiences better than students in the
traditional classroom.
Hanser (2006) concluded that on-line education and traditional forms of
education produce similar, if not identical outcomes in learning. He
recommended that rather than students from developing countries move to a
foreign country for education, the on-line fora could be a more viable option,
thus making savings for both the students and their home countries.
Summary of Merits of Distance Education
Mohammed (2005) pointed out five cardinal merits of distance education,
which included accessibility, affordability, qualitativeness, being strike-free
and being universally-recognised. More merits of distance education include:
• helping learners overcome barriers of location, time and learning
pace;
• accommodation of different learning styles;
• useful for all kinds of studies – part-time/full time,
postgraduate/undergraduate, credit/non-credit learning;
53
• being cost-effective especially where there are large numbers of
students taking a course;
• allowing professionals to acquire additional qualifications and to
update their knowledge and skills. (Mohammed, 2006, p. 28).
• a desirable supplement to the traditional classroom model of
education (Henser, 2006).
• providing educational access to a diverse body of consumers;
• easing the problem of resource unavailability in higher
education; and
• meeting increased demand for education with less funding
(Hanser, 2006)
• students do not have to disrupt their lives to attend (Hanser,
2006)
• encouraging active learning rather than passive learning which
is the characteristic of the traditional classroom.
Despite all the benefits which distance education is reputed to have, an
inconclusive finding was made in rating the effectiveness of NTI-produced
teachers in Nigeria. The study was a pilot study by Etuk & Etudor (2006).
The ex-post-facto survey design was used. The purposive sampling
technique was used to select 200 students-teachers who were attending a
sandwich (long vacation) programme of the University of Uyo, in the
2005/2006 long vacation. The student-teachers already had their NCE
diplomas through the NTIDLS and were then working towards obtaining
higher teaching qualifications – the Bachelor of Education (B.Ed) in their
various teaching subjects. The student teachers were members of a class in a
54
general course in education titled, “EDU 411: Curriculum and Instruction II”.
Twenty one (21) head-teachers in primary schools where those teachers
served during the semester were also contacted in their different schools to
be co-participants in the study.
The research instrument was a global instrument on teaching
effectiveness, which required respondents to rate the degree of teaching
effectiveness of NTI-produced teachers using a 3-point scale of very effective
(3-points) somewhat effective (2-points) and ineffective (1-point). This was to
help the researchers test the hypothesis that there was no significant
difference between the ratings of head-teachers and their teaching staff on
the teaching effectiveness of NTI-produced teachers.
The responses obtained were analysed using percentages and the t-
test statistical techniques at 0.05 level of significance. Results indicated that
no school administrator (zero percent) rated the NTI-produced teachers as
very effective; 52 percent administrators rated NTI produced teachers
somewhat effective, while 48 percent administrators rated NTI-produced
teachers ineffective. On the other hand, 48 percent student-teachers rated
NTI-produced teachers very effective; 78 percent rated NTI-produced
teachers somewhat effective, and 13 percent rated NTI produced teachers not
effective. Some of the teachers were themselves NTI-products and that might
have coloured what was meant to be peer-rating to be self-rating teacher
effectiveness.
However, an independent t-test analysis at 0.05 level of significance
gave a statistically significant result (t-cal = 13.50; t-crit = 1.97) with the
teachers’ ratings being more in favour of NTI-produced teachers than the
55
administrators. It was concluded that the combined self-rating and peer
ratings were more in favour of NTI-products than those of head-teachers. The
study recommended a further investigation into ratings of effectiveness of
NTI-produced teachers.
With particular reference to the NTI, Mbaya (2005) found that the
subject monitoring findings usually reflect weaknesses in the area of
programme delivery, which sometimes may border on late and inadequate
supply of instructional/support materials to study centres, inadequate and
unqualified personnel e.g. course tutors, supervisors, etc; unqualified students
that are admitted into the programme. Others reported weaknesses include
poor remuneration paid to supervisors and course tutors, poor attendance at
tutorials by course tutors and students, unsatisfactory handling of vital
operations of the programme such as continuous assessment, conduct of
practicals, project writing and submission. Inadequate facilities at study
centres for course tutors and students, existence of unviable and inaccessible
study centres; disparity in the number of units of the expected tutorial hours
for a semester and allocation of marks to continuous assessment,
maintenance of computer training centres, from centre to centre, were also
found as weakness of the programme.
Educational Content and Learning Activities of a Cu rriculum
The criteria for selecting content and learning activities for a curriculum
as contained in Etuk, Udosen & Edem (2004) are offered below:
(1) the ability of the content to meet the needs and interests of
learners, its significance, its validity, learnability and
transferability
56
(2) the ability of the content to foster the development of peer-
relationships and group interactions among learners and
(3) the gradient of difficulty which should be within the learners’
intellectual levels.
More criteria include feedback, satisfaction to student, practicability,
comprehensiveness, variety, suitability, relevance, stability, efficiency and
balance, pp. 81–84. Some of those criteria are explained here.
Meeting Learners’ Needs and Interests
The curriculum content should be constructed with different kinds of
students in mind: the slow learners and fast learners; the high academic
achievers and the low academic achievers; those who like school and those
who do not. The initial activities, in particular, should attract the attention of
each student and seem worth doing. Students should like to participate either
because they achieve something, learn something they had wanted to learn,
enjoy the activities they are interested in or emulate persons they respect who
are doing them. The activities should be well within the capabilities of the
students to carry them on successfully. When this happens, they gain
confidence in going on with further activities.
Tyler (1975) warns against the use of repetitive drills, because they
soon become boring. He admonished that human beings rarely want to be
shaped by others. Each person has purposes and interests of his own and
utilizes his energy to further his purposes and satisfy his interests. If a school
activity is perceived by the learner as being interesting and useful for the
individual purpose (congruent with his needs) the learner enters into it
energetically. If the school activity seems uninteresting, boring, irrelevant and
57
painful, the learner avoids it completely, or limits his involvement as much as
possible.
Significance: Basic ideas, concepts and principles should form the bases for
the subject-matter. For instance, a mathematics programme must have
elements of addition and subtraction.
Validity: The content should be true and authentic. If the content does not
appear to be valid in a particular environment, the teacher has the right to
change it. For instance, if the prescribed organism or substance for learning a
particular unit is not available within the neighbourhood of the school, a
substitute should be found for studies. Validity also implies that the learning
experiences which students acquire must help the students achieve the
objectives set for that particular lesson. For instance, if the objectives for a
lesson in integrated science is for students to master the external features of
a fish, they should experience the fish both alive in water and as a preserved
specimen which they can closely observe. They should draw the fish and
label the different parts. Such experiences help to bring about the required
learning outcomes as specified in the objectives.
Learnability: It should be possible for students to perform the activities or
carry out the behaviours that are intended by the objectives formulated for the
content.
Transferability: The learning experience embodied in the content must be
transferable from the school to life outside the school and from one learning
situation to another. Education is not successful if students do not transfer
what they learn in school to life outside the school or from one situation within
the school to another. In the opinion of Tyler (1975), every educational
58
programme should be designed to develop new ways of doing things – new
ways of thinking, feeling and acting in different situations in life, new ways of
viewing situations, solving problems, understanding and explaining
phenomena, responding emotionally to aesthetic experiences, new kinds of
interests and new social, intellectual and communication skills.
These are often in sharp contrast to the habits, ideas and practices of
many students. The content and learning opportunities designed for students
should be such that will help them apply these new ways of behaviour to life
situations outside the school environment. Otherwise, the learning
experiences are lost within the boundaries of the school without being
transferred to life outside the classroom. Therefore, for every stated objective,
the curriculum developer should endeavour to consider the ways in which the
conditions under which the behaviour being learnt, can be appropriately
transferred to life outside the classroom. This implies that a set of learning
experiences embodied in a particular content in the curriculum should be such
that stimulates the students to apply the knowledge, skill and attitude acquired
when out of school.
Fostering Peer-Group Interactions : Peer-group influences should be used
as much as possible to attain the desired objectives. Group projects, games,
discussions and group problem-solving should be born in mind in selecting
content for learning. Such activities provide powerful learning experiences for
learners. Solitary activities are hard for children to carry on for along time.
Two students of different ages can relate in a tutoring relationship and
children of the same age, in co-operative relationship or competitive contests
(Tyler, 1975).
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Gradient of Difficulty of the Content : Activities embodied in the content
should be suited to the students’ ages and levels of knowledge. The activities
should suit the students’ intellectual levels (Piaget, 1963 in Etuk, Udosen &
Edem, 2004) and their physical development levels. This is very important
especially in assigning projects to students.
Feedback : Feedback mechanism must be embedded in the learning
experiences so that students can judge for themselves whether or not they
have mastered the objectives. Workbooks, review questions and answers
could serve this purpose.
Reinforcement/Satisfaction : The students must obtain satisfaction from the
learning experiences in order for it to become part of the repertoire of his/her
experiences. Satisfaction is obtained when students’ contributions are
reinforced either positively or negatively.
Practicability : The experiences must be practicable.
Comprehensiveness : The scope of experiences must be wide enough to
embrace all the domains of the objectives.
Variety : This means that the learning experiences that learners acquire
should vary. This implies that learners should not engage in the same kind of
activities in the course of each lesson. Varieties should be introduced like,
working in groups, doing projects and some practical work. Activities should
complement every class work.
Suitability : The learning acquired should be suitable for that level of
learners.
Relevance : The learning acquired should be relevant to the overall
educational goals/aims/objectives of a people.
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Stability : The subject content transmitted to students should not be subject
to frequent changes and innovations in the knowledge culture. Before a
subject-matter content is incorporated into the school curriculum, it must have
been ascertained through research that it is an enduring principle.
Balance : A balance should be maintained among the subject disciplines so
that one subject-matter area does not overshadow the others.
Textbook Evaluation
Having made a study of ten textbooks evaluation schemes and ten
textbook reviews, Ansary & Babaii (n.d) came up with universal criteria that
English language textbook assessors and reviewers usually use. These
consist of the:
• Approach, which involves dissemination of a vision, theory or approach
about nature of language, nature of learning and how the theory can be
put into use.
• Context Presentation, which involves stating purposes and objectives
for the total course and for individual units.
• Selection and its Rationale, which include coverage, grading,
organisation and sequencing.
• Satisfaction of the Syllabus to both the student and the teacher. To the
teacher: providing a guide, giving advice on methods, the exercises
and giving supplementary materials. To the student: availability of unit
by unit instruction, supplying graphics, periodic revisions, workbooks,
exercises and activities in the classroom, homework, sample exercises
with clear instructions, being varied and copious having periodic test
sections and accompanying audio-visual aids.
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• Physical Make-up, which include appropriate size and weight, attractive
layout, durability, high quality of editing and publishing, and appropriate
title.
• Administration Concerns, including macro-state policies,
appropriateness for local situations, - for different cultures, religions,
gender, and appropriate prices.
The authors maintained that, “perhaps no neat formula or system may
ever provide a definite way to judge a textbook” (Ansary & Babaii, n.d., p.3).
They went ahead and reviewed the criteria for textbook evaluation put forward
by two authors at different points in time (Tucker, 1975 & Tomlinson, 1996, all
in Ansary & Babaii, n.d.). The authors maintained that the criteria for textbook
evaluation recommended by the former (Tucker, 1975), involves a four-
column design. Column one contains the universal theory – neutral
characteristics of EFL/ESL textbooks; in the second column, the evaluator
may decide to insert his/her situation-friendly criteria, based probably on the
results of students’ needs analysis. The third column should contain a perfect
value score (PVS) of 2, which should indicate an ideal weight assigned to
each defined criterion, while the fourth column should contain a merit score
(MS) of which value should range from 0 – 2.
The basis for rating a textbook should be derived from the third and
fourth columns by assigning a comparative weight to the actual scrutinized
criterion of the textbook by comparing it with the ideal defined criterion (PVS
in column 3) and the actual reality in a particular textbook. For a perfect match
with the ideal, the assessed textbook is assigned a score of 2, a total lack of
match, a score of zero (0) and any inadequate match a score of one (1).
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This should be followed by a graphical representation of the MS and
PVS for the textbook. This model is said to have certain advantages,
including comparing and contrasting the ratings by several textbook raters in
order to reach the correlated consensus of several opinions on a single
textbook, which can be easily displayed in the same graph. Secondly, an
evaluator can display his judgments about several textbooks on a single
graph using a separate line for each textbook. That way, profiles of various
textbooks could be seen in contrast to the ideal, which should be drawn with a
solid line. Such a method will affirm how a particular textbook satisfies
requirements (Asary & Babaii, n.d.). If that is done, not only will differences
between textbooks be portrayed but also any instances of marked variations
can be noted and revised.
This model should be approached in either of two ways: by an
evaluator examining a particular textbook to identify its characteristics and the
judging against a preferred criterion or by an evaluator first defining the
preferred options and then investigating how far a particular textbook matches
the chosen criteria.
The authors concluded that however perfect a textbook is, it is just a
simple tool in the hands of teachers. Teachers should not be expected to
work miracles with textbooks. ‘What is more important about a textbook is
what teachers can do with it (Ansary & Babaii, n.d.).
Meachean (1982) simply put the criteria for choosing a textbook for
distance learning into three categories of appropriateness, readability and
availability:
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Appropriateness
An appropriate text should, in the first instance relate to the described
content and objectives of the subject it is recommended for. Unfortunately,
many recommended texts do not have this close relationship (Meachean,
1982). Consequently, either the subject gravitates away from its official
description, or the text is only used peripherally despite its often considerable
expense. If the match between subject and text is assumed, then all things
being equal, a chosen text should:
• have a logical scope and sequence;
• reflect recent developments in scholarly research;
• attempt to interpret the methods and results of research as they
apply to theories and statements of facts;
• have a conceptual framework that gives it direction and purpose
while achieving a consistent theoretical perspective;
• have a content based on identifiable and acceptable assumptions
and factual information relevant to any concepts examined;
• be consistent in the use of terminology and concepts without
ambiguities, vague terms and unclear meanings;
• have a defensible scheme for the selection of materials;
• attempt to focus on or identify problems and hypotheses that can
serve to stimulate students’ thoughts and enquiry;
• encourage students to question various observations and related
interpretations of reported phenomena;
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• promote the creative discovery of relationships by students and
provide creative encounters in the form of cases, experiments,
episodes, dilemmas;
• deal freely with controversial issues and where feasible, should
identify all points of view, and if one point of view is preferred,
should make clear on what ground the conclusion was reached;
and
• have definitive, detailed and annotated bibliographies with fully
identified statistical data sources.
Some of these criteria are more applicable to particular subjects than to
others, and there are no doubt, additional factors to be considered in some
cases. However, the importance of choosing a text after some informed and
rational examination of alternatives cannot be denied.
Readability
Based on Meachean (1982), when choosing a text particular
consideration should be paid to its readability, notwithstanding all arguments
about the need to use the language of the discipline being taught and not
some imitation which uses inferior than original version. If students fail
because they cannot read a set text, the book is useful for the purpose of
selection rather than instruction. Unreadable texts increase uncertainly in the
minds of students. Tolerance of uncertainty varies from student to student, but
eventually all will give up reading if a text is too difficult. It follows that to
choose a suitable text it is desirable to attempt to predict its readability and
consider just what makes a text difficult. Unfortunately, individual judgments
have proved to be unreliable, probably because of instructors’ differing
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academic experiences. Meachean (1982) strongly advised that judgments
about the readability of text be made in consideration with the reader’s factors
in order to extend and make more reliable professional judgement.
Based on Meachean (1982, pp. 1 – 2) some points to note when
considering readability are:
• taking care of a combination of reader factors and textual factors by
keeping the potential reader in mind;
• knowing that college students are, generally less able readers than
lecturers expect them to be, so don’t just choose texts for students;
• knowing that reading ability varies according to task, so advantage
of situations should be taken where the students are already
familiar with the content of a text;
• knowing that motivational factors tend to be overestimated, so even
if the content is inspirational, it can still cause reading difficulties;
• readability checklist is in part a consequence of textual factors such
as:
(i) legibility of print – Is the print legible?
(ii) illustrations – Do the illustrations assist or distract from
comprehension?
(iii) vocabulary – Is the vocabulary as simple as is
permissible?
(iv) conceptual difficulty – Is the level of conceptual difficulty
and density appropriate?
(v) syntax – Is the syntax familiar enough to facilitate
reading?
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(vi) organisation – Is the material organised and indexed in a
logical manner?
Generally, do the students have experiences, competences and
motivations which suggest they can and will read the chosen texts?
Availability
At the risk of stating the obvious, if students cannot obtain texts they
cannot read them. The non-availability of texts is a recurring problem which
according to Meachean (1982) results from:
• the small size of the market in the specialist text;
• unreliability of steady production;
• lack of communication between suppliers;
• failure to place orders with suppliers; and
• remoteness of students.
In view of these problems, the utmost care must be taken to ensure
that students are provided with as few difficulties as possible. Meachean
(1982) advised that the following action should be taken to counter
unavailability:
• checking the availability of books with the bookshop before making
a final choice;
• checking with publishers/suppliers if the chosen book is both new
and highly specialised; and
• being aware of the availability claims of publishers’ representatives.
Finally, having made an appropriate choice of texts, some thoughts
should be given to its use. Books clearly serve a variety of purposes. An
edited series of readings will have a different function to a catalogue of factual
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information. However, it is important that whatever the style of the chosen
text, it should be integrated with the accompanying notes. A booklist and
series of examination questions is inadequate for the majority of students
(Meachean, 1982). If the aim is to attempt to replicate for the external student
all the learning experiences of the on-campus student, then the text will
usually only be a substitute for the formal lecture. Seminars, informal
discussions and other aspects of active student learning need to be
substituted for with an appropriate set of notes (Meachean, 1982, pp. 1 – 2, 5
– 9).
The criteria of appropriateness and readability are very important in
assessing NTIDL textbooks because since they are “stand-alone texts”
(Lankbeck & Mugler, 2005, p. 2), (written specifically for use by the NTI
students) they are not in circulation for purchase by other students. Besides,
those books might not have gone through an external assessment and there
is the possibility of the content of the books being pitched higher than the
NCE level, since the books are written by university dons. This suspicion was
confirmed by course tutors interviewed during data collection, who maintained
that some units in the course materials are at the level of year four university
degree work. Availability of NTIDL texts may be a problem to students too.
Even though the cost of textbooks and materials are built into the tuition fees,
reports from students indicate that the texts do not go round every hand. We
do not know where the problem arises; whether the NTI does not publish
enough texts to go round every student and tutor or some students collect
more than one copy. Mbaya (2005), a personnel in the NTI, even affirmed late
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arrival and lack of reading texts as some of the factors that cause poor
performance by NTI students.
Curriculum Evaluation
Three variables, which are of major concern in curriculum evaluation,
are the educational programme , the students and the teachers (Etuk,
Udosen & Edem, 2004).
Programme Evaluation
The educational programme must be evaluated within the period of its
development and throughout the period of implementation. The purpose of
programme evaluation is to see how the programme is doing, whether the
purpose in setting up the educational programme is accomplished, whether
the recommended texts and teaching/learning materials are easily obtainable
and whether the teachers can use the equipment made available for the
implementation of the programme
Programme evaluation is usually done in the course of its development
and throughout the implementation stage. It is done to see:
• how useful the programme is to the learners;
• whether the objectives set for the programme are attainable and
the materials required for teaching are available;
• how well students do in examinations after undergoing the
programme;
• whether the curriculum content and the textbooks that
accompany the programme are arranged in logical sequence.
(Etuk, Udosen & Edem, 2004, p.95).
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These information are essential so that the educational programme
could be relevant to the needs of students and the society. Curriculum
modification or revision may be instituted whenever the learning programme is
found to be failing in any of these areas. Programme evaluation is an ongoing
process. Evaluation of the educational programme takes place in three
stages. These consist of the:
• diagnostic evaluation;
• formative evaluation; and
• summative evaluation (Etuk, Udosen & Edem, 2004, p.96)
Formative Evaluation
Formative is derived from the world ‘form’. Formative evaluation
therefore implies that the evaluation conducted at this stage is meant to give
form or shape to the educational programme. Formative evaluation of the
educational programme is conducted at the trial-testing stages through the
operation or implementation stage. The variables of concern at the formative
evaluation stage include: adequacy of the objectives, adequacy and
relevance of the learning content, the adequacy of implementation strategies,
problems encountered by the instructors and students performances in the
programme.
Strategies for formative evaluation as recommended by Salia-Bao
(1989), in Etuk, Udosen & Edem (2004, p.96) include:
• observation of students in class;
• discussion with teachers, students, parents and with school
administrators;
• testing students’ knowledge of the curriculum content;
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• formal and information interviews with or without a questionnaire
with stakeholders of the educational establishment.
Students Evaluation and Performance in Schools
After going through an educational programme, students are usually
assessed and judgments made on their performances. Generally speaking,
students should be evaluated on the knowledge acquired from an educational
programme (otherwise known as the cognitive or intellectual skills); on what
they can make with their hands, legs and other body parts: on their attitudes
to work and on their spiritual and human relationships. All these fit into the
three domains of objectives – the cognitive, affective and the psychomotor
domains. Among these three, the cognitive abilities of students are most
often evaluated in every instructional situation. (The categories under the
cognitive domain are reviewed under quality assurance).
Students’ are usually evaluated on mastery of the subject-matter. This
is known through students’ scores in tests and examinations and what they
can make with their hands, in general. The score obtained by an individual
student is used to rate that student’s intellectual stand, either by comparing
the score to those of other students (norm-referenced) or by the degree of the
student’s mastery of the subject matter of the instruction (criterion -
referenced). Students’ scores are also used for making decisions about the
students. These include decisions about promotion to another class, decision
to admit for higher education, decision to give the student educational
assistance like scholarship and in the larger society, students’ grades in
evaluations in school can be used to grant the student employment (Etuk,
Udosen & Edem, 2004).
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Students’ performances in schools are often attributed to several
factors, which may include the background of the student, the school in which
the student is educated, the teacher who teaches the student, availability of
facilities for teaching and learning, the peers and company kept by the
student, and to the natural attributes of the student. The natural attributes
include the students’ natural givens like, intellectual level, self-discipline
capabilities, and the level of concentration which individual students can
possibly attain.
Carroll (1963) in Etuk (2002a) attributed students’ learning
achievements to four factors, which involved the learning context, the degree
of interaction with the learner, the quality of instruction by the teacher, and the
learner’s natural abilities. In terms of the learning context, time allowed for
learning was uppermost in the list. In terms of the degree of interactions with
the learner, the quality of instruction by the teacher, and the level of
motivation of the student. The fourth factor was the student’s natural ability.
Similarly, Omojuwa (2005) attributed poor performances of Nigerian learners
to four factors, comprising the educational policy, methods of teaching,
teacher preparation and competence and unavailability of teaching/learning
facilities in schools.
One Important attribute of the student worthy of mention in this study is
students’ attitude to school work. Attitude is a mental position with regards to
feelings or emotions towards a fact or state; or an organismic state of
readiness to respond in a characteristic way to a stimulus. It is a way of
thinking and feeling, which affects human behaviour and performance of tasks
(Ani, 1997, in Akpan, 2006). The attitudes that students show toward school
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subjects have been directly linked to their ability to succeed academically in
certain subjects. In an exploratory analysis of students’ attitudes and
academic achievement, Akey (2006) found that positive feelings about one’s
ability to be successful academically strongly predicted improved reading and
mathematics achievement. Researchers who share in this view include Ani
(1997) in Akpan (2006) and Ubom (2003).
One frequently negative attitude shown by students which affect their
academic achievement is absenteeism A lot of factors including shame of
backwardness or failure in class work and assignment; parents’ unduly high
expectation for academic achievement; and lack of learning materials have
been given for students’ tendency to be absent from classes. Wojciechowski
and Palmer (2005), in a research report indicated that the grade or score that
students receive in a course depends on their attendance in class sessions.
Similarly, Enyinnaya (1999), earlier reported that irregularity of students in
attendance to lessons retarded their academic achievements. He however
added that the students’ individual differences also influenced their
achievements.
Students’ Performance in Mathematics
Mathematics is one of the subjects which most people, including the
students of Mathematics generally view as difficult. A mere mention of the
word “Mathematics” sends anxiety across the minds of most of the students of
Mathematics and those of the general public. But interestingly, in everyday
life, people regardless of their age, gender, religion, literacy level or ethnic
group, carry out certain activities, which involve this most dreaded subject,
“Mathematics”. For instance, a mother in the kitchen preparing meal for the
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members of her family has to carry out some form of measurements,
numeration and arithmetic in order to prepare the right quantity and quality of
food for the family; the farmer in order to obtain a good yield measures
distances apart suitable for each of the different crops he cultivates. In the
market, the buyer as well as the seller get involved with simple arithmetic; and
in the government, budgets that are prepared involve mathematical activities.
In the educational system, mathematics is accorded a premier position;
it is one of the core and compulsory subjects in the school curriculum which
all the secondary school students must register for in the West African Senior
School Certificate Examinations (WASSCE) and in the National Examinations
Council (NECO) examinations. In this era of rapid technological
advancement, so much attention has been given to science and technology
education, especially in a developing country like Nigeria. The knowledge of
science and technology could be applied in solving a variety of human
problems such as the provision of better health services through the invention
of new drugs and advanced medical equipments. However, the study of
science and technology will not be very possible without the basic knowledge
of mathematics. This is because, according to Etuk (2003), activities such as
measurements, numeracy, calculations and evaluations carried out in science
and technology are all aspects of mathematics. The above fact places
mathematics at the foundation of any scientific or technological endeavour
and justifies why mathematics has been made a pre-requisite for studying any
of the science and technology oriented courses in the universities and other
institutions of higher learning.
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Despite the wide-ranging utility of mathematics and its vital role in
national development, students still perform poorly in the subject. Various
media organs carry reports of learners’ inability to perform well at the various
examinations as indicated by (Agwanyang, 2004). The West African Senior
School Certificate Examinations’ Chief Examiner’s report for the years 1999;
2000; 2002; in Agwanyang (2004) showed unabated declining performance
especially in the areas of science, technology and mathematics (STM).
The problem of poor performance by students has caused the
educators, parents, educational psychologists, the government and even the
students, serious concerns over the years. In emphasizing the need for
students to develop more interest in mathematics, Etuk (2003) maintained
that mathematics is an embodiment of science, because measurement and
evaluation are two mathematical activities, which are highly utilized in the field
of science and technology. She added that “numeracy is a regular companion
of literacy” (p.140) and it is also a companion of science and technology. By
this she was emphasizing the need for students to develop more interest in
the study of mathematics because, knowledge of mathematics is an element
of literacy which is a purveyor of science and technology.
Etuk (2003) copiously made suggestions towards removing barriers
imposed by such factors as: cultural variables like beliefs, and language; poor
educational environment in both the family and the school, which are devoid
of facilities to stimulate children’s curiosity and learning; and poor teaching
methods used by teachers.
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Teachers Evaluation and Ratings of Teaching Effecti veness
Evaluation of teachers is usually done by the teacher-employer or by
the head of the educational institution, who by virtue of his/her role is
authorized to represent the employer. Teachers’ appraisals include their
abilities to implement the curriculum. Taking decisions on teachers is beyond
the responsibility of the curriculum developer. Weaknesses noticed among
teachers who implement a particular curriculum are reported to the employer
who may mount educational programmes or workshops designed to reduce
the deficiencies (Etuk, Udosen & Edem, 2004).
Teacher evaluation is necessary because employers expect effective
classroom behaviours from teachers. Stakeholders expect teachers to be
models for the children they teach because they spend most of their school
time with them. They expect teachers to affect children’s behaviours in a
positive way.
Peer Rating of Teaching Effectiveness
According to Berk (2005) peer rating of teaching consists of two
activities – peer observations of in-class teaching performance and peer
rating of written documents used in a course. Peer observation of teaching
performance requires a rating scale that covers those aspects of teaching that
peers are better qualified to evaluate than students. The questionnaire
items usually address the instructor’s content knowledge, delivery, teaching
methods, learning activities and the like. The ratings may be recorded live,
with one or more peers in one or multiple occasions or from videotaped
classes.
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Peer rating of teaching materials requires a different type of scale to
rate the quality of the course, syllabus, instructional plans, texts, reading
assignments, handouts, home work, tests/projects, sometimes teaching
behaviours such as fairness, grading practices, ethics and professionalism.
Berk (2005) mentioned the advantages of the review of teaching materials to
include being less subjective, more cost-effective and being more efficient
than peer observations. Peer observation was upheld because it was said to
“provide direct evaluations of the act of teaching” (Berk, 2005, p. 51). He
recommended the use of both types of peer ratings, where possible in a
comprehensive system of evaluation. Peer rating however, is not without
problems, some of the criticism leveled against peer rating include: having
subjective and personalized ratings, low inter-reviewer reliability, being a one-
shut exercise, failure to measure important characteristics of teaching
effectiveness and on account of it having less likelihood of being used by
administrators for summative evaluation.
Employer (PTA) and Administrator’s Ratings of Teach ing Effectiveness
According to Berk (2005), employers’ (parents’) ratings provide an
indirect source of evidence for programme evaluation decisions about
teaching effectiveness and attainment of programme outcomes.
Based on Unruh and Willier (1974) in Etuk (2007), educated members
of the community are usually the ones who show interest in what the school in
their community is doing. But, their expectations from the school are usually
very high.
In terms of administrations, they are qualified to rate teaching
effectiveness because they have expertise in teaching methods, classroom
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evaluation techniques and content in the discipline (Diamond, 2004). Diamond
(2004) advised that the evaluation categories should however be very explicit
and should be given to those who are going to be evaluated to complete
about their past achievements. The administrator should finally rate the
overall quality of performance of an individual in each category. Berk (2005)
observed that administrators’ ratings are typically based on secondary
sources, not on direct observation of teaching.
Rating of Teaching Effectiveness Through Learning O utcomes
Rating of teaching effectiveness through learning outcomes is an
indirect way of rating teaching effectiveness. In this approach, teaching
effectiveness is inferred from students’ performances i.e. what students learnt
in a given course (Berk, 2005). This source has been proved to be a very
dependable source of measuring teaching effectiveness. For instance, Cohen
(1981), in Berk (2005) reported that there were significant correlations
between students’ ratings of teaching effectiveness and performance on final
examinations. Theall and Franklin (2001) in Berk (2005) noted consistently
high correlations between students’ ratings of the amount learned in a course
and overall ratings of teaching effectiveness of the teacher.
Despite all these evidences, this source is said to be fraught with
problems because teaching is not the only source of students’ learning.
Students learn through tests, projects, writing reports and students’
performances may be influenced by students’ characteristics, the educational
institution and even the home from where the student comes. Teachers have
no control over all these other educational variables. Therefore, learning
outcome measures should be employed with extreme caution. It is safer to
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use students’ outcome measures in conjunction with direct data sources
(Berk, 2005).
The use of changes in pupil’s achievement rests on the assumption
that effective teaching can be measured from growth in students’ achievement
while under the direction of the teacher (Campbell et al, 1977), in Etuk,
(2000).
The reasoning is that examination scores constitute a direct important
measure of one of the products of effective instruction – what students have
learned of the course material as well as means of assigning grades. This
approach to measuring teaching effectiveness has been historically
emphasized by teachers because “the whole aim, after all, is to help pupils
learn” (Byrne, 1987, p. 21). Byrne (1987) listed activities involved in the use of
changes in student’s achievement as a measure of teaching effectiveness to
include interpretation of all forms of class marks, standardized tests, the input
measures, examination results, gender and ethnicity differences and absence
patterns. The researcher is advised to always look at individual teacher’s
group and see if it varies from the norm of the year and if so, what questions
this raises (Byrne, 1987). Some researchers, however, highlighted the short-
comings in using changes in pupils’ achievement in the appraisal of teaching
effectiveness. Among such researchers was Marsh (1994, p. 631) who saw it
as “a narrow criterion-related approach to validity” which researchers have
historically emphasized as only criterion of effective teaching. Kleinfield (1975)
notified researchers of the difficulty of using it at the secondary school level
where different teachers teach different subjects. Schultz (1978) objected to
its use too, for the reason that influences on pupils’ learning other than the
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teacher’s do not seem to be adequately recognised. Schultz (1978) other
reasons for objecting to the use of pupils’ outcomes was that educational
institutions are unable to establish priorities among teacher variables since
some teacher-variables which further the accomplishment of some goals may
be unrelated, or are interfered with by other goals. The criterion is subject to
methodological problems which render it all but inoperative (Schult, 1978).
Different instructors cannot be compared against the same measure of
students for obvious reasons, “some of these tests will be easy, others will be
difficult; some will be English, some in Spanish, others in biology…“ (Schultz,
1978, p.5). Kyriacou & Newson (1982) highlighted still another dimension of
the problem in using learners’ outcomes in measuring teaching effectiveness,
as being lack of uniformity of these tests or lack of consensus of criteria
defining the successful outcomes of teaching effectiveness. Some tests tend
to focus on short-term cognitive outcomes, such as performance in national
examinations, or short-term affective outcomes, such as gain in levels of self-
concept. Pupils’ outcomes, to a large extent, are attributable to context
variables, e.g. pupils’ ability and social class. When these are not controlled
for, the contributions that differences in effectiveness between teachers make
to the proportion of variance on tests is extremely limited (Kyriacou &
Newson, 1982). It is inadequate or unable to account for instructional
variables which the teacher does not control. The variables which exert some
influences on students’ learning other than teachers include the students’
family background, his abilities or intelligence level and previous learning
experiences. Perhaps, the use of learners’ outcomes to measure teaching
effectiveness is still considered necessary because “it tends to reinforce the
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idea that the goal of teaching is primarily examination success” (Kyriacou &
Newson, 1982, p.7).
Suggestions for overcoming the problems envisaged in the use of
learners’ outcomes as a source for measuring teaching effectiveness include
the use of an externally-administered examination and the use of context
variables as moderators of process-product relationships to explore possible
interactions (Schultz, 1978). Since there is a limit to the number of context
variables that can be controlled for, any effect obtained may be confounded
with variations in those context variables not controlled. According to Schultz
(1978), the subject matter too must be taken into consideration. This means
that comparison of different sets of schools must be done subject by subject.
To control for context variables, the researcher should focus on content-
specific context variables with more homogenous samples of students” e.g,
mathematics to fourth year ‘O’ level sets or Shakespeare to a mixed group of
second year pupils in comprehensive secondary schools (Kyriacou &
Newson, 1982, p.7). This implies that in Nigeria for instance, a sample could
be selected from senior secondary one (SS1) in mathematics classes or from
junior secondary two (JS2) in literature classes from comprehensive or
grammar schools to control for context variables, which are peculiar to certain
subject disciplines. The control for content-specific context variables
recognizes the uniqueness of the teaching situation within the framework of
different context variables and may thus highlight the difference between
teachers teaching in similar contexts. Schultz (1978) also suggested the use
of an achievement test, which is given to different sections of the same course
as a control for context variables. Different sections of the same course is
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equivalent to saying different streams of the same class studying the same
subject in the same school and taught by the same teacher.
Self-Assessment of Teaching Effectiveness
Researches on self-assessment are skimpy and inconclusive (Berk,
2005). Evidence indicate that superior teachers provide more accurate self-
ratings than mediocre or putrid teachers Centra, (1973), in (Berk, 2005)
Despite any possible biases, staff self-assessment serves a double function; it
gives all staff an opportunity to consciously and formally evaluate their own
work. This evidence can provide support for what teachers do in the
classroom and can present a picture of teaching unobtainable from any other
source (Berk, 2005). Moreover, self-assessment provides valuable records of
the continuing contributions made to the school by each member of staff.
(Marland, 1987). Self-evaluation is always included for summative decisions
on staff in colleges and universities (Berk, 2005).
The form that self-assessment usually takes for university academics is
using a sheet of paper which describes teaching, scholarship, service and
practice in the previous year. In the opinion of Berk, (2005) completing such a
form is not a true evaluation of teaching effectiveness. For self-evaluation to
be valuable in personnel decisions, a structured form of questionnaire with
instructors’ teaching objectives, activities and accomplishments and failures
should be used. Other variables which should be included in self-evaluation
forms are classroom approaches, teacher-student rapport, knowledge of the
discipline, course organization and planning and questions about teaching,
(Seldin, 1999, in Berk, 2005)
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Additional insights into how instructors’ self-ratings should be utilized
was provided by Wergin (1992) in Berk (2005), who advised for the use of a
triad: students ratings, instructor’s self ratings and instructor’s perception of
students’ ratings as valuable insights on teaching effectiveness. Students’ and
self-ratings are reported to yield low positive correlations. A video of one’s
own teaching performance can be even more informative as a source of self-
evaluation evidence. Staff input into their own teaching completes the
triangulation of the three direct observation sources of teaching: students,
peers and self (Berk, 2005).
Students’ Ratings of Teaching Effectiveness
Students rating of teaching effectiveness has been the primary source
of measuring teaching effectiveness in the United States of America and in
Canada. It has become synonymous with staff evaluation in those countries
(Seldin, 1999, in Berk, 2005). It is the most influential measure of performance
used in promotion and tenure decisions at institutions that emphasize
teaching effectiveness. Recent estimates indicate that 88 percent of all liberal
arts colleges use students’ ratings in summative decisions and an
investigation by the US Department of Education in 1991 indicated that 97
percent of Educational Departments in the USA used students’ evaluation to
assess teaching performance. (Berk, 2005), The wide-scale use of students to
rate their teachers depends on its advantage, including that learners are direct
consumers of teaching and they know when they are being well-taught
(Abrami & d’Appolonia, 1990). Since students are direct observers of
teaching, they are in a position to make better and objective judgments
without being influenced by characteristics external to instruction (Byrme,
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1987; Abrami et al, 1990). As direct consumers, students have a unique
perspective from which to view teaching effectiveness (Byrne, 1987).
Despite the seemingly popularity of students’ ratings, there have been
signs of staff hostility and cynicism toward student ratings (Nasser & Fresko,
2002). Students ratings of teaching effectiveness is said to be biased by
variables unrelated to teaching effectiveness and criticized for students’ lack
of knowledge of what constitute effective teaching (Adejumo, 1985/86). There
is also the fear of the possibility of grading biases due to the grades obtained
by students in a course taught by the teacher appraised (Chacko, 1983); and
biases due to the purpose for the evaluation, as it was established that
students gave more favourable ratings to teachers when the ratings were
meant for teachers’ promotion or advancement than for research or
instructional improvement (Gmelch & Glasman, 1979). There were also some
doubts as to whether students’ evaluations accurately measure teaching
quality such as teachers’ impact on student’s learning and whether students
are really acquainted with all the expectations which most school systems
have for teachers (Abrami et al 1990). Students had been described as
“incompetent, immature and biased judges of teachers’ professional
competence” (Obanya & Onocha, 1984, p. 99). Reports by students who had
earlier taken the course were also suspected to influence students’ ratings
(Adejumo, 1985/86).
So far, no research evidence has been found to substantiate common
allegations by staff (Berk, 2005). At percent, a large percent of staff in all
disciplines in USA and Canada, have moderately positive attitudes toward the
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validity of students ratings and their usefulness for improving instruction even
though there is no consensus (Nasser & Fresko, 2002).
Although there is still a wide range of opinions on their value, students
ratings are the most single valid source of data on teaching effectiveness
unequalled with any other source (McKeachie, 1997) students’ ratings
provides an excellent source of evidence for both formative and summative
decisions; though not a sufficient source for the latter, but an essential
component of any staff evaluation system (Berk, 2005).
Empirical evidence indicates that there is an agreement in rating
between different groups – parents, administrators, self, peers and students;
but students’ judgment of the most effective teachers was considered the best
(Toylor, 1973).
Criteria for Teaching Effectiveness
The “traditional approach” to judging teaching effectiveness was often
times “casual, unsystematic and haphazard assessment” (Adesina, 1990, p.
106). Those early researches tended to focus on the relationship between
presage variables and product variables of teaching as criteria for judging
teaching effectiveness. The criteria were informed subjective opinions of
teaching effectiveness based on such qualities as “patience, enthusiasm,
flexibility, credibility and general with-it-ness which qualitative measures have
difficulty in considering” (Kyriacou & Newson, 1982, p. 4). The reason for
basing teaching effectiveness on the personality variables of the teacher was
that, differences in teaching lay not in the mastery of methods and
procedures, but in the teachers themselves. An instructor’s skill in organising
and managing his course requirement is necessary but not sufficient for
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achieving effectiveness. Although these criteria are important in teaching
effectiveness, “they cannot and should not constitute the only grounds on
which judgment about teaching effectiveness should be made” (Adesina,
1990, p. 106).
The consideration of teacher personality implies that the key to
teaching effectiveness lies in assessing and meeting teachers’ needs (Federal
Republic of Nigeria, 2004). Indeed, failure of educational plans to consider
teacher’s needs was advanced as one of the reasons for falling standards of
education (Eferakeya, 1985/86). Teachers’ needs are both pedagogical and
personal; while the personal needs are both physical and psychological
(Maslow, 1954, in Etuk, 2002b).
A modern practice in teaching effectiveness studies is to focus on the
role perceptions (the pedagogical needs, rather than the psychological needs)
of the teacher for clues to the variables which are important in teaching
effectiveness considerations. In the opinion of Schultz (1978), it is hard to
imagine how a teacher could be evaluated adequately without taking into
account what the teacher was trying to accomplish in a given situation.
Marland (1987, p. 15) held a similar opinion when he said “you cannot
evaluate someone’s work when you do not know that he or she is meant to
do”. These expectations are made even clearer by Ukeje et al (1992) who
were of the opinion that the effectiveness of an individual’s performance can
only be researched into when well-defined standards and knowledge of the
organisation’s expectations and demands exist. Meaning that to be able to
measure teaching effectiveness with any degree of accuracy, we need to
know the role expectations from which to derive the criteria or standard.
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Modern appraisal approaches are abandoning plans that involve
evaluation of personal characteristics of teachers in favour of those
characteristics that encourage setting forth organisational expectations. The
focus of attention now is on exploring the relationship between process
variables and product variables of teaching, and the criteria for judging
success are based on them (Kyriacou & Newson, 1982). Some educators,
however, still insist on the need to consider input or presage variables of
teaching in judging teaching effectiveness Byrne (1987, p. 36) opinion,
interest in teaching effectiveness appraisal must be focused on “a central core
of activities which concerns the planning, interactive and review phases of
teaching”. In general, school teaching always consists of, at least, these basic
components and instances of these must form the main basis of most
teaching effectiveness appraisals. A teacher’s knowledge and understanding
in relation to what is taught, and the pedagogical skills relevant to teaching it
are crucially important in teaching effectiveness (Byrne, 1987). There is
therefore, lack of agreement especially in the use of presage variables of
teaching. There is however, no disagreement in the use of process and
product variables of teaching as criteria in the appraisal of teaching
effectiveness. Ali (1992) nevertheless admonished that the criteria for
measuring teaching effectiveness become more meaningful if the outcomes
are not conceived in terms of instructional goals alone. The criteria should be
described in terms of students’ outcomes, teacher effects on pupils’ growth
and learning and in terms of effects of school on later life. The general opinion
is that since the ultimate index of teaching effectiveness is the finished
product, the after-school use of knowledge by students should be used as
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criteria for measuring teaching effectiveness”. Apparently, if after-school use
knowledge by students is made a criterion for teaching effectiveness, it will be
difficult to separate the contribution made by individual teachers under whom
a student passed in the secondary school. The after-school use of knowledge
factor may be more appropriate for the appraisal of teaching effectiveness of
primary school teachers, since it is possible in the primary school structure for
a pupil to gain all his learning experiences through a single teacher. Kyriacou
& Newson (1982) might have been aware of such a problem when they
proffered that teaching effectiveness should be based solely on pupils’
performance in tests and examinations.
The reason for this is that despite laudable virtues of education
professed to be desirable social awareness, an enquiring mind, ability to apply
knowledge in new situations, the standard measure of effectiveness employed
by researchers is children’s performance in variants of attainment tests and
examinations. “The researcher should accept prevailing ethos and
concentrate on identifying test-attainment specific qualities in the teacher”
(Kyriacou & Newson, 1982, p. 10). Adesina (1990, p. 190) expressed the
same opinion when he said that “since the major purpose of hiring a teacher
is instructional effectiveness, teacher evaluation should concern itself
primarily with this goal fulfillment”. Those aspects of instruction which are of
relevance to individual teachers should be combined with other evaluation
criteria to complete the evaluation exercise.
Kleinfield (1975, p. 318), earlier delineated “two central characteristics”
which tend to distinguish effective from ineffective teachers. The first and
most important characteristic is the effective teachers’ “ability to create a
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climate of emotional warmth” that dissipates students’ fears in the classroom
and fulfils their expectations of highly personalized relationships. Warmth in
this context implies kindness, friendliness and nurturance. Warmth was
established as a central dimension of teacher behaviour related to such
outcomes as classroom attentiveness, productivity and achievement. The
second of the two central characteristics was the teacher’s ability to resolve
his own ambivalent feelings about the legitimacy of his educational goals and
the expression of his concern for the students, not only by passive sympathy,
but also by demanding a high quality of academic work. In this regard,
effective teachers were those who did not assume the role of a specialized
professional, but rather the role of a personal friend. Within the classroom,
such teachers tended to prefer individualized instruction where close body
contact was possible. When teaching a large class, effective teachers
communicated warmth to students through non-verbal cues like smiling
frequently. “Smiling appears to be a universal expression of friendliness”
(Kleinfield, 1975, p. 321).
Kleinfield, (1975) was interested in “test-attainment specific qualities in
the teacher” (Kleinfield, 1975, p. 322). These include teaching methods and
abilities and teachers’ relationship with students. Also in support of test-
attainment qualities in the teacher as major criteria for teaching effectiveness
was Byrne (1987) who opined that a teacher’s knowledge and understanding
in relation to what is taught and the pedagogical skills relevant to teaching it
“are of utmost importance in teaching effectiveness” (Byrne, 1987, p. 38).
Taylor, Christie and Platts (1970) set out to uncover the criteria for
effective teaching by drawing on the collective insight of practicing teachers
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on the suspicion that teacher’s perception of effective teaching was a factor
that influenced teaching effectiveness.
The population of research interest was all the science teachers in an
unspecified locality, the sample size was not indicated either. The research
instrument consisted of a questionnaire for rating effective science teaching.
The questionnaire had 106 items selected from 300 statements on effective
science teaching submitted by teachers from the study population. The
science teachers who constituted sample for the study were asked to rate the
106 items on a 5-pont scale on the extent to which those statements
described effective science teaching. The 106 statements were then
subjected to factor analysis at the second order level.
Second order factor analysis was preferred over first factor analysis
because many first order factors were present and the second order was
chosen to prevent halo or general agreement kind of situation. Nine factors
were isolated. Means and standard deviation were calculated for the teachers’
responses. The variables of investigation were factors (descriptors) of
effective teaching as perceived by the science teachers. The research was an
explanatory description research.
Judging from the magnitude of standard deviations, the results showed
a substantial agreement among the teachers on their perceptions of effective
teaching. Means scores indicated that the science teachers placed the
greatest emphasis on dimensions of effective teaching concerned with
teacher classroom behaviours and relationships, and less on dimensions
concerned with standing requirements of teaching, viz: planning and
classroom management. The ideal stereotype of an effective science teacher
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was indicated to be one whose teaching was pupil-centred; goal directed;
informed by an understanding and enthusiasm for science; characterised by
good humoured discipline; concerned for the safety of the laboratory and up-
to-dateness in subject-matter and curriculum innovations.
As if to conduct a validity study of Taylor et al (1970) research, Toylor
(1973) was determined to identify the characteristics of effective teaching with
a measure of control by contrasting effective with ineffective teachers. The
research population consisted of all the teachers that all the raters might
have, at one time or the other, come into contact with. Since there was a total
of 822 raters each limited to listing four effective and four ineffective teachers
they ever came into contact with, a total of 3.288 (4x822) effective teachers
implicitly constituted sample for the study. The same number of supposedly
ineffective teacher simplicitly constituted of rating forms. The raters consisted
of 706 students, 90 parents, 21 faculty and 5 administrators. The raters were
given parallel rating forms for each to name four teachers that he/she
regarded as the most effective and four least effective teachers. The standard
of effectiveness was not supplied; it was the rater’s own perception.
For each rating group, the frequency with which various teachers were
nominated as the most of least effective was determined and rank-ordered.
Rank difference correlations were computed between mean rankings for the
different sets of raters. This was done separately for the most effective and
the least effective groups of teacher. The variable for investigation consisted
of characteristics of effective teachers and characteristics of ineffective
teachers. Since this was an exploratory descriptive research, the variables
could not be classified as independent or dependent.
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Results indicated much agreement in the selection of most effective
teacher, but very little agreement between the students and all other rating
groups in identifying the ineffective teacher. The criteria of effective teachers
identified by the raters were collapsed into five major and generally applicable
criteria of effective teaching. These consisted of teacher’s cognitive skills,
teaching methods and abilities, teacher’s relationship with students, teacher’s
personality and teacher’s effect on students’ personally. It was concluded that
it was possible to have a moderate degree of agreement between different
rating groups, in judging teaching effectiveness. Findings that students had no
significant agreement with any other rating group in their perception of the
least effective teacher were explained to imply that either the students were
quite inaccurate in their perception of poor teachers, or they were more
sensitive to more crucial aspects of teacher-students relationships than were
those outside the classroom. The implication of these findings is that students
are better preceptors of poor teaching than any other group of people.
Sherman & Blackburn (1975) hypothesized that effective teaching
depended less on the teacher’s behaviour directed towards functional
management of the class, but more on the teachers’ personality factors which
students perceived to be relevant to the teaching/learning environment. In
other words, an instructor’s skill in organizing and managing his course
requirements was necessary but not a sufficient condition for achieving
effectiveness, at least, as far as students’ judgment was concerned. Students’
grades were frequently cited as a source of halo (general agreement) effect in
producing biased judgment of teaching effectiveness. Sherman & Blackburn
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(1975, p. 24) refuted the stereotype and hypothesized that “if students liked a
teacher as a teacher, they also liked him as a person”.
The study population consisted of all the teachers in a College. The
population size was 125 teachers from which a sample of 108 male and
female teachers was drawn using an unspecified sampling technique. Two
instruments were used for the study, a semantic differential form which
measured personal characteristics of the teacher and the other was a
teaching evaluation instrument which measured the organizational ability and
the degree to which legitimate functions of the classroom were carried out by
each teacher. The instruments were rated by different groups of students in a
co-educational liberal arts college. A total of 1,500 students rated each of the
two instruments under different conditions and at different points in time.
Four statistical techniques were employed in the analysis of the data
thus collected. These included factor analysis, analysis of variance (ANOVA),
multiple regression and correlation coefficient, all valid at 0.05 level of
significance. Teacher personality constituted the independent variable for the
investigation while teaching effectiveness criteria constituted the dependent
variables.
It was established that teacher personality and teaching effectiveness
were highly correlated (r = 0.77). Factors derived from the semantic
differential scale predicted multiple F = 0.83 for teaching effectiveness.
Teachers who were pragmatic (dynamic), amicable and highly intellectually
competent received statistically significant higher teaching competence
ratings than those who tended towards the opposite traits. A Spearman rho of
0.13 indicated that students were not biased, but, they did reflect a strong
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interrelationship among the three different dimensions of teachers’ behaviour.
The hypothesis that if students liked a teacher as a teacher, they also liked
him as person was rejected. The factor of amicability was found to be
irrelevant in science faculties. Students distinguished between specific
psychological and pedagogical attributes of teachers and the contextual
settings did not matter. Low correlations were established between
administrators, peers, self and students in their ratings of teaching
effectiveness. This is in agreement with findings made by Taylor (1973) that
there was a moderate degree of agreement between different rating groups in
judging teaching effectiveness.
It was concluded that improvements on teaching effectiveness may
depend more on changes related to teacher personality factors than on those
involving classroom procedures. More attention should be paid to extra
professional characteristics during recruitment of teachers. Except for lack of
information on the validity of the instrument, this was a well-designed study
with a theoretical framework well-defined, study population defined, a
statement on data analytical tools and controls taken to make for validity of
the study supplied.
Also concerned with associating teacher personality with teaching
effectiveness, Patrick (1978) worked under the assumption that various inner
personality needs will be exhibited in overt teacher behaviours. The study
population was implicitly, all the teachers (primary and secondary) in Utah,
United States of America (USA). The sample for the study consisted of 112
teachers who were nominated by students as being the most effective
teachers they ever had. The research instrument was Edwards’ Personal
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Preference Schedule (EPPS). The EPPS was broken into 15 scales which
included achievement (being successful, doing one’s best and doing
something of significance), deference (a tendency to seek help from others as
well as praise others), order (the tendency to do things in a prescribed form),
exhibition (the tendency to be showy), autonomy (independence,
unconventionality), affiliation (relationships with friends), intraception (looking
within, introverted), succurence (the need to have others act kindly and be
understanding), dominance (leadership tendencies), abasement (feeling of
guilt and the need for punishment), nurturance (a sense of caring about
others), change (a desire for new and different things) endurance (ability to
withstand stress, adversity or hardship), heterosexuality (sexual desire for one
or more partners of opposite sex and aggression (a tendency to dominate or
master).
The EPPS utilised 225 paired variables and required the respondents
to choose from each item pair, the one they believe to be more descriptive of
themselves. With 225 pairs of statements, the maximum score for any one
variable was 28. Each of the 112 members of a mixed group of American
students was asked to write the name of a teacher who was most effective.
The most effective teacher was defined as the teacher who had offered the
best help to enable each of the students learn or the teacher that was easily
the best each student had had at Utah. The nominated teachers were
contacted in their own schools, given a brief description of the study and the
extent of their involvement which consisted of taking the EPPS at times and
dates agreeable to the researchers and the teachers.
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Teaching effectiveness constituted the independent variable in this
investigation while teacher personality constituted the dependent variable.
Means and standard deviations were computed for each of the EPPS
variables. Means tended to group effective teachers into four distinct clusters.
The first cluster consisted of personality variables like change, dominance,
nurturance and affiliation. The second cluster consisted of achievement and
autonomy; the third cluster of deference and abasement; and the fourth
cluster consisted of succurence.
It was concluded that differences in teaching lay not in the mastery of
methods and procedures but in the teachers themselves. Weakness in the
research report include failure to clearly define the research population and
lack of information on the sample selection technique. Moreover, it was not
stated how the clusters of personality variables affected teaching
effectiveness.
In general, the following have been indicated in the literature as
important criteria for teaching effectiveness. Teacher cognitive skills was
indicated by (Toylor, 1973); teaching methods and abilities were indicated by
(Toylor, 1973; Kleinfield, 1975, teachers’ relationship with students was
recommended by (Toylor, 1973; Kleinfield, 1975). In attempting to select bad
teachers among the good, our attention might be directed at the quality of
instruction and of management of learning being offered. An appraisal
procedure depends on the extent to which “the procedure correctly picks out
teachers who are successful or unsuccessful in achieving the prescribed
outcomes” (Byrne, 1987, p. 86).
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Levine & Wright (1987), however, indicated that factor analysis of the
criteria of teaching effectiveness has typically yielded 1 – 7 factors. Labels for
these factors included attributes like “organisational ability, communication
facility, amount of work, acceptance of change, freedom and autonomy given
the students, degree of feedback and personality” (Levine & Wright, 1987, p.
86). According to Marsh (1994), factor analysis of students’ evaluation of
teaching effectiveness identified six hypothesised factors. Labels of these
factors included “learning/value, enthusiasm, organisation, inter-action,
examinations and workload” (Marsh, 1994, p. 631). When Levine & Wright
(1987) seven factors are combined with Marsh (1994) six factors in an
additive fashion, the following eight factors result as criteria for teaching
effectiveness identified through factor analysis of many factors: learning/value
of the teacher, teacher enthusiasm, teacher’s organisational ability, teacher’s
workload, teacher’s interaction and communication with students, teacher
personality, the way and manner that he sets and marks examinations, and
the freedom and autonomy that he gives to the students, he teaches. These
eight factors may not be exhaustive in describing teaching effectiveness.
There is lack of consensus in literature on a universal set of criteria for
measuring teaching effectiveness, and lack of agreement among educators
as to whether essential teaching behaviours can be identified. What we build
into a scheme for teacher appraisal depends upon the purpose of appraisal.
“No teacher appraisal scheme is likely to be satisfactory for every purpose”
(Byrne, 1987, p. 36). If we are concerned with dismissal, attention might be
directed at absence without cause, bad time-keeping, and failure to mark
pupils’ work; pedagogical concerns might not necessarily come in; if we are
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concerned with selecting bad teachers among the good, attention might be
directed at the quality of instructional management (Byrne, 1987).
Quality Assurance Emphasis and Teacher Education by The NTI
Relevance of education to industry and to life outside the school setting
has become a major concern of education in Nigeria. Educational
programmes and their contents are now closely senitinized to eliminate the
extraneous and very theoretical items from the curriculum of every level.
The theoretical materials are gradually replaced by more practical
knowledge and skills. Academic institutions are challenged to generate
human products who can provide not mere labour, but those who are human
capitals themselves, those who possess values, skills and education that
have a direct bearing on the world of work; those who possess attributes
which enhance their capabilities and their entrance into the present state of
knowledge-based economy. The need for educational changes is
necessitated by the current changes in the world. In particular, the explosion
information and communications technology, which has in no means ways,
helped to quicken processes, reduce perceptible distances and has virtually
reduced the world to one global village (Etuk, 2006).
Quality assurance activities in education centre around strategic
planning, which according to U. Etuk (2005), requires heads of departments
and Deans of Faculties to state the objectives of their academic programmes,
show what graduates of those programmes will be capable of doing in
concrete terms or show how their product can contribute to the economy
when they go out into the world of work; spell out in great details what they
see as their strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats (in what is
98
known as SWOT analysis); detail how much they think they require to achieve
their missions and how much of their needs they could raise through their own
internal resources. In effect, strategic planning requires educational
institutions to justify government funding for their different programmes.
The curriculum generally is expected to respond positively to modern
trends of events through emphasis on innovative knowledge, skills, which are
variously referred to as “daily-living skills, survival skills and life-coping skills”
(Okebukola, 2002; Obanya, 2003, p.3)
Life-coping or daily-living skills are given different interpretations by
different authors. Okebukola (2002), for instance, viewed life-coping skills
simply in terms of the acquisition by students of the science process skills,
which include observation, experimentation, generalisation and prediction.
Nwogbo (2003) viewed life-coping skills simply as vocational skills, while
Njoku (2003) viewed them as the wholistic development of students through
the acquisition of cognitive, affective and psychomotor skills. Udosen (2003)
however presented a broader view of life-coping skills by envisaging them in
terms of:
human capabilities to identify and solve problems,
establish good working relations, relate with others;
organise and manage themselves responsibly, collect
and evaluate information, communicate in different ways,
use science and technology effectively and the capacity
to develop a consistent world view (p. 75).
Obanya (2002) expressed similar sentiments in his conceptualisation of life-
coping skills, which he described with eight indices, as comprising:
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versatility in knowledge, the capacity to communicate and
appreciate the views and feelings of others; adaptability
to novel situations, creativity, team spirit, literacy in its
comprehensive dimension, fluency in information and
communications technology and the capacity to embrace
learning as a way of life (p. 3).
According to Obanya (2002, 2003), there is death of these skills among
Nigerians and the school curriculum should be revitalised to include them. An
industrialist, Ugwu (2003) even reported of lack of fit between the need of
industries and products from universities. A study by Okebukola (2002)
indicated a low national average in life skill scores (0 = 32.62) for primary
school pupils in Nigeria.
The National Teachers’ Institute (NTI) in its quest for access and equity
for beneficiaries of the Universal Basic Education (UBE) in Nigeria also
addressed both the quantitative aspect of short falls in teacher supply, and the
qualitative dimensions as well. Teacher quality, however defined is an issue of
great concern in Nigeria. Despite almost two decades of attempts to enforce
the decision of the National Council on Education that NCE is the minimum
teaching qualification, the majority of teachers in the public schools are
unqualified or under qualified (Mohammed, 2006).
For example, out of the 491,751 teachers in public primary school in
Nigeria (Mohammed 2006, p.28) only 49 percent posses the Nigeria
Certificate in Education (NCE), which was pronounced since 1977 as the
minimum qualification for teaching in primary schools (Federal Republic of
Nigeria, 2004).
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Reports by Mohammed, (2006) are to the effect that the remaining 51
percent of primary school teacher in Nigeria are unqualified and they are
distributed as follows:
Grade I = 14,680 teachers;
Grade II = 136, 245 teachers;
G.C.E = 7,740 teachers;
WASC/SSCE = 43,775 teachers;
Others = 46,950 teachers;
Not specified = 456 teachers.
Total = 249,672 teachers
The impact of the death of teachers of good quality can be seen in the
generally poor levels of pupils’ achievement. An assessment of learning of
primary four pupils, which focused on numeracy, literacy and life skills
indicated that:
• the level of numeracy competence of the pupils was generally
very low. The national mean score was 32.2 percent.
• performance of pupils became poorer as one moves from items
requiring simple recall through those requiring some
understanding to items dealing with problem solving.
• the effect of language on the performance of pupils was well
demonstrated by the finding that the mean scores on items
which were worded (0 = 30.5) was much lower than those from
non-worded items (0 = 42.0).
• performance in the literacy test was the worst of the three
cognitive tests. The national mean score in literacy was 25.2
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percent, which more or less represented performance at a
purely chance level;
• the most astounding finding in the literacy test was obtained
from one of the items which required pupils to copy exactly, a
very short passage (about five lines) into a given space.
Whereas only 8.1 percent gave a completely accurate copy of
the passage; 39.6 percent scored zero, meaning that they did
not demonstrate the basic skill of copying one word or
punctuation mark correctly”. (Falayejo et al, 1997), in
Mohammed, 2006). The findings of a follow up study conducted
in 2001, which focussed on primary 5 pupils, indicated that “only
20 percent of the pupils were able to answer correctly more than
30 percent of the test items; and less than one percent of pupils
were able to answer correctly more than half the test items.
The finding of a similar study conducted by Okebukola (2002) and by
Aarons (2003), in Mohammed (2006) suggested that there had not been any
significant improvement in pupils’ performance (Aarons, 2003, in Mohammed,
2006). Low educational achievement is most often blamed on poor quality
teaching. These happen even though the minimum teaching qualification had
been raised from the TCII to the NCE and there has been significant
increases in the number of NCE graduates in the school system in recent
times.
Learning achievements of secondary school students is also found to
be unsatisfactory too. The findings of a recent study of secondary education in
different parts of the country as reported by Mohammed (2006) indicated that
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the performance in the SSCE was poor in virtually every subject in the school
curriculum and the SSCE was characterised by a heavy dose of frustration, as
only about 10 percent of the candidates “meaningfully passed the
examinations” (Obanya, 2004, in Mohammed, 2006, p. 28).
Research evidences from pupils’ learning achievement in primary
schools in Nigeria (Falayeje, 1997), in Mohammed (2006) raises important
questions about the quality of primary school teachers in facilitating learning in
the primary schools in Nigeria. Mohammed (2006) also reported of a study
conducted by the Modern Languages Association (MLA), which identified the
restructuring of the teacher education curriculum as one of the long-term
strategies for improving the quality of students’ learning at the primary school
level.
The said researches further advised that the restructured teachers’
education programmes should reflect what the prospective teachers are going
to do in schools and should have the competence to be developed in the
learners as the central focus. The study added that even though factors like
availability of relevant books and teaching -learning facilities and resources
are important, the quality and competence of teachers should play an eminent
role in determining learner’s achievement (Falayeje et al, 1997), in
Mohammed (2006).
To this end, the Nigerian government directed the NTI to give the
nation’s primary schools “quality products” (Mohammed, 2006 p. 4). Quality
assurance activities of the NTI include:
• strategic planning (Mohammed, 2005a, pp.27-28; 2006 p. 4).
He further stated that the NTI had to a large extent, succeeded
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in implementing its 2002 – 2006 strategic plan, especially in
capacity building for full-time and part-time staff, service
delivery, provision of support services and modern facilities at
the Institute with the assistance of the Federal Government, and
skills acquisition through support of the Commonwealth Of
Learning (COL). It is equally done to provide teachers with
opportunities to enhance their knowledge and skills in subject
matter in the light of new developments, improve teaching skills
by acquiring innovative techniques for teaching core-subjects
and enhancing teachers’ understanding of the role of school-
based assessment and how it can be used to improve learning
Mohammed (2005).
• teachers’ training (NTI, 2005b, pp.1, 3; Mohammed, 2005, pp.27
– 28; NTI, 2006, pp.1 – 2; pp.4, 5, 15). Mohammed maintained
that each teacher is supposed to undergo 100 hours of
retraining every year.
• affiliating with distance learning institutions overseas for
programme moderation and staff training and for the introduction
of new products (NTI, 2005, p.1, 3; Egunboh, 2005, p.4; Salau,
2005, p.5; NTI, 2006, pp.20 – 21). In the same vein, Egunboh
(2005) observed that Radio projects has been sponsored by the
British Council towards the development of teachers to help
upgrade their skills by making them aware of good practices in
Nigeria and around the World.
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• affiliating with Nigerian universities (Balogun, 2005, p.10; NTI,
2006, pp.1 – 2).
• acquisition of technology facilities like the virtual library (Toyin
2005, p.10)
• acquisition of information and communications (ICT)
infrastructures (Ismaila, 2005, p.23).
• monitoring of the administration, subject-monitoring, books and
tutorials monitoring (Mbaya, 2005a, p.11; 2005b, pp.21 - 22).
Mbaya (2005) observed that subject monitoring in distance
education had been set up as a veritable quality control strategy
aimed at ensuring that every academic activity is effectively
executed at the right time in other to achieve the institutional set
gaols. Furthermore, the support materials specified for each
subject are adequate and in use, the specified tutorial hours for
the programme are adhered to, policy guidelines as issued by
the Headquarters of the distance learning are kept.
• training of NTI staff (NTI, 2006, pp.8 – 9)
• monitoring and advising students on good examination conducts
(NTI, 2006 pp.8 - 9). To further attest to the effectiveness of
distance learning programme, effort has been made to deal with
all forms of examination malpractices, including falsification of
credentials in its programmes, impersonation, inability to meet
the prescribed minimum requirement and presentation of
certificates from unrecognised institutions. This was shown in
105
the arrest of 19 people in Kaduna involved in the forgery and
racketeering of the NTIDLS Grade two teachers’ certificate.
• qualification verifications and withdrawal of unqualified students
from the programme (NTI, 2005, pp.1, 4)
• authentication of primary school teachers’ certificate (Salau,
2006, pp.3, 34).
• nabbing of forgers of NTI issued diplomas (NTI, 2005, pp.1,2).
All these attempts are directed at shaping up the NTI, its programmes
and personnel working in it, towards meeting higher-level needs
characteristics of the modern world. Educational establishments are meant to
meet the standards of the modern world and become enhanced centres of
excellence (Chukwurah, 2005).
Quality Assurance in Education Through Examination s
Functions of examinations as perceived by Vandu (2005) include:
(i) to assess whether what we learnt are properly understood;
(ii) to act as a feedback to the students and the teacher;
(iii) to show who is more qualified in terms of competition and
certification, where the better student gets a better certification;
(iv) to prepare students for future careers and vocations; and
(v) to guide a student to work hard (p. 20).
Examination results are the bases for schools’ decisions on promotion
from one class or level to another, for recognitions and merit awards and for
recommendations for employment. Since examinations more or less
determines the failure of students, teachers are always advised to take
adequate steps to ensure the validity of the examinations.
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Three steps which are essential in the construction of assessment
instruments for examinations are: planning for the assessment, construction
of the test items and evaluation of the test-items (Etuk, 1993, p.127).
Planning
What to plan for is jointly determined by the educational objectives and
by the use into which the assessment will be put. Good assessment
instruments are built from knowledge of the educational objectives and the
content covered. Etuk (1993) advised on the use of test-specification table (a
test blue-print), which covers every objective formulated for the course and
the content areas covered in proportion to their importance and level of
coverage.
Construction of the Assessment Instruments
Since the objectives to be covered in the curriculum are varied, Etuk
(1993) recommended the use of many forms of test items including essay,
varieties of objective tests (true-false, fill-in-the-blank, matching and multiple
choice). The author also recommended the use of practical and oral
examinations. Rules for the construction of each type of test were copiously
offered by Etuk (1993, pp.178 -188).
Assessment of the Test-Items
When test items have been set, the table of specifications helps the
examiner to assess and see the number of items that fit into different
categories of the cognitive, affective and the psychomotor domains. Since
most examinations measure cognitive objectives, the examiner is advised to
check the level of cognitive objectives that each test-item fall into. The levels
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of cognitive objectives as indicated by Etuk, Udosen & Edem (2004, pp.72-76)
are hereby reviewed.
The hierarchy of objectives in the cognitive domain has six sub-
categories comprising: knowledge , comprehension , application , analysis ,
synthesis and evaluation .
Knowledge is the ability to remember, recall or recognize ideas in a situation
where cues or signals are given to bring out the knowledge stored. Questions
which test knowledge, are those that ask students to list , label , name and
state (Etuk et al, p.72).
Comprehension is the ability to perceive communication and to make use of
knowledge gained or see its implications. Questions which are at the
comprehension level, are those that ask students to explain , give example ,
to re-write in own words and to summarize (Etuk et al, 2004, p.72).
Application: This is the ability to use rules, ideas and methods in particular
and concrete situations. Examination questions that test application are those
that require students to compute , calculate , use , solve , produce and
manipulate (Etuk et al, 2004, p.73).
Analysis: The ability to break communication into its constituent elements or
parts. Examinations which test analysis are those that require the examinees
to differentiate , outline , separate , and sub-divide etc. (Etuk, et al, 2004,
p.73)
Synthesis: This is the ability to combine or put together parts, elements and
pieces to form a whole. Examination questions that test analysis are those
that require students to, combine to form a whole, compose, summarize and
to design (Etuk, et al, 2004, p.73).
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Evaluation: This is the highest level of the cognitive objectives. Test items in
this category are those that measure the ability of the student to make
quantitative and qualitative judgments about the extent to which materials and
methods satisfy criteria. Test items that test students’ ability to evaluate are
those that require students to compare, contrast and to justify (Etuk, Udosen
& Edem, 2004, p.73).
Advising students on the need to develop good examination habits,
Vandu (2005) maintained that two things involved in examination are: “how
much you know about a subject and what you can do with the subject” (p.20).
Under how much one knows about a subject he intimated that NTI students
are fond of examination abuse by going directly into their textbooks and lifting
the portions from which the test items were set straight into their answer
booklets. He emphasized that NTI students should have a broader
conception of learning and should write what they understand about the topic
tested rather than reproduce what is contained in study texts. Vandu (2005)
advised NTI students to learn and carry certain formulae in their memories
which they could recall in examination halls, review their course notes early
enough to make it stick, to form discussion groups, and to be familiar with
examination patterns of the NTI through reference to past questions. Being a
high official in the NTI organization for the NCE – programme, Vandu (2005)
made such useful contributions by advising the students on time
management, on the need for them to expand their reading horizons outside
their course books and to work hard for good results. He also advised the NTI
on how to plan examinations to cover every objective and topic through the
use of tables of specification (Vandu, 2005).
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Summary of Literature Review
The literature has been reviewed on pertinent opinion and empirical
researches both on distance learning and on teaching effectiveness. The
review started with three theoretical bases of distance learning, which
included the information processing theory, the theory of cognitive learning
and Keegan’s theory of distance learning, which upholds that distance
learning systems artificially decrease the teaching-learning interaction and re-
integrate it back into the instructional process. The aim in doing this is to offer
to the distance learners’ the experience much like the traditional face-to-face
instruction.
Also reviewed as the theoretical bases for this study were the
Skinnerian behaviour modification theory and the theory of teaching
effectiveness. The Skinnerian concept of behaviour modification maintains
that the organism can emit responses. This therefore places it in line with the
theory of cognitive learning. The processes involved in bringing up a child
both at home and in school are perceived as behaviour-modification activities.
The aspect of teaching effectiveness theory of interest was the organizational
systems/resources as they relate to the teaching effectiveness of individual
teachers.
The next section in the literature review was focused on
conceptualization of distance learning in which distance learning was
presented with such synonyms as independent study, home study,
correspondence education, remote education and distributive learning. Seven
elements of distance learning reviewed included the aspects of separation of
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the teacher and the learner as against face-to-face interaction in regular
classes. Distance learning was reviewed to have developed from the print
media where the distance learner was reached by correspondence, through
instructional television to the current on-line interactive technologies.
Information from the literature indicates that distance learners are generally
composed of two categories of people, namely: those who combine work with
study and those who dropped out of school at some points in their lives, who
are reawakened to improve upon their educational status. Two study
strategies employed by distance learners are the primary cognitive strategies
like the ability to work independently of the teacher, and secondary affective
strategies, which involve active listening (Sherry, 1996). Lankberk & Mugler
(2005) however identified the two strategies as being the pragmatic strategies
and the sequential strategies; and the students’ conception of learning as
being either the reproductive or the transformative conception, whereby the
learner works with knowledge to derive new meanings of the world.
The roles of distance learning teachers were identified to include
advanced preparation, ability to interact with students while those of the
centre supervisors include motivating students and maintaining discipline in
the study centres.
Empirical researchers and expressed pertinent opinions (Rumble,
1982; Sherry, 1996; Agboola, 2000; Hanser, 2006) all list the literary of
advantages of distance education, which make it preferable over regular face-
to-face contact form of education and seems to overdo the latter in certain
areas, like having lower cost and breaking the general barriers which delimit
education only to certain people. Comparative effectiveness of products of
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distance learning and products of regular education is not however,
completely resolved.
Literature was reviewed on what should constitute the qualities of
educational content and learning activities in a curriculum. Since the
curriculum of the NTI is mainly in the book-form the criteria of textbooks for
distance learning was reviewed too. Based on Meachean (1982) the criteria
for selecting textbooks for distance students comprised appropriateness of the
text, its readability and availability.
On evaluation of the curriculum, three areas which were identified to be
evaluated were evaluation of the educational programme perse; evaluation of
students and evaluation of teachers. Details of how to do these different
aspects of curriculum evaluation were given. Under programme evaluation,
formative evaluation of the curriculum which involves observation of what
students do and interviews of the users of the curriculum was emphasized.
Under students’ evaluation, it was indicated that examinations test only the
cognitive aspects of the curriculum. Factors which influence students’
performances in schools were indicated to be the teacher, the quality of
instruction, time allowed for learning (Carroll in Etuk, 2002), students’
motivation and the students’ natural abilities. Particular reference was made
to students’ attitude as an aspect of students’ motivation and to students’ poor
performance in mathematics.
The next attention was focused on teacher evaluation, ratings of
teaching effectiveness and criteria for teaching effectiveness. Ratings of
teaching effectiveness by different stakeholders in education were copiously
discussed, including self-ratings, peer ratings, rating by administrators and
112
employers, ratings through measurement of learning outcomes and rating by
students. Among all the rating groups, students’ ratings of teaching
effectiveness seemed to be more widely used in American education, despite
criticisms by teachers. On the criteria for measuring teaching effectiveness,
the following were indicated as important criteria for measuring teaching
effectiveness: learning and value of the teacher, teacher enthusiasm,
teacher’s organizational ability, teacher’s workload, teacher’s interaction and
communication with students, teacher personality, examination habits, and
the freedom and autonomy given to the students.
The last section in the literature review focused on the current
emphasis on quality assurance in education in Nigeria in which educational
systems are advised to do away with the very theoretical contents, to plan
strategically, to do SWOT analysis of their programmes and to inculcate life-
coping skills in their products. Literature was reviewed on quality assurance
practices in the NTI.
With perspectives from the literature so presented, the research
directly investigated the effectiveness of the distance learning scheme of the
National Teachers’ Institute, Kaduna, Nigeria through ratings of the
programme and its facilities by the current students and course tutors; and
indirectly, through ratings of the perceived effectiveness of primary school
teachers produced by the NTI by the researchers, by the primary school
head-teachers, by key members of the Parents’ Teachers’ Association
(representing the parents). Opinions of the different rating groups were
compared, where necessary. The curriculum and the examination items of
the NTI were studied to identify quality.
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With this background in mind, the study was designed to assess the
input s and quality control measures of the NTIDLS, to investigate the
teaching behaviours of primary school teachers produced through the
NTIDLS, to identify the effective teaching behaviours, compare their teaching
behaviours with those of teachers produced through other educational
agencies, to compare the opinions of primary school-heads and parents on
the effectiveness of NTIDL-products as against other teachers.
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CHAPTER THREE
THE STUDY SITE
The study was based in Akwa Ibom State, one of the 37 Nigerian
administrative divisions, located in the extreme southern corner of Nigeria
(see location in plate one). The state is located between latitude 40° 32’’ and
5° 33” north and longitude 70° 20” and 8° 25” East. Akwa Ibom State was
created in 1987 from the former Cross River State, which was itself formed
from the former South Eastern state created, in 1975. Its land area measures
8,412 square kilometers with a population density of 332 per square
kilometer.
State Boundaries and Political Divisions
Akwa Ibom State is bounded by the Atlantic Ocean to the South, Abia
State to the North, Cross River State to the East and Rivers State to the West.
Projections from the 1991 Nigerian Census by the Akwa Ibom State Ministry
of Finance and Economic Development (2007) puts the state population at
about 4 million, distributed into 1.9 million males and 2.1 million females.
Politically, the Akwa Ibom State belongs in South-South geopolitical zone, one
of the six geopolitical zones in Nigeria. The other five geopolitical zones being
the South-East, the South-West, the North, East, the North-West and the
North-Central geo-political zones. Five other Nigerian states which belong in
the South-South geopolitical zones are Cross River State, Rivers State,
Bayelsa State, Edo State and Delta State. The states in the South-South
115
geopolitical area share common fortunes being copiously watered by the
Atlantic Ocean and tributaries of River Niger and River Benue, which
converged above them at Lokoja, North Eastern Nigeria.
Akwa Ibom State itself is divided into three political zones called
Senatorial Districts – Uyo, Eket and Ikot Ekpene Senatorial Districts. It is also
divided into 31 administrative divisions called, `Local Governemnt Areas’.
These include Abak, Eastern Obolo, Eket, Esit Eket, Essien Udim, Etim Ekpo,
Etinan, Ibeno, Ibesipko Asutan, Ibiono Ibom, Ika, Ikot Abasi, Ikot Ekpene, Ini,
Itu, Mbo, Mkpat Enin, Nsit Atai, Nsit Ibom, Nsit Ubium, Obot Akara, Okobo,
Onna, Oron, Oruk Anam, Udung Uko, Ukanafun Uruan, Ureoffong Oruko and
Uyo.
Out of 774 such administrative divisions in Nigeria, 31 (4 percent) are
found in Akwa Ibom State (see plate 2). Each of the 31 Local Government
Areas has its capital city. The capital city of the State is Uyo, in Uyo Local
Government Area. Thus, Uyo serves both as Akwa Ibom State capital city and
the capital of Uyo Local Government Area.
Educational Institutions
This team of researchers reside in the University of Uyo, established by
the Federal Government of Nigeria in 1991. Apart from the university of Uyo,
there are four other tertiary institutions of learning – the State College of
Education at Afaha Nsit and the State Polytechnic at Ikot Osura at Nsit Ibom
and at Ikot Ekpene Local Governemnt Areas respectively. The third tertiary
institution is the State University of Science and Technology, which is still in
the making. It has been established by a decree and staff have been recruited
and sent on development programmes, but it is yet to take off. There is also
116
the Maritime Academy located at Oron Local Government Area, by the
Atlantic Ocean, which develops seafarers. There is no private university in the
State. Akwa Ibom State is generally regarded as an educationally-advantaged
State (Ekpo & Uwatt, 2005).
There are 250 public secondary/technical schools, 1110 public primary
schools and no public pre-primary school. As at the time of data collection, the
population of teachers of primary schools was 16,000. The teacher/student
ratio was estimated at 1:44 (Akpakpan, 2001). The population of primary
school children in Akwa Ibom State was estimated at 744,392 while that of
secondary schools was estimated at 133,119 in 1998/1999 school year
(Akpakpan, 2001).
Going by the teacher/pupil ratio of 1:44, the population of primary
school children in the State should be 704,000. The drop in numbers from
744,329 in the 1998/99 school year should not be surprising because
nowadays, many parents, no matter their social statuses prefer to send their
children to private nursery/primary schools, which are reputed to have more
effective control of academic activities and their students make better
academic progress than public primary school pupils.
The quality of education provided in the State is generally poor in every
level. This results in educational programmes and students from the state
seemingly, not measuring up in national and international academic ratings.
For instance, the University of Uyo, the author’s educational institution scored
very low in the accreditation exercise conducted by the National Universities
Commission (NUC), the body empowered to co-ordinate activities and
programmes in Nigerian Universities. The poor performance of educational
117
establishments and students in the State is attributed to three major factors
namely:
• inadequate funding, which results in poor facilities;
• poor management of the available funds and facilities; and
• poor quality of many teachers (Akpakpan, 2001; Ekpo & Uwatt, 2005,
p.33).
Physical Features and Occupations
As earlier stated, Akwa Ibom State opens into the Atlantic Ocean in the
Southern border. It is located within the Delta region where the tributaries of
River Niger and River Benue, having converged at Lokoja in North Eastern
direction, empty into the Atlantic. One of such tributaries is called the Cross
River, which runs along Akwa Ibom State and the neighbouring Cross River
State, forming a natural boundary between the two states (see map, plate1).
Akwa Ibom State is therefore, well watered by the Cross River and its
tributaries.
The State is found within the rain forest zone. The rainy months extend
from mid-March through October, with peaks in the months of June – July and
in September. The dry season extends from November through early March.
The abundance of rivers and rain in the region presupposes wetness of the
soil and high humidity of the atmosphere. These gives rise to quick growth of
the vegetation, giving rise to tall trees, which make the area characteristically
forestry. There are no rocks. The Southern region of the State is more or less
plain land, while the Southern part, which is closer to the Atlantic Ocean, is
typically undulating, with uninhabitable valleys, which make the Southern
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region to be prone to erosion. Palms of all kinds abound and they grow to be
very tall.
These physical features have given rise to indigenous occupations of
the people. The soil is generally fertile and every indigene of Akwa Ibom State
is a potential farmer. Farming however is done not with modern tools. Hoes
and machetes are used extensively to fell down the big deciduous trees. The
farming season starts early February when bushes are cleared and burnt
ready for planting in the months of March through April. Planting is done with
the same crooked implements. Typically, the farm is not mowed with tractors
or graders. That cannot be done for two reasons: the stems and roots of the
big forest trees may not permit the use of such tools. Secondly, doing so will
destroy family boundaries. Land had been shared out from time immemorial.
Those who are newly born inherit their fore-fathers’ shares of land and that
continues perpetually.
Occupations vary by location and sex. Those who live in the riverine
regions are mainly fishermen while those who live in the hinterland are mainly
farmers. The fishermen do some farming too, just like the farmers may learn
sea faring and fishing. So, there is no hard and fast rule as to who is a farmer
and who is not.
Farm crops include the oil palm by the people in the hinterland and the
wine palm for people in the riverine regions. Indeed, the palm oil is the
mainstay of the economy in the riverine regions. Other farm crops are
produced at subsistence levels. These include yams, pumpkin, melons, water
yam, cocoyam, sweet yam, and cassava. Both men and women farm just like
both men and women in the riverine areas fish. However, the farm crops differ
119
for both sexes. In the past, men farmed mainly on yams while the women
farmed on cassava, pumpkin, melons and vegetables.
Due to over-cropping, the soil can no longer sustain good growth of
yams. Therefore, an indigenous Akwa Ibom man no longer has any yam as
farm crop. This situation seems to force some men in villages to be lazy,
hanging around local bars and drinking huts! The enterprising ones take to
retail trading to sustain their families. Those who acquire any level of
education look up to government and the school system to offer them
employment.
Akwa Ibom State is derogatorily called, “the civil servant state”,
because many are employed in the civil service. There are not many
industries. In the 1980s, the State could boast of industries like the breweries,
the paint industry, the paper (news print) industry, the ceramics industry and
the biscuit industry. Most of these industries are histories now because they
had folded up. It is only the breweries and the paint industries that are
currently producing. Even those two are not to be depended upon. The
breweries was resuscitated and bought over by an Indian firm. It has lost its
former glory. The pain industry is not producing at full capacity either and is
feared to be experiencing diminishing returns. A few men and women have
ventured into poultry farming and such secondary industries. There is a high
level of unemployment among the youths and high level of poverty (67
percent) among the people in the State (Ekpo & Uwatt, 2005). This occurs
despite the fact that petroleum is found in the Southern region at Ibeno near
the Atlantic, and the Mobil Oil firm is located at Eket. The Federal Government
of Nigeria controls proceeds from the oil industry. Akwa Ibom State is given
120
13 percent of proceeds from the oil industry. Those in power feed fat on that.
Some youths venture into tertiary occupations like hairdressing and sale of
recharge cards.
People, Language, Culture and Social Conditions
The major ethnic groups in Akwa Ibom State are the Ibibios, the
Annangs, the Ekets, the Ibenos, and the Orons. These are all from the same
racial stock having fairly dark skin colours and kinky hairs. The five divisions
are based on variations in the language that these people speak. All
understand and can speak Ibibio language. But, when they want to be
different from the rest, those who are from Oron, Eket and Ibeno switch into
deep dialects known only to their kinds. Incidentally, most of these language
groups are found in the borders of the Atlantic. It is not known to us (the
researchers), why there are so many Ibibio language variations in the riverine
communities. Those languages might have been developed in the slave trade
era to block communication between the riverine communities and the people
in the hinterland. The latter were generally, victims of slave-hunt crusades
organized around the 15th century by the Portuguese traders who invaded the
Atlantic shores and made the people in these shores their agents/guides in
penetrating into the hinterland to capture their helpless victims!
The language spoken by the Annangs has only a slight variation in
pronunciation with the main Ibibio language. Both groups perfectly understand
each other when the other’s language is spoken. In actual fact, in the 1940’s,
the people who now emphasize their identities as the Annangs, were all
grouped under the Ibibios. The division into Annang and Ibibio is something
very recent. It is political.
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Although they are not very rich, people in Akwa Ibom State cook tasty
foods. The staple food is foo-foo, which could be made from different kinds of
carbohydrate bases. Foo-foo made from yam and those made from cassava
are the most common. Foo-foo are taken with deliciously cooked soups and
swallowed in balls. Edikan-ikong soup (thick soup made from vegetables),
ukw]h] (made from a specially cultivated twiner called, Afang combined with
water leaves), okro soup and melon soup provide all the delicacies. The basic
ingredients in these soups are seafoods, like crayfish, fish, clams and
periwinkles. The palm oil is added for colour and taste in most soups, except
for the white soup, which is basically used for eating yam foo-foo. White soup
is a delicacy of the people. It could be enriched with goat meat or chicken.
Smoked fish is part of its ingredients.
The next staple is called ekpang-nkukw], porridge prepared from a
mixture of grated cocoyam and grated water yam. The paste resulting from
the gratings is cut into small pieces with fingers and wrapped with tender
vegetables. The ingredients of fish and crayfish are added to taste. Salt and
pepper are added to taste in all soups and porridges. Modern families extend
their appetites to exotic foods like bread and tea, macroni and indomie, rice
and beans.
Akwa Ibom State is somehow rural. Nightlife is not common and
dances and entertainments are seasonal, reserved for Christmas seasons,
marriage festivals and burial of an elder in the community. Due perhaps to the
current economic realities or to education, the extended family system is in
the decline. Large families and polygamy is also fading away. The average
family is one whose husband is a university graduate and the wife may have
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the same qualification or something lower and they have four to five children.
Male children are highly valued but female children are not rejected either.
Male and female children are given equal educational opportunities.
Akwa Ibom State is blessed with many health facilities. There is a
general hospital/teaching hospital at Uyo. There are other hospitals founded
and managed by the State government. Recently in 2006, the State
government handed over the hospitals founded by voluntary agencies to the
churches associated with those hospitals. The same thing was done to
secondary schools. This may be in the spirit of globalisation (Khor, 2003).
End Notes The above descriptions are not exhaustive of the characteristics of the study site. This much is what time permits for now. I hope these are enough to cause you to visit Akwa Ibom State sometime in the future. The Akwa Ibom Airport is in the making. It is one of the pet projects that Architect Obong Victor Attah, the governor of the State wants to bequeath for memory. The people of Akwa Ibom State are very hospitable. They will warmly welcome you to the State anytime, anyday. Please when you arrive, remember to buzz a member of the ERNWACA research team in Akwa Ibom State.
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Plate 3.1: Map of Nigeria showing States and State Capitals
124
Plate 3.2: Map of Akwa Ibom State showing the 31 L ocal Government Areas
125
CHAPTER FOUR
RESEARCH METHOD
This chapter focuses on the method and procedures used in
conducting this research. It is all about the research design, population,
sample and sampling technique, instrumentation, validation of the research
instruments, reliability of the instruments, administration of the instruments
and finally, the method of data analysis.
Design of the Study
The causal comparative and the descriptive survey designs were used.
These designs were chosen for the fact that the situation studied was already
in existence at the time that the research was carried out and certain variables
needed to be described using the opinions of a cross section of teachers,
administrators, parents, those of NTI students, course tutors and that of the
researchers. Document analysis method was used to find answers to
research questions one and eight.
Research Population
The target population was all the primary school teachers who studied
under the NTI. The population size of all the primary school teachers in Akwa
Ibom State was 16,000. 6.2 percent of 16,000 (1,000) were estimated to have
studied under the NTI. Students and tutors in NTI centres in Akwa Ibom State
were also investigated. The population sizes for tutors and students were not
126
described because the officials of the NTI in Akwa Ibom State did not co-
operate on that score alone.
Sampling Technique and Sample
The multi-stage stratified random sampling technique was used. The
state was stratified into three Senatorial Districts. Each of the three Senatorial
Districts was stratified into Local Government Areas. Teachers, administrators
and parents from each Local Government Area were randomly selected. In
all, 650 teachers, produced by the NTI and 350 non-NTI teachers (6.2%) were
evaluated by the study team. One head-teacher was required to appraise 5 –
7 teachers working under him/her, and 134 head-teachers were to evaluate
670 – 938 teachers in all out of which 800 (85%) usable questionnaires were
returned. Three PTA members in each of the 120 schools appraised three
teachers each. The total number appraised by the PTA members came to (3
X 3 X 120) = 1,080 teachers, out of which 500 (46.3%) usable questionnaires
were returned. The sampling distribution of primary school teachers in the
State are shown on Table 4.1. The incidental sampling technique was used to
select 492 - 500 NTIDL students at the rate of 30 – 65 students per centre.
The incidental sampling technique was used to select 87 course tutors whose
returned questionnaires were usable. To find answers to research questions
one and six, 13 NTI-written textbooks were randomly sampled in the four core
subject areas. The incidental sampling technique was used to select the 13
course texts written by the NTI. These included four English language texts,
four Mathematics texts, three Social Studies texts and two Integrated Science
texts. The same technique was used to select old question papers on the four
core subjects from the NTI, Akwa Ibom State central office.
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TABLE 4.1: Sampling distribution of Primary School Teachers, Administrators, Parents in the Study
S/N LGA/LEA No. of Schools
No. of schools visited
No of Teachers 6.2% of Teachers
Adminis-trators who participated
No. of usable
Question-naires
returned
Parents who
partici-pated
No. of usable
Question-naires
returned Male Female Total 1 Abak 46 3 304 650 954 95 3 20 9 12 2. Eastern Obolo 10 1 27 34 61 6 1 6 3 6 3. Eket 29 3 57 441 498 50 3 20 9 15 4. Esit Eket 15 2 103 138 241 24 2 15 6 12 5. Essien Udim 55 8 295 494 789 79 8 50 24 30 6. Etim Ekpo 40 4 204 297 501 50 4 20 12 18 7. Etinan 41 4 200 402 602 60 4 24 12 18 8. Ibeno 12 1 29 88 117 11 1 6 3 9 9. Ibesikpo Asutan 50 5 179 511 690 69 5 40 15 21 10. Ibiono Ibom 58 6 279 586 865 86 6 50 18 25 11. Ika 18 2 191 173 364 36 2 12 6 6 12. Ikono 59 6 239 477 716 71 6 36 18 15 13. Ikot Abasi 34 3 122 246 368 37 3 18 9 9 14. Ikot Ekpene 34 6 131 687 818 82 6 30 18 21 15. Ini 44 4 250 243 493 49 4 30 12 21 16. Itu 37 7 242 486 728 73 7 50 21 27 17. Mbo 27 3 148 297 445 45 3 20 9 15 18. Mkpat Enin 49 5 158 336 494 49 5 30 15 18 19. Nsit Atai 23 2 84 170 254 25 2 15 6 12 20. Nsit Ibom 31 3 119 356 475 48 3 18 9 15 21. Nsit Ubium 38 4 148 294 442 44 4 26 12 18
128
S/N LGA/LEA No. of Schools
No. of schools visited
No of Teachers 6.2% of Teachers
Adminis-trators who participated
No. of usable
Question-naires
returned
Parents who
partici-pated
No. of usable
Question-naires
returned 22. Obot Akara 36 4 146 292 438 44 4 24 12 15 23. Okobo 29 3 123 247 370 37 3 18 9 12 24. Onna 26 3 84 233 317 32 3 20 9 12 25. Oron 13 1 48 328 376 38 1 6 3 9 26. Oruk Anam 69 6 334 36 370 67 6 40 18 24 27. Udung Uko 12 1 52 105 157 16 1 6 3 6 28. Ukanafun 62 6 313 451 764 76 6 36 18 24 29. Uruan 45 4 152 287 439 44 4 24 12 10 30. Urue Offong
Oruko 21 2 186 267 453 45 2 10 6 9
31 Uyo 47 8 173 926 1099 110 8 80 24 36 Total 1110 120 5120 10578 15698 1598 120 800 360 500
129
Instrumentation
Five instruments were developed by the researchers plus analysis of
records. These were:
1.) A questionnaire called, “Evaluation Scale for Teachers’ Effective
classroom Behaviours (ESTECB)” was used by the researchers
themselves to collect information and monitor the classroom
behaviours of primary school teachers. The first instrument “ESTECB”,
was put in sections A – M. section A sought general information on the
teachers, section B-M contained 128 items with each set of items
measuring something different including: readiness for instruction
(7items), teacher personality (14 items), teachers’ knowledge of the
subject-matter (5items), classroom management skills (10 items),
questioning skills (8 items), communication skills (17 items),
interpersonal skills (18 items), teacher enthusiasm (8 items), direct
teaching technical skills (11 items), indirect teaching technical skills (11
items), tests/examination skills (19 items) and teachers’ aspiration for
professional growth/development (7 items). Twenty three of those
were negatively worded.
2.) A second questionnaire called, “Administrators and Parents’ Evaluation
of Teachers Effectiveness Questionnaire (APETEQ)” was used by the
school administrators and, parents to evaluate the teachers. It
contained 37 items measuring different aspects of teacher
effectiveness including teacher’s relation with parents/students,
examination habits, social behaviour, teacher’s personality, teacher
commitment, teacher’s aspirations for development and teacher’s
130
classroom behaviours. It was meant for administrators and parents to
use in evaluating NTI produced teachers. Their responses were in a 5-
point Likert-type scale.
3.) A third instrument (questionnaire) called, “Course Tutors’ assessment
of Distance Learning Questionnaire (COTADLQ)”, was used by the
course tutors. The third instrument “COTADLQ” which was meant for
course tutors, contained 54 items in different sections measuring the
following: The NTI Distance Learning scheme, what the
teaching/learning materials consist of, the study centre activities, NTI
tests/examinations, information on NTI course tutors, information on
NTI students, information on NTI classroom survival strategies, NTI
classroom mastery strategies and NTI classroom impacting strategies.
The items were arranged for responses in a 5-point Likert-type-scale.
4.) A fourth instrument called, “Learning Context, Study Strategies and
Performance Questionnaire (LCSSAPQ)”, was used for the students-
teachers who were then studying in NTIDL centres. LCSSAPQ was
arranged in two separate parts. The first part which contained 47 items,
put in 10 different categories required responses from students in
relation to their learning context and study strategies in 5-point Likert-
type scale. The second part contained 10 questions, each built from
the core subjects of English Language, Mathematics, Integrated
Science and Social studies. These tests were conducted as an in-vivo
examination of students’ cognitive levels in their programmes. This was
done under two hours. The students’ scores in each of the four core
131
subjects: English language, Mathematics, Social Studies and
Integrated Science were weighted by reducing them into a 5-point
scale. Thus, the score of 0 – 2 was awarded a weighted score of 1, a
sore of 3 – 4 was converted to weighted score of 2, a score of 5 – 6
was weighted to 3, 7 – 8 was weighted to 4, and 9 – 10 weighted to 5.
The cut-off point for a pass was fixed at 3.50.
5.) A fifth instrument had 15 items and called Evaluation Scale for
Curriculum Content” instrument (ESCC)”. This was used for assessing
NTI texts developed for Distance Learning at the Nigerian certificate of
Education (NCE) level. The ESCC was used by experts in assessing
the curriculum contents in English language, Mathematics, Integrated
Science and Social studies. The fifth instrument contained 15 items.
The criteria for assessment of NTI curriculum textbooks based on
contents were under the following subtitles:- Meeting learners’ needs
and interests, significance, validity, making for practicability/learnability,
transferability, having elements of suitability, relevance, balance, scope
of coverage, continuity, sequence and integration. These terms are
reviewed under textbook evaluation in chapter two. Responses were
equally graded in a 5-point Likert-type scale of 5, 4, 3, 2, and 1. A
score of 5 (five) indicated having very high impression of the content
and a score of 1 (one) indicated a very low impression of the textbook
content. A similar scheme was used in scoring the examination
questions set by the NTIDLS.
6.) There was also an analysis of records whereby the quality control
measures (examinations) set by the NTI for its students in the four core
132
subjects of interest were assessed. Six criteria used in rating the
examination items were drawn from the categories of the cognitive
domain of objectives consisting of knowledge, comprehension,
application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation.
Validation of the Instrument
The face, content and construct validity of the instruments were
ascertained by the five research associates and by their mentors. The
construct validity of the instrument had the values of 3.7, 3.80, 4.00 and 4.60
for the students, tutors, administrators/parents and the researchers’
questionnaires respectively on a 5-point scale. The test-retest reliability
coefficient were established for the instruments by using respondents who did
not participate in the actual study. The result showed that the reliability
coefficients were as follows: 0.94 reliability coefficient for the ESTECB, 0.71
for APETEQ for administrators and parents respectively and 0.75 for both
parents and administrators. The students’ questionnaires (LCSSAPQ) had
0.76 reliability coefficient for test items and 0.92 for the questionnaire, while
the tutors’ questionnaires had 0.68 reliability coefficient. The obtained
reliability coefficients of the items show that the instruments were reliable and
the obtained values were substantially high enough to justify the use of the
research instruments.
Administration of the Instruments
The five sets of questionnaire were sent out into the field to the
different categories of respondents.
133
Administration of ESTECB was effected by the researchers and their
assistants who were post-graduate students in the Faculty of Education,
University of Uyo with the help of the headmasters, headmistresses, and their
deputies in the respective schools. Rating of teachers was done in the
classrooms as the teachers were teaching. In the case of the school
administrators’/parents’ questionnaire, respondents were given up to three
days within which to fill the questionnaires. The completed questionnaires
were later picked up by the researcher/assistant assigned to the school
concerned. The questionnaire for NTI students and their tutors were
administered to them in their respective study centres. The questionnaires
were filled and collected on the spot. All the eleven centres in the State were
visited within three week-ends. With evidence of authority from the State
coordinator of the NTI, all activities were suspended while course tutors and
students attended to the questionnaires. Analysis of NTI textbooks in
comparison with the known curriculum criteria was handled by an expert in
each of the four core-subject areas of English Language, Mathematics, social
Studies and Integrated Science. Assessment of examination questions was
done by experts in educational evaluation. The whole exercise took two
months. On the whole, the researchers were able to evaluate teaching
behaviours of 1000 teachers made up of 650 NTI-produced teachers and 350
non NTI-produced teachers; 500 usable copies of PTA questionnaires were
retrieved; 800 usable copies of administrators’ questionnaires were retrieved,
80 copies of course tutor questionnaires were retrieved and 400 NTI students
returned their questionnaires. Success rate therefore differed for individual
segments of the research. For the researchers, the success rate was 63%,
134
for the administrators, 85% and for the PTA members, the success rate was
46.3%.
Method of Data Analysis
The data were analysed using descriptive statistics like the mean
scores, standard deviations and percentage counts where necessary to
analyse the research questions. The independent t-test was however used in
two instances – in comparing the researchers’ ratings of the NTI-produced
and the non NTI-produced teachers and in comparing the school
administrators’ and parents’ ratings of those same group of teachers; to see if
there was any significance difference between their effectiveness ratings.
The independent t-test was considered necessary when the research
questions were commuted into the null hypothesis that there was no
significance difference between the two groups in the variables of
investigation.
135
CHAPTER FIVE
RESULTS
The results of investigation are laid out in tabular forms from Table 5.1
– table 5.8 Each table portrays the information collected in respect to each of
eight research questions and on two Null hypotheses derived from two of the
eight research questions.
136
Answer to Research Questions
Research Question One: What aspects of the curricul um content of the NTIDLS meet known criteria for a good curriculum?
Table 5.1: Average (mean) Scores of Selected NTI C ourse Texts (Curriculum) on Known Criteria for a Go od Curriculum.
S/N CRITERIA ENGLISH LANGUAGE MATHEMATICS SOCIAL STUDIES INTEGRATED SCIENCE
C
ycle
1:
Mod
ules
1-4
Cyc
le 2
: M
odul
es 1
-4
Cyc
le 3
: M
odul
es 1
-4
Cyc
le 4
: M
odul
es 1
-4
Cyc
le 1
: M
odul
es 1
-4
Cyc
le 2
: M
odul
es 1
-4
Cyc
le 3
: M
odul
es 1
-4
Cyc
le 4
: M
odul
es 1
-4
Cyc
le 2
: M
odul
es 1
-4
Cyc
le 3
: M
odul
es 1
-4
Cyc
le 4
: M
odul
es 1
-4
Cyc
le 2
: M
odul
es 1
-4
Tot
al
Mea
ns S
core
% S
core
s
1 Meeting Learner’s Needs 4 4 4 4 3 2 4 3 3 3 3 4 41 3.42 6.63
2 Significance 4 4 4 4 3 3 4 3 3 3 3 5 43 3.58* 6.96
3 Validity 3 3 3 3 4 4 3 3 2 3 3 5 39 3.25 6.31 4 Practicability / Learnability 3 3 3 3 3 2 3 3 2 2 3 5 35 2.92 5.66
5 Transferability 4 4 4 4 2 1 4 4 2 3 3 5 40 3.33 6.47
6 Content Difficulty 4 4 4 4 2 2 4 3 2 2 2 5 38 3.17 6.15
7 Feedback 3 3 3 3 4 4 5 4 3 3 3 5 43 3.58* 6.96
8 Variety 4 4 4 4 5 3 4 4 2 3 3 4 44 3.67* 7.12
9 Suitability 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 2 3 3 4 40 3.33 6.47
10 Relevance 4 4 4 4 5 3 3 4 2 2 3 5 43 3.58* 6.96
11 Balance 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 2 3 4 4 41 3.42 6.63
12 Scope of Coverage 3 3 2 3 5 4 4 4 2 3 4 4 41 3.42 6.63
13 Continuity 4 4 4 4 4 3 4 3 2 3 3 4 42 3.50* 6.80
14 Sequence 4 4 4 4 5 4 3 3 1 3 4 5 44 3.67* 7.12
15 Integration 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 3 2 3 4 5 44 3.67* 7.12
Total 56 56 55 56 55 45 54 50 32 42 48 69 618
Mean score 3.73* 3.73* 3.67* 3.73* 3.67* 3.00 3.60* 3.33 2.13 2.80 3.20 4.60*
% Score 9.06 9.06 8.90 9.06 8.90 7.28 8.74 8.09 5.18 6.80 7.77 11.17
KEY: Mean score above 3.50 along the rows is signif icant; * indicates significance
137
On Table 5.1, are shown the ratings of NTI course texts for distance
learning, by specialists in the respective subject areas. The totals and mean
ratings along the rows show the joint scores of all the texts in the four subject
areas (English language, Mathematics, Social studies and Integrated
Science).
Based on the values of the mean scores, the criteria of variety,
sequence and integration had the highest ratings (0 = 3.67) each. They were
seconded by the criteria of significance, feedback and relevance (0 = 3.58)
each. The criterion of continuity had a borderline rating (0 = 3. 50). The
values of these criteria were on/above the cut-off point of 3.50. Therefore,
these criteria were met for a good curriculum.
On the opposite end of the continuum, the criterion of
practicability/learnability registered the lowest mean rating (0 = 3.25). That
was followed by the criterion of content difficulty (0 = 3.17) and by validity (0 =
3.25).
In between these two extremes were the criteria of transferability and
suitability each of which had the mean rating of 3.33. Also in the middle range
were the criteria of meeting learners’ needs/interests, balance and scope of
coverage, each of which had a mean rating of 3.42. The ratings in the middle
range are however, lower than the cut-off point of 3.50. Therefore, these
textbook attributes that did not score up to 3.50 did not meet the criteria of a
good curriculum. The NTIDL textbooks met the criteria for a good curriculum
in terms of variety, sequence and integration. Additional attributes which met
the criteria of a good curriculum were their significance, feedback and
relevance.
138
Research Question Two: What are the opinions of th e NTIDL students
about their learning contexts and study strategies?
Table 5.2A: % Analysis of NTIDL Students’ Perceptio n of Their Learning
Contexts and Study Strategies
VARIABLE RESPONSE CATEGORIES AGREE UNDECIDED DISAGREE
S/No FREQ % FREQ % FREQ % TOTAL SOURCE OF HELP
Course tutors 473 96% 9 2% 10 2% 492 past-NTI students 385 78% 47 10% 60 12% 492 present-NTI students 392 80% 40 8% 60 12% 492 graduate in subject area 436 88% 28 6% 28 6% 492 books not for NTI 244 50% 74 15% 174 35% 492
1
Internet 208 42% 95 20% 189 38% 492 REASONS FOR HELP
For Better understanding 467 95% 13 3% 12 2% 492 To Write term paper 365 74% 59 12% 68 14% 492 To Study for Exams 413 83% 47 10% 32 7% 492
2
To Pass Exams 335 68% 84 17% 73 15% 492 TIME FOR PRIVATE STUDY Late at night 357 73% 32 7% 103 20% 492 Early morning 361 73% 54 11% 77 16% 492 On week-ends 278 57% 77 16% 137 28% 492 Any time of the day 301 61% 69 14% 122 25% 492
3
Afternoon 143 29% 118 24% 231 47% 492 OCCUPATION
Teaching(public school) 169 34% 88 18% 235 48% 492 Teaching(private school) 234 48% 75 15% 183 37% 492 civil servant 174 35% 86 18% 232 47% 492 Farming 303 61% 87 18% 102 21% 492 Family/home care 285 58% 85 17% 122 25% 492
4
Nothing 75 15% 132 27% 285 58% 492 USE OF COURSE TEXTS
Reading course textbooks only
200 41% 58 12% 234 47% 492
Reading course textbooks several times only
418 85% 44 9% 30 6% 492
Reading once before exams 87 18% 49 10% 356 72% 492 Reading through important section
112 23% 64 13% 316 64% 492
5
Course textbooks plus others 451 92% 15 3% 26 5% 492
STUDY HABITS Make note after reading 464 94% 21 4% 7 2% 492 Read text several times 397 81% 66 13% 29 5% 492 Reduce text to small print 201 41% 73 15% 218 44% 492
6
Use dictionary while reading 439 89% 29 6% 24 5% 492
139
VARIABLE RESPONSE CATEGORIES AGREE UNDECIDED DISAGREE
S/No FREQ % FREQ % FREQ % TOTAL
LIKES ABOUT THE NTI
Instalmental payment of fees 431 88% 30 6% 31 6% 492
Painstaking tutors 344 70% 70 14% 78 16% 492 Supply of reading material 455 93% 21 4% 16 3% 492 More time for other things 405 82% 36 7% 51 11% 492
Exams conditions helps student pass well
235 48% 73 15% 184 37% 492
Course contents are relevant to my needs
405 82% 52 11% 35 7% 492
7
Exams/test are graded/publish in good time
345 70% 86 17% 61 13% 492
DISLIKES ABOUT THE NTI
Course tutors are not serious 76 16% 45 9% 371 75% 492
Fees are too high 118 24% 38 8% 336 68% 492 course books are not sufficient 134 27% 44 9% 314 64% 492
course contents are difficult to understand
49 10% 65 13% 378 77% 492
Course books are too big to cover
92 19% 66 13% 334 68% 492
No practical know ledge 77 16% 54 11% 361 73% 492 Course content will not help me
66 13% 37 8% 389 79% 492
No sufficient time for study 86 17% 32 7% 374 76% 492
8
Exams/result not publish in good time
190 38% 37 8% 265 54% 492
INTERACTION WITH COURSE TUTORS
Direct contact in class 445 90% 18 4% 29 6% 492 Phoning 184 27% 75 15% 233 48% 492 Letter writing/Cards 114 23% 116 24% 262 53% 492 E-mailing 82 17% 101 21% 309 62% 492 Test/Exams 326 66% 50 10% 116 24% 492 Visiting their office 222 45% 65 13% 205 42% 492
9
Visiting their home 110 23% 95 19% 287 58% 492
IMPACT OF NTIDLS It gives knowledge/skill 474 96% 14 3% 4 1% 492 It has change my attitude to life
465 95% 21 4% 6 1% 492
It has prepared me for the future
467 95% 21 4% 4 1% 492 10
It has reminded me of things I had forgotten
461 93% 23 5% 8 2% 492
140
On Table 5.2A is presented data on the NTIDL students’ perception of
ten items of their learning contexts and study strategies. These range from,
(1) where they seek help; (2) reasons for seeking help; (3) time for private
studies; (4) their occupations; (5) use of course textbooks; (6) study habits; (7)
their likes about the NTI; (8) their dislikes about the NTI; (9) mode of
interaction with course tutors; (10) the impact of the NTIDLS on individual
students.
The summary of analysis of Table 5.2A is shown on Table 5.2B
Table 5.2B: Analysis and Interpretation of Table 5. 2A
S/No Variable Highest Scorers Lowest Scorers 1. Source of Help (i) Course tutors (96%)
(ii) University graduates in the same subject area (88%)
(iii) Present NTI students (80%)
(i) The internet (42%) (ii) other textbooks (50%)
2. Reason for Help (i) For better understanding (95%) (ii) In studying for exams (83%)
(i) To write term paper (74%)
3. Study Time (i) Late night/early morning (73%) (i) Afternoons (29%) 4. Occupations (i) Farming (61%)
(ii) Homecare (58%) (i) Unemployed (15%) (ii) Teachers/civil servants (34%, 35%)
5. Use of course texts
(i) Course texts plus others (92%) (ii) Reading course texts several times
(85%)
(i) Reading once before exams (18%) (ii) Reading through important sections (23%)
6. Study Habits (i) Making notes after reading (94%) (ii) Use of dictionary while reading (89%) (iii) Reading several times (81%)
(i) Reducing texts to small prints (41%)
7. Likes about the NTI
(i) Supply of course texts (96%) (ii) Instalmental fee payment (88%) (iii) Giving time for other things (82%)
(i) Exams conditions help students to pass well (48%)
8. Dislikes about the NTI
- -
9. Mode of interaction with course tutors
(i) Class contacts (90%) (i) Mailing (17%) (ii) Home visits/phoning
(23%, 27%) respectively. 10. The impacts of
NTIDLS (i) Gives knowledge (96%) (ii) Prepares for the future (95%) and (iii) Changes my attitude to life (95%)
-
141
The highest scoring items were those that large numbers of students
had positive perceptions, while the lowest scorers were those that they had
very negative perceptions of. Table 5.2B throws more light on the students’
study habits and their perception of learning in general. Cell number 1
(highest scorer) shows that there is much interaction (96%) between students
and course tutors.
Cell number 9 indicates that, much of their interactions take place in
the formal classroom during face-to-face contact sessions. Cell number 1
also shows that there is much student/student interaction too (80%) and there
is interaction between the NTIDL students and experts in their different fields
(88%). The lowest scoring sources of help used by the students include the
internet (42%). This is an indication that online education is still being less
used in this part of Nigeria. A substantive percentage of students (50%)
claimed to refer to other textbooks in their fields.
In cell 2 and 10, quite a large number of students (95%) subscribed to
the “transformative perception of learning” (Lankbeck & Mugler, 2005, p.3) by
claiming that they study to have a better understanding and to prepare for the
future. A good number too equally claimed that they study for knowledge
(90%), to pass examinations (83%). This group of students have a
reproductive conception of learning.
In cell number 3, the students claimed to study mostly late nights and
early mornings (73%) each. In cell number 4, 61% claimed to be farmers,
58% claimed home keeping occupations, while only 34% claimed to be
teachers. In cell number 5 – 6, NTIDL students consult other texts in addition
to their course texts (92%), and most (85%) claimed to read sequentially,
142
make notes during reading (94%) and use dictionaries to help know difficult
words (89%) while a few (41%) indulge in reducing notes to small prints which
predisposes them to examination malpractices.
In cell number 7 – 8, NTIDL students like the NTIDLS for its supplying
course texts (96%), instalmental fee-payment (88%) and allowing them time
for other engagements (82%).
Research Question Three: How do NTIDL Students per form in the Four
Core Subject Areas?
Table 5.3: Performance of NTIDL students in Four Co re Subjects -
English Language, Mathematics, Primary Science and Social
Studies.
S/N Centre Score Category
English Language Mathematics
Primary Science
Social Studies
Overall Score Rank
T 200 110 180 183 673 0000 4.26 2.34 3.83 3.89 4.77 1st SD 0.71 1.03 0.96 0.96
1 Oron n = 47
% pass 30 16 27 28 T 158 83 151 121 513 0000 3.67 1.93 3.51 2.81 2.98 11th SD 1.34 1.08 0.88 1.12
2 Ikot Ekpene n = 43
% pass 31 16 29 24 T 160 88 161 177 586 0000 4.00 2.20 4.03 4.43 3.66 7th SD 0.51 0.82 0.80 0.59
3 Ikot Abasi n = 40
% pass 27 15 27 30 T 241 174 222 197 834 0000 4.16 3.00 3.83 3.40 3.58 9th SD 0.83 1.21 0.94 1.15
4 Eket n = 58
% pass 30 21 27 24 T 299 236 280 221 1036 0000 4.60 3.63 4.31 3.40 3.98 3rd SD 0.70 0.80 0.64 0.86
5 Itu n = 65
% pass 29 23 27 21 T 163 150 144 142 599 0000 4.79 4.41 4.24 4.18 4.54 2nd SD 0.54 0.61 0.61 0.87
6 Ikono n = 33
% pass 27 25 24 24
143
S/N Centre Score Category
English Language Mathematics
Primary Science
Social Studies
Overall Score Rank
T 262 148 237 230 877 0000 4.16 2.35 3.76 3.65 3.48 10th SD 0.75 0.95 0.91 1.00
7 Uyo n = 63
% pass 30 17 27 25 T 214 152 188 187 741 0000 4.28 3.04 376.00 3.74 3.63 8th SD 0.83 1.44 0.94 1.10
8 Abak n = 51
% pass 29 21 25 25 T 127 67 123 109 426 0000 4.23 2.23 4.10 3.63 3.85 4th (tie) SD 0.86 1.14 0.96 1.24
9 Etim Ekpo n = 30
% pass 30 16 29 26 T 167 114 161 154 596 0000 4.18 2.85 4.03 3.85 3.73 6th SD 0.87 1.17 0.95 1.14
10 Ukanafun n = 40
% pass 28 19 27 26 T 128 106 121 107 462 0000 4.27 3.53 4.03 3.57 3.85 4th (tie) SD 0.87 0.97 0.67 0.82
11 Ika n = 30
% pass 28 23 26 23
T 2119 1428 1968 1828 7343 0000 4.24 2.86 3.94 3.66 3.67 SD 0.86 1.24 0.88 1.07
12 Overall n = 500
% pass 29 19 27 25 Rank 1st 4th 2nd 3rd
Key:
T = total score; 0000 = mean score; SD = standard deviation; % =
percentage passed .
N/B: The cut off point was 50% and 0000 = 3.50. Performances were
generally compared with the overall percentage pass and mean score.
English Language
The overall percentage pass was 29%, centres that recorded more
percentage pass than the overall included Ikot Ekpene (31%), Oron, Eket,
Uyo and Etim Ekpo each of which had 30% pass. Itu and Abak centres had
144
borderline passes (29%). The centres that did not measure up to the
minimum include Ikot Abasi and Ikono (27%) pass each and Ukanafun and
Ika centres each which recorded 28% pass.
Judgment based on the mean scores however presented a different
picture. The overall mean score which can be taken as the cut-off point was
4.24. Only two centres recorded higher mean scores. These were Ikono (0 =
4.79) and Itu (0 = 4.60). The rest of the centres recorded lower than the
average mean passes with variations in standard deviations. Ikot Ekpene
centre which recorded the highest percentage score however, recorded the
lowest mean score (0 = 3.67) and the widest range of standard deviations (SD
= 1.34) as against (SD = 0.86) in the overall score. On the whole, students’
performance in English language was the best among the four subjects (0 =
4.24)
Mathematics
The overall percentage pass in mathematics was 19 percent. The
centres that recorded higher percentage scores included Ikono (25%), Itu and
Ika (23%) each, Eket and Abak (21%) each. Ukanafun had a borderline
percentage pass (19%). The rest of the five centres recorded lower than the
minimum percentage pass in mathematics. These included Uyo (17%), Oron;
Ikot Ekpene and Etim Ekpo (16%) each, and Ikot Abasi (15%) pass.
Judging from their mean scores, the minimum was fixed at 2.86, which
was the overall mean score. Only five centres recorded means which
superceded the overall average. These were: Ikono (0 = 4.41), Itu (0 =3.63),
Ika (0 =3.53), Abak (0 = 3.04) and Eket (0 = 3.00). The lowest mean score in
mathematics was recorded in Ikot Ekpene (0 = 1.93) followed by Ikot Abasi (0
145
= 2.20) and by Etim Ekpo (0 = 2.23). The standard deviations were generally
wider than one in some centres like Oron, Ikot Ekpene, Eket, Etim Ekpo,
Ukanafun and even in the overall. Performance in mathematics turned out to
be the worst of all four core subjects under consideration.
Primary Science
The overall percentage pass was 27 percent. Using this as the cut-ff
point, only two centres recorded higher percentage passes. These were Ikot
Ekpene and Etim Ekpo (29%) pass each. The centres that had lower than the
cut-off point were Ikono (24%), Abak (25%) and Ika (26%). The rest of other
six centres had borderline percentage passes (27%) each.
In terms of mean scores, the standard was fixed in the overall mean
score which was 3.94. The centres that scored above that standard were, Itu
(0 = 4.31, Ikono (0 = 4.24) and Ikot Abasi, Ukanafun and Ika (0 = 4,03) each.
The lowest mean score in this subject area was recorded in Ikot Ekpene (0 =
3.51), Uyo and Abak (0 = 3.76) each. The standard deviations in primary
science was generally less than 1. In effect, performance in primary science
concentrated around the mean and came second to performance in English
language.
Social Studies
The overall score was 25 percent. That was used as the basis for
judging performances in the different centres. Ikot Abasi scored much higher
than the average (30%) pass. The second position was taken by Oron (28%),
and the third by Etim Ekpo and Ukanafun (26%) each. Uyo and Abak centres
had borderline passes (25%) each. The other five centres recorded lower
than the cut-off. These were Ikot Ekpene, Eket and Ikono (24%) each, Ika
146
(23%) and Itu (21%) pass. Going by their mean scores, the overall mean
score was 3.66 and a standard deviation of 1.07. Based on that standard,
Ikot Abasi again recorded the highest mean score (0 =4.43). That was
followed by Ikono (0 = 4.18) and by Oron (0 = 3.89). The standard deviation
at Ikot Abasi was less than the overall (SD = 0.59). Really the standard
deviations in all these high flier centres were not up to one in each case. On
the lower end of the continuum were centres like Ikot Ekpene (0 = 2.81, SD =
1.12), Eket and Itu with (0 = 3.40) each and (SD = 1.15, 0.86) respectively.
Social studies took a third position among the four core subjects in the overall.
Moreover, the eleven centres of the NTI were ranked based on their
overall performance in all the four core subjects, the standard mean score
was 3.67. The first three centres in the rank were Oron (0 = 4.77), Ikono (0 =
4.54) and Itu (0 = 3.98), while the last three were Eket (0 = 3.58), Uyo (0 =
3.48), and Ikot Ekpene (0 = 2.98), in descending order of magnitude.
147
Research Question Four: What are the Opinions of C ourse Tutors on
the Effectiveness of NTIDLS Delivery Mode?
Table 5.4: Analysis of Course Tutors’ Opinions of the NTIDLS
S/N Variable No. of Items TOTAL 0000 0000 of 0000
The NTI Learning Scheme 10 3613 41.53 4.15 Teaching/Learning Materials 5 1598 18.37 3.67 Study Centre Activities 5 1715 19.17 3.94 NTI Test/Examination 5 1734 19.93 3.99 NTI Course Tutors 6 2219 25.51 4.25
1 The Learning Programme
NTI Students 9 3037 34.91 3.88 Classroom Survival Strategies 5 1685 19.37 3.87 Classroom Mastery Strategies 5 1852 21.29 4.26
2
Classroom Management Level
Classroom Impacting Strategies 4 1509 17.34 4.34
Key:
0000 = Mean Score, and 0000 of 0000 = Mean of Means or weighted mean. n for
course tutors was 87.
In Table 5.4 above are shown the mean ratings of the NTIDLS by
course tutors. The tutors gave very high ratings to the quality of course tutors
(4.25); that was followed by a high rating to the NTIDLS learning scheme
(4.15), which was followed by the quality of tests and examinations (3.99).
Although the mean ratings did not go beyond the cut-off point of 3.50, the
areas that received less impressive ratings by the course tutors were the
learning activities in the centres (3.94), the students (3.88) and the
teaching/learning materials (3.67).
148
On their classroom management strategies, the course tutors gave the
following ratings: classroom impacting strategies (0 = 4.34), classroom
mastery strategies (0 = 4.26) and classroom survival strategies (0 = 3.87).
Research Question Five: What are the Effective Cla ssroom Behaviours
of NTIDLS-produced Teachers?
Table 5.5: Analysis of Classroom Behaviour of NTI-p roduced Teachers
S/N Teaching Behaviour 0000 No. of Items
Weighted mean score
SD Rank order
1 Readiness for Instruction 2704.71 7 4.16 0.54 1st
2 Teacher Personality 2602.29 14 4.00 0.65 3rd 3 Knowledge of Subject Matter 2175.80 5 3.35 1.00 10th
4 Classroom Management Skills 2632.50 10 4.05 0.58 2nd
5 Questioning Skills 2256.75 8 3.47 0.73 9th
6 Communication Skills 2469.76 17 3.80 0.54 7th
7 Interpersonal Skills 2505.39 18 3.85 0.51 6th
8 Enthusiasm 2595.38 8 3.99 0.73 4th
9 Direct Teaching Skills 2153.18 11 3.31 0.50 11th
10 Indirect Teaching Skills 2403.67 9 3.70 0.58 8th
11 Test/Examination Skills 2531.14 14 3.89 0.59 5th
In Table 5.5 above, out of eleven teaching behaviours, readiness for
instruction had the highest mean score (0 = 4.16) followed by classroom
management skill (0 = 4.05) and by teacher personality (0 = 4.00). On the
other end of the continuum were the direct teaching skills (0 = 3.31),
knowledge of the subject matter (0 = 3.35) and questioning skills (0 = 3.47).
These did not reach the value of 3.50, which was the cut-off point. The mean
scores of the other teaching behaviours in focus fell in-between these two
extreme groups. In effect, the NTIDL-produced teachers were rated by the
149
team of researchers to be quite ready for instruction, they were rated to have
managed their classroom well, and their personalities were positively rated.
They received low ratings in having direct teaching skills, knowledge of the
subject-matter and questioning skills.
Research Question Six: How do Teachers produced Th rough the
NTIDLS Compare in Teaching Effectiveness with Teach ers
Produced Through Other Educational Agencies?
Table 5.6A: Analysis and Rank Order of Means of NTI DLS-produced and
Non-NTIDLS-Produced Teachers
NTIDL-Produced Teachers Non-NTI-Teachers
S/N Teaching Behaviour Variables Mean
Score ( 0000)
Rank Order of Means
Mean Score ( 0000)
Rank Order of Means
1 Readiness for Instruction 4.16 1st 4.23 1st
2 Teacher Personality 4.00 3rd 4.14 2nd
3 Knowledge of Subject Matter
3.35 11th 3.96 7th
4 Classroom Management Skills
4.05 2nd 4.13 3rd
5 Questioning Skills 3.47 10th 3.36 12th
6 Communication Skills 3.80 8th 4.03 5th
7 Interpersonal Skills 3.85 6th 3.96 7th
8 Enthusiasm 3.99 4th 3.98 6th
9 Direct Teaching Skills 3.31 12th 3.59 11th
10 Indirect Teaching Skills 3.70 9th 3.93 9th
11 Test/Examination Skills 3.89 5th 4.09 4th
12 Aspiration 3.82 7th 3.93 9th
Key:
0000 = mean score, SD = standard deviation
150
In table 5.6A, the NTIDL-produced teachers ranked high in readiness
for instruction (0 = 4.16), classroom management (0 = 4.05) and teacher
personality (0 = 4.00) which took 1st, 2nd and 3rd positions in the rating by the
researchers. The non-NTIDL teachers ranked 1st, 2nd and 3rd in readiness for
instruction (0 = 4.23), teacher personality (0 = 4.14) and in classroom
management (0 = 4.13). For the NTIDL products, the items with less ratings
included the direct teaching skills (0 = 3.31), knowledge of the subject-matter
(0 = 3.35) and questioning skills (0 = 3.47). The non-NTI-produced teachers
were less positively rated in only questioning skills (0 = 3.36). Therefore, it
can be said that on the positive side, teachers produced through the NTIDLS
are comparable in effectiveness with the non-NTI-products in the traditional
classroom context variables. But on the negative side, the NTIDL products
are comparatively poorer in effectiveness in direct teaching skills and in
knowledge of the subject-matter.
151
Research Question Seven: What is the Difference in the Opinions of
Parents and School Administrators on the Effectiven ess of NTIDL-
produced Teachers
Table 5.7A: Rank Order of Means ( 0000) of Parents’ and Administrators’
Rating of Teaching.
S/N Variable No. of Items
Rank of Administrators’ Score and Mean ( 0000)
Rank of Parents’ Score Rank and Mean (0000)
1. Teacher Personality 1 1st (4.36)* 1st (4.16)*
2. Examination habit 1 2nd (4.30)* 2nd (4.11)*
3. Social behaviour 3 3rd (4.20)* 7th (3.74)*
4. Personal development 2 4th (4.18)* 3rd (4.04)*
5. Relationship with Parents
5
5th (4.05)*
4th (3.94)*
6. Teaching behaviour 13 6th (3.99)* 8th (2.99) ∆
7. Commitment 6 7th (3.97)* 5th (3.87)*
8. Student/Teacher relationships
5
8th (3. 87)*
6th (3.79)*
9. Global Item
1 9th (2.84) ∆ 9th (2.98) ∆
10. Overall Teaching effectiveness Rating
37
3.98
3.56
Key:
A minimum of 3.50 and above is significant
In Table 5.7A above, teacher personality attracted the highest ratings
from both the school-heads and parents (0 = 4.36, 4.16) respectively. It took
the highest position in the rating of both groups. Examination habit took
second position in the consideration of both groups of raters (0 = 4.30, 4.11)
for school-heads and parents respectively. Opinions of both groups of raters
differed in their third considerations when social behaviour took the third
position (0 = 4.20) in the rating by school-heads while personal development
(0 = 4.04) took the third position in the consideration of parent.
152
On the negative side, both administrators and parents rated the NTIDL-
teachers least in considering their global rating of teaching effectiveness (0 =
2.84, 2.98). The global rating, nevertheless, differed from the sum of specific
items in which the administrators, in the overall, rated teaching effectiveness
of NTIDl-produced teachers more positively (0 = 3.98) than the parents (0 =
3.56). However, while the administrators rated the NTIDL teachers 8th in
terms of student/teacher relationships (0 = 3.87), the parents rated them 8th in
their teaching behaviour (0 = 2.99). Student – teacher relationship is a part of
teaching behaviours though. While the administrators rated them 7th (0 =
3.97) in terms of commitment, the parents placed them 7th in terms of social
behaviour (0 = 3.74).
An Hypothesis (H02) was developed from this and the analysis is done
under analysis of hypotheses.
153
Research Question Eight: Now do the Examination Qu ality of the NTIDLS compare with known Criteria?
Table 5.8: Percentage Analysis of the Frequency of Occurrence of Test Items in the 6-Cognitive Catego ries.
Particulars Cognitive Categories Cycle Year Semester Subject code 1 (%) 2 (%) 3 (%) 4 (%) 5 (%) 6 (%) Total
PES Eng 331 3 (37.5) - 3 (37.5 - 2 (25) - 8 PES Eng 322 4 (12.5) - 3 (9.38) 11 (34.37) 4 (12.5) 10 (31.25) 32 3 2006 1
Total 7 (17.5) - 6 (15) 11 (27.5) 6 (15) 10 (25) 40 3 2006 1 PES MATHS 341 1 (8.34) 4 (33.33) 3 (25) 4 (33.33) - - 12
ITS 311 9 (75) 2 (16.67) - - - 1 (8.33) 12 ITS 312 11 (52.38) 3 (14.29) - 4 (19.05) 2 (9.52) 1 (4.76) 21 ITS 313 9 (40.91) 8 (36.36) 2 (9.09) - 2 (9.09) 1 (4.55) 22 ITS 321 4 (28.57) 4 (28.57) - 2 (14.29) 3 (21.43) 1 (7.14) 14 ITS 241 2 (11.77) 2 (11.77) 5 (29.41) 3 (17.64) 4 (23.53) 1 (5.88) 17
3 2004 1
Total 35 (40.7) 19 (22.09) 7 (8.14) 9 (10.47) 11 (12.79) 5 (5.81) 86 ENG 401 1 (5.56) 9 (50) 6 (33.33) 2 (11.11) - - 18 ENG 451 2 (15.38) 4 (30.77) - 3 (23.08) 4 (30.77) - 13 ENG 411 6 (31.57) 7 (36.84) 2 (10.53) 2 (10.53) 2 (10.53) - 19 4 2004 1
Total 9 (18) 20 (40) 8 (16) 7 (14) 6 (12) - 50 SOS 441 3 (23.08) 2 (15.38) - 4 (30.77) 1 (7.69) 3 (23.08) 13 SOS 444 5 (50) 2 (20) - 1 (10) 1 (10) 1 (10) 10 SOS 445 4 (26.67) 5 (33.33) - - 6 (40) - 15 4 2006 1
Total 12 (31.58) 9 (23.68) - 5 (13.16) 8 (21.05) 4 (10.53) 38 Grand Total 64 (28.32) 52 (23) 24 (10.62) 36 (15.93) 31 (13.72) 19 (8.41) 226
Key: Cognitive category 1 = Knowledge, 2 = Comprehe nsion, 3 = Application, 4 = Analysis, 5 = Synthesis and 6 =
Evaluation. PES 331(c) = Reading Skill II, PES 332 (c) = Linguistic Study, ENG 401(c) = Pronunciation in English, ENG
411(c) = Topic in Syntax, ENG 451(c) = English Lang uage Methodology.
N/B: The Course Titles were not given in other cour ses.
154
The Data in Table 5.8 revealed the proportions of test items for Primary
Education Studies (PES) English Language 331 and 322; PES Mathematics
341; Integrated science (ITS) 311, 312, 313, 321 and 341; English Language
(ENG) 401, 451 and 411; Social Studies (SOS) 441, 444 and 445; in the six
cognitive categories comprising knowledge, comprehension, application,
analysis, synthesis and evaluation. For PES, the total items were 7 (17.5%)
for knowledge, none for comprehension, 6 (15%) for application, 11 (27.5%)
for analysis, 6 (15%) for synthesis and 10 (25%) for evaluation. Mathematics
314 had 1 (8.345%) knowledge, 4 (33.33%) comprehension, 3 (25%)
application and 4 (33.33%) analysis items respectively. While there was no
item for synthesis and evaluation cognitive categories.
The total items for Integrated Science for each cognitive category
ranged from 35 (40.7%), 19 (22.09%), 7 (8.14%), 9 (10.47%), 11 (12.79%)
and 5 (5.81%) respectively. Except for evaluation, which had no item, the
total items for English Language ranged from 9(18%), 20 (40%), 8 (16%), 7
(14%) and 6 (12%) respectively. For SOS, the total items of 12 (31.58%)
knowledge, 9 (23.68%) comprehension, 0 application, 5 (13.16%) analysis, 8
(21.05%) synthesis and 4 (10.53%) evaluation were found.
When the analysis was conducted for the entire subjects under
consideration, it showed the total of 64 (28.32%) knowledge, 52 (23%)
comprehension, 24 (10.62%) application, 36 (15.93%) analysis, 31 (13.72%)
synthesis and 19 (8.41%) evaluation.
155
Analysis of Hypotheses
H01: There is no Significant Difference between the E ffectiveness of
NTIDL-Products and Teachers produced through other
Educational Agencies.
Table 5.6B: An independent t-test Analysis of the d ifference between
Effective Classroom Behaviours of NTIDLS-produced a nd Non-
NTIDLS Produced Teachers.
NTI-Teachers Non-NTI-Teachers S/N Teacher Behaviour Variables
No. of Items T 0000 SD T 0000 SD
t-cal t-crit Decision
1 Readiness for Instruction 7 2704.71 4.16 0.54 1480.29 4.23 0.50 1.94 1.96
2 Teacher Personality 14 2602.29 4.00 0.65 1449.64 4.14 0.46 3.53 1.96 * 3 Knowledge of
Subject Matter 5 2175.80 3.35 1.00 1386.20 3.96 0.79 9.90 1.96 *
4 Classroom Management Skills 10 2632.50 4.05 0.58 1445.30 4.13 0.40 2.29 1.96
*
5 Questioning Skills 8 2256.75 3.47 0.73 1177.00 3.36 0.61 2.37 1.96 *
6 Communication Skills 17 2469.76 3.80 0.54 1409.12 4.03 0.39 6.88 1.96
*
7 Interpersonal Skills 18 2505.39 3.85 0.51 1384.39 3.96 0.35 3.33 1.96 *
8 Enthusiasm 8 2595.38 3.99 0.73 1393.63 3.98 0.47 0.26 1.96
9 Direct Teaching Skills 11 2153.18 3.31 0.50 1255.18 3.59 0.34 9.18 1.96
*
10 Indirect Teaching Skills 9 2403.67 3.70 0.58 1377.22 3.93 0.42 6.75 1.96
*
11 Test/Examination Skills 14 2531.14 3.89 0.59 1431.57 4.09 0.49 5.30 1.96
*
12 Teacher Aspiration 7 2485.86 3.82 0.87 1376.57 3.93 0.66 2.04 1.96 *
Key:
* = Statistically significant at p = .05. T = total , 0000 = mean, SD = standard
deviation, t-cal = calculated value of student t-te st, t-crit = table value of t
at p = .05, degree of freedom (df) = 998. N for NT I-produced Teachers =
650, N for non-NTI-produced Teachers = 350.
N/B: The mean scores were weighted by the number of items contained
in each section to reduce them to 5-point scale.
156
In Table 5.6B is shown pair-wise comparisons of the mean scores of
two groups of teachers (the NTI-produced and the non-NTI-produced
teachers), under eleven variables of classroom behaviours. Under variable
number 1 (readiness for instruction), the mean score of the NTI-produced
teachers is 4.16 while that of the non-NTI teachers is 4.23. The calculated t-
value is 1.94 while the critical t-value is 1.96. Therefore, the differences in
mean scores between the two groups of teachers is not statistically
significant. This means that the perceived differences between the mean
scores of these two groups of teachers does not exist in the actual population.
The difference is by chance. The same decision is reached under item
number 8 (teacher enthusiasm) where the mean score of the NTI-produced
teachers is 3.99 while that of the non-NTI teachers is 3.98.
The differences between the mean scores of these two groups of
teachers, is nevertheless statistically significant in the rest of the variables
under consideration, which means the difference do exist in the population. In
almost all the cases, the mean score of the teachers who were non-NTI-
produced were higher than those of the NTI-produced teachers, except in
case number 5 (questioning skills) where the NTI-produced teachers had a
mean score of 3.47 as against the mean score of 3.36 by the non-NTI-
produced teachers. All the critical t-values were obtained under 0.05 level of
significance and 998 degrees of freedom
The hypothesis that there was no significant difference between the
teaching behaviours of NTI-produced teachers and the non-NTI-produced
teachers was upheld in terms of readiness for instruction and teacher
enthusiasm. It was nevertheless, rejected in term of the other nine variables
of teaching behaviours.
157
H02: There is no Significant Difference between the O pinions of
Administrators and Parents on the Teaching Effectiv eness of NTI-
produced Teachers.
Table 5.7B: Independent t-test Analysis of the Diff erence Between the
Opinions of Parents and Administrators on Teaching
Effectiveness of NTI-produced Teachers.
S/N Variable Group 0000 SD t-cal t-crit Decision 1.
Commitment ART PRT
23.83 23.13
3.71 3.82
3.25
1.96
*
2. Teaching behaviour
ART PRT
51.91 38.91
6.78 5.81
36.77
1.96
*
3. Student/Teacher relationships
ART PRT
19.43 18.94
3.54 3.51
2.41
1.96
*
4. Parents’ relationships
ART PRT
20.26 19.68
2.50 2.60
3.96
1.96
*
5.
Personal development
ART PRT
8.36 8.08
1.48 1.55
3.24
1.96
*
6. Examination habit
ART PRT
4.31 4.11
1.13 1.30
2.79
1.96
*
7. Social behaviour
ART PRT
12.60 11.93
2.34 2.93
4.35
1.96
*
8. Personality
ART PRT
4.36 4.16
0.86 0.99
3.69
1.96
*
9. Overall Teaching effectiveness Rating
ART PRT
147.90 131.87
15.99 15.68
17.79
1.96
*
10. Global Rating of NTI-Teachers
ART PRT
2.84 2.98
1.442 1.55
-1.64
1.96
∆
* = Significant at 0.05 level; ∆ = Not significant at 0.05 level; df = 1298.
ART = Administrators’ Rating of Teachers; n = 500 f or Administrators
PRT = Parents’ Rating of Teachers; n = 800 for P arents
158
The above Table 5.7B presents the calculated t–values as 3.25, 36.77,
2.41, 3.96, 3.24, 2.79, 4.35, 3.69, 17.79 and -1.64 for commitment, teaching
behaviour, student/teacher relationships, parents’ relationships, personal
development, examination habit, social behaviour, personality, overall rating
of teaching effectiveness and global-rating of teaching effectiveness
respectively. These values were tested for significance by comparing them
with the critical t- value (1.96) at 0.05 level and 1298 degrees of freedom.
There was a significant difference between the ratings of the school
administrators and parents in considering all the variables individually and
collectively. However, there was no significant difference between the ratings
of the school administrators and parents when global item was used. The
hypothesis that there was no significant difference between the ratings of the
school administrators and parents of the effectiveness of NTIDL-produced
teachers was upheld when a global item was used. It was totally rejected
when specific items were used in rating teacher effectiveness.
Summary of Findings
1. The NTIDL textbooks were found to meet the criteria of a good
curriculum in terms of variety, sequence and integration. More
attributes which met the criteria of a good curriculum were in term of
offering significant knowledge, in terms of giving feedback to students,
in terms of offering relevant knowledge and in term of their continuity.
Generally, the NTI course text is rated high in the criteria of
appropriateness of a textbook but low in readability as evidenced in the
159
low ratings given to variables like learnability/practicability (0 = 2.92),
content difficulty (0 = 3.17) and validity (0 = 3.25)
2(a) There is much face-to-to contact in the NTIDLS: these include
i. course tutor/students contacts in class section sessions;
ii. students/students contacts; and
iii. students/expert contacts.
(b) Some NTIDL students have transformative conception of learning while
some have productive conception of learning.
(c) The NTIDL students study late nights and early mornings.
(d) The bulk of NTIDL students are not classroom teachers.
(e) Most NTIDL students are sequential readers who use study aids like
the dictionary.
(f) The NTIDL students like their programme because it supplies them
with course texts, it accepts instalmental payment of fees and it allows
them time for other engagements.
3(a) The performance of NTIDL students in Akwa Ibom State of Nigeria
were best in English Language and worst in Mathematics.
Performances in Social Studies and Primary Science compete for
second position but Primary Science won the overall second position
and Social Studies the forth position
(b) In terms of performance in simple tests in the four core subjects in their
curriculum (English Language, Mathematics, Social Studies and
Primary Science) the orders of performance at the centres was Oron,
Ikono and Itu for the first, second and third position respectively while
160
the last position was taken by Ikot Ekpene, the second to the last by
Uyo and the third to the last by the Eket centre of NTI. Students in
centres located in rural communities seemed to excel those of students
in the urban centres.
4. The course tutors gave very high ratings to themselves, to the NTIDL
learning programme and to the quality of tests and examinations, in
that order. They gave low ratings to the learning activities in the
centres, the students and to the teaching/learning materials.
5. The NTI-produced teachers rated high in readiness for instruction,
classroom management and teacher personality but low ratings on
direct teaching skills, knowledge of the subject-matter and on
questioning skills
6(a) The NTI-products were rated lower than teachers from other agencies
in possessing direct teaching skills and in knowledge of the subject-
matter.
(b) There is no significant difference between the teaching behaviours of
NTIDL-products and teachers produced through other educational
agencies in terms of readiness for instruction and teacher enthusiasm
but there are significant differences in terms of other variables. The
NTIDL-products are disadvantaged in these other variables except in
questioning skills where though the scores of both groups fell below the
cut-off point of 3.50, the NTIDL-products had a higher mean score
(3.47).
161
7(a) On the whole, parents’ ratings of teaching effectiveness of NTI-
produced teachers were less positive than those of the administrators
except on grounds of teacher personality and examination habit when
their ratings agreed positively and in the global item when both rated
the teachers negatively.
(b) A significant difference was established between the ratings of school
administrators and parents when specific items were used in rating
teaching effectiveness of NTIDL-produced teachers. No significant
different between the ratings of the two groups of stakeholders was
established when a global item was used as both rated teaching
effectiveness of NTIDL-produced teachers negatively.
8 A large percentage of questions set by the NTIDLS fitted into the
lowest level of the cognitive domain of objectives – the knowledge
level. That was followed by comprehension, analysis, synthesis,
application and evaluation in the descending order of magnitude. The
largest number of high-level cognitive objective were set in Primary
Education Studies (English).
162
Figure 5.1: A Conceptual Model showing the Connecti ons between the Independent Variables and the Depen dent
Variable
Expected Future State
Inputs (Independent variables)
Process Output (Dependent Variable)
Poor Quality Products (Teachers)
Good Quality Products (Teachers)
Unattractive Course Texts with poor Readability
Inadequate Teaching/Learning Materials
Poor Quality Students
Poor Quality Examinations
Attractive Course Texts with high Readability
Sufficient Teaching/Learning Materials
Carefully Selected high Quality Students
High Quality Examinations
The Present State
Interactions at NTIDLS
Interactions at NTIDLS
163
CHAPTER 6
SUMMARY, DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
Discussion of Findings
The findings are discussed heading by heading in correspondence with
the research questions and hypotheses formulated for the study.
Rating of NTI Course Texts Based on Known Criteria
To maintain construct validity, the totals along the rows were
considered. Information from Table 5.1 indicate that NTI course texts were
rated above average (3.50) in terms of variety of coverage, sequencing of the
teaching/learning materials and in terms of integration of the subject-matter
learnt (0 = 3.67). These were followed by the criteria of significance, feedback
and relevance (0 = 3.58), which were followed by the criterion of continuity,
which registered a borderline of 0 = 3.50. The NTI course texts were rated
much below average in the criteria of practicability/learnability (0 = 2.92) and
content difficulty (0 = 3.25).
The criteria of transferability, suitability, (0 =3.33) meeting learners’
needs and interest, balance and scope of coverage (0 = 3.42) fell within the
limits of uncertainty. That was probably because the ratings of the NTI course
texts were done by subject specialists who did not experience those course
texts as students do. Therefore, their ratings were less definite in those areas
that required personal experiences to make definite decisions. It is interesting
to note that some attributes of the NTI course texts agreed with some of the
164
criteria of a good curriculum specified by Etuk, Udosen & Edem (2004).
These include having a variety of activities that the distance students are
expected to do, having a logical sequencing of the learning materials,
integrating what is learnt in one unit and another and in one cycle with
another; in selecting significant contents as learning experiences for the
distance learners; in terms of feedback, which is evidence in the activities and
tests which are found at the end of each unit, with the answers to questions
supplied at the end of ten (10) units which form a module. These enable the
learners to check and see how he/she performs in any particular unit and to
work to improve if the performance is poor. NTI course texts also meet the
criterion of content presentation mentioned by Ansary & Bubaii (n.d.), one of
which involves stating the objectives for each unit of the course and for the
total programme. The NTI course texts also met the criterion of
appropriateness (Meachean, 1982), which include good sequencing of the
learning materials, clarification of meanings of vague terms and having a
defensible scheme of work.
The NTI course texts however, had low ratings in regard to the criterion
of readability (Meachean, 1982), which can be rounded up by stating that the
text fail to give learners experiences, competencies and the motivation, to
want to read the text. This is evidenced in the low ratings given to such
criteria as practicability/learnability, (0 = 2.92), content difficulty (0 = 3.17) and
validity (0 = 3.25). These low ratings seem to mean that the learning
opportunities implied in the NTI course texts do not give the distance students
the learning experiences necessary for achieving the objectives set for
individual units and for the total programme.
165
These textbooks’ ratings deserve the attention of organisers of the
NTIDLS. The NTIDLS is more or less a teach-yourself kind of distance
learning. Out of 2,184 hours available in the four-year period, only 1,950
hours is set for both private studies and face-to-face interaction with course
tutors, (NTI, 2005). The rest of the study time is designed for independent
study. Therefore, the course texts should be designed in the most readable
fashion.
Interaction with course tutors during data collection seem to confirm the
ratings by experts. The course tutors reported that some of the units are
pitched very high. Someone in English language mentioned that some of the
contents in the English language module for cycles 3-4 are what universities
teach degree students in the final years of those who major in English
language. The social studies modules are pitched equally high. The
specialists who rated the social studies course texts were more impressed
with social studies contents in the Primary Education Studies than the content
for those who major in social studies proper.
It may be explained that the distance learners should acquire
knowledge at a level higher than the pupils they are supposed to teach. But,
when the gradient of difficulty is too high, when it does not meet the learners’
interest, the distance learners might not be motivated to study the course
texts (Tyler, 1975).
Those who are employed to package the NTI course texts should be
reminded of the level of students they are writing for. Indeed, the course texts
could be made attractive by deviating from black and white, which all NTI
course texts currently are, by introducing coloured pictures both on the cover
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pages and within the texts. Such innovations will certainly hike up the cost of
production. The opinions of the NTI students should be sought as to what
they would rather prefer – stale-looking course texts or colourful course texts
which have some appeal and which cost a little higher. The way the materials
are packaged appear too oppressive even in the eyes of seasoned educators.
How much more in the eyes of people who should be encouraged to read?
Something should be done to increase the appeal (readability) of NTI
course texts. The paper quality matters too. The papers used for printing NTI
course texts are usually too dull to attract the students and too flimsy to the
touch. What is worth doing is worth doing well. Running the distance learning
scheme for teachers should not be so business-driven that some things are
made to lose their appeal. NTI course texts should be more aesthetically
packaged to make it more readable to the distance students.
The Learning Contexts and Study Strategies of NTIDL Students
Source of Help
The NTIDL students indicated that their sources of help included the
course tutors (96%), university graduates in the same subject area (88%) and
present NTI students (80%). These were indicated as the three greatest
sources of help for the NTIDL students in that order. On the contrary, the
internet (42%) and other textbooks (50%) were indicated as least used
sources of help. The pattern of responses shows that there are a lot of
interactions both between the course tutors and the NTIDL students and
between the students themselves. The students also approach others who
are more knowledgeable in their subject fields for help.
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Thus NTIDL combines mediated distance learning with face-to-face
interaction. The NTIDL programme therefore, fits into Keegan’s (1986) model
of distance learning and has its counterpart in Norway (Sherry, 1996) and in
Southern Pacific (Lankbeck & Mugler, 2005). The NTI distance learning
meets the requirement for interactivity stressed by the Office of Technology
Assessment of the U.S. Congress (1988) in Sherry (1996) and subscribes to
that advice given by Sherry (1996) the for successful DL schemes, the
designs which encourage interactivity should be adopted.
Further probing of the mode of contact with the course tutors (item
number nine) indicated that the students interact with the course tutors mainly
in the formal class sessions (90%). The NTIDL therefore, subscribes to the
synchronous distance education (definitions, n.d). Although the NTI model is
ancient, the students benefit through real face-to-face interaction between
students and students and between students and course tutors, like it is in the
formal classroom.
Reasons for help
The foremost reason for seeking help was indicated as being for better
understanding (95%). The others were to study for examinations (83%), to
pass examination (68%) and to write term papers (74%). From this result it
can be said that a good number of the NTIDL students had transformative
perception of learning (Lankbeck & Mugler, 2005), eventhough some still
clung to the reproductive perception of learning.
The importance of students’ perception as indicated by Lankbeck &
Mugler (2005), is that the students’ perception of learning is closely related to
how they approach learning tasks. Reproductive perception is usually
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associated with surface approach to learning, whereas transformative
perception of learning helps students to gain a deep understanding of the
subject matter rather than mechanical reproduction of knowledge. The fact
that a large proportion of the NTIDL students subscribed to the transformative
perception means that they have a good understanding of learning as
something which should help them change.
It can rightly be assumed that exposure of this set of students to the
NTIDLS has helped to change a good number of them for the better. Their
DL experiences might help them to be more useful and creative members of
their societies.
Study Time, Use of Course Texts and Study habits
A majority of the NTIDL students indicated that their favourite study
times are late nights and early mornings (73%) each; they use the course
texts plus other texts (92%); they read through course texts several times
(85%); they make notes after reading (94%); and they use the dictionary while
reading (89%).
These data indicate that these set of students can manage their study
time well. Since most of them are engaged in other occupations, they need to
be good time managers to succeed. The late nights and early mornings are
times when they are free from other engagements and so they use those
times for studying. This set of DL students utilize the primary cognitive
strategies, which involves the ability to work independently of the teacher.
Sharp (1994) in Sherry (1996) discovered that students who passed their
courses differed significantly in primary strategies from those who failed. The
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fact that majority of the students utilized primary cognitive strategies implies
that the majority might also pass their courses well.
The NTI students indicated that they used course texts and other texts,
read through the course texts several times, make notes after reading and
used their dictionary to clear meanings of certain terms. These are good
study habits which are often recommended even to regular students. Since
they subscribed to these recommended study habits, the NTIDL students are
different from some distance learning students in the Southern Pacific, who
were found to use two different strategies, the pragmatic and the sequential
study strategies (Lankbeck & Mugler, 2005). Users of the pragmatic
strategies focus their attentions on materials relevant to assignment and limit
themselves to what needs to be done to pass the course, by ignoring all other
materials. Students in this group may have a transformative perception of
learning alright, butt out of the constraints faced by most distance students,
they may resort to the pragmatic strategies to enable them to pass their
courses.
The sequential strategies consist in proceeding step by step through
the guide and following the instructions closely. Those who use the
sequential strategies read the course book several times, look-up words in the
dictionary, thus, taking a long process to understand and grasp. Others skim
through the course texts, write summary notes on the main points in their own
words (Lankbeck & Mugler, 2005).
It is surprising that such a large proportion of the NTI students claimed
to utilize sequential strategy. One would have thought that their engagement
in other occupations would cause them to be always pressed for time. That
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would have made some to resort to the pragmatic strategies. Could it be that
the only pragmatic strategy they are familiar with is to reduce notes to small
points, which 41 per cent of the respondents said they do. When 41 percent
is added to 15 percent who were undecided on their study habits that would
result in a whooping 51 percent of the NTIDL students sampled. This is quite
a large proportion of the students! This suspicion agrees with Vandu’s (2005)
allegation that some NTI students are fond of examination abuse by lifting
portions from their course texts from which examination items were set
straight into their answer booklets.
The reason for reducing course texts into small prints is to enable the
student carry the micro-scripted material into the examination hall and copy.
This is a serious examination malpractice, which should be discouraged from
any group of students, through inflicting severe penalties on those who are
found to indulge in such bad habits. In the researchers’ university, the penalty
for a student who is caught with micro-scripts of the course texts in the
examination hall is expulsion. The penalty is however implemented after the
student has been given fair hearing by appearing before a long-term panel set
up for students’ discipline. The NTIDLS could emulate the University of Uyo
in this regard.
Occupations
A large proportion of the NTIDL students (61%, 58%) claimed to be
farmers and those who take care of their homes/families, respectively. On the
contrary, teachers and civil servants had mere 34 percent and 35 percent of
the respondents.
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The composition of this set of distance learners agrees with Boettcher
(1996) two classes of distance learners who were said to be those who
combine work with study and those who dropped out of school and decide to
come back in later Iife.
The surprising thing about the composition of this set of distance
learners is that the primary aim of the NTIDLS was to upgrade those who
were already in teaching to the minimum qualification (N.C.E.) expected of
primary school teachers in Nigeria (Federal Republic of Nigeria, 2004; NTI,
2005). It is like the NTIDL has more students from members of the population
who have never taught. They might have studied to get the teacher grade two
(TCII) diploma without formal employment as teachers. They are now
studying to get the N.C.E. to qualify them to teach in the primary schools.
Their numbers tell a lot of stories about the level of unemployment among
people who are trained to be teachers, eventhough primary schools are
deficient of such skills.
The prevalence of a large number of students who claim to be farmer
attest to allegations by Adeboyeje (1992) and Okeowo (2006) in NTI (2006)
who attributed poor performances in schools to divided attention by teachers
who straddle between teaching in school and engagements in other
occupations.
Likes, Dislikes and Impacts of the NTIDLS
The students did not indicate any dislike of the NTIDLS. But they liked
the NTIDL for: supplying course texts (96%), instalmental fee payment
schedule (88%), and for allowing time for other things (82%). These agrees
with assertions by the NTI (2005) that course materials are produced and
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given to students, with their costs built into the students’ fees. Indeed
payment for course books is one of the five-six items listed in the NTI
students’ handbook (NTI, 2005).
The NTIDL students are right in responding that the distance learning
scheme gives knowledge (96%), prepares for the future and changes
attitudes to life (95%), each. These go to confirm that this set of students
have transformative perception of learning (Lankbeck & Mugler, 2005) rather
than reproductive perceptions. These responses add further proof that NTIDL
students are creative members of the society who will build and develop their
society.
Students’ Performances in Four Core Subjects of Eng lish language,
Mathematics, Primary Science and Social Studies
The overall percentage passes in English Language, Mathematics,
Primary Science and Social Studies were 29%, 19%, 27% and 25%
respectively. None of these percentage passes measured up to 50%, which
was set as the cut-off point. In respect to the mean scores, the cut-off point
was set at 3.50 and the overall mean scores were 4.24, 2.86, 3.94 and 3.66
for English language, Mathematics, Primary Science and Social Studies,
respectively. It is obvious from the above that every other subject met the
required cut off point of 3.50, except mathematics which, recorded the overall
mean score of 2.86.
The picture presented by the overall performance in mathematics
agrees with literature (e.g. Etuk, 2003; Awanyang, 2004) that students
generally perform poorly in mathematics, despite the wide-ranging utility of
mathematics in everyday life and its role in national development. The mere
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mention of the word ‘mathematics’ sends shivers down the spine of many
students despite the fact that irrespective of age, gender and occupation,
mathematics is used in everyday life. Mathematics is useful in the kitchen
because mothers measure the amount of ingredients they add to meals to
make them taste good. It is used by farmers who count the number of stems
of cassava to burry in each stand and the number of seeds of a particular kind
that they must burry in each particular stand in order to have a good yield of
the crops. The fear of mathematics is often attributed to the overall attitude of
the student, who is ready to listen to stereotypical stories by those who in
themselves did not settle down to discover the joy of learning mathematics.
They develop poor attitude after their initial failures in the subject (Ubom,
2003), Ani (1997) in Akpan (2006), Akey (2006).
Etuk (2003) presented another explanation for poor performances in
mathematics by students in Nigeria by linking to the indigenous illiterate
culture, which does not rely on accurate measurements. Most measurements
are approximations of the accurate standard. This is evidenced in markets
where rather than use the scales to weigh the market items that are priced by
weight, (like chicken and yams) buyers and sellers gauge the weights by
lifting them up in their hands. Item like crayfish are heaped. The seller and
buyers gauge the price from the size of the heap. Block moulders in Nigeria
are even doing away with the head-pan for measuring sand to suit a certain
measure of the cement to give an ideal block quality. It is only a novice in the
field who would fail in heaping the amount of sand for the required number of
cement bags!
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Obviously, this set of distance learners are not free from the general
poor attitude of students to mathematics. Going by both the mean scores and
percentage passes, the distance students performed their best in English
Language, followed by Primary Science, Social Studies and least in
Mathematics. Although they measured up to the cut-off point based on the
mean scores, the percentage of people who passed did not measure up to the
standard set (50%). This implies that there might have been few very good
performers and many very poor performers in each subject.
The students’ explemary performance in English language attests to
the fact that English language is a core subject right from the primary school
through the university system in Nigeria. English language is the official
language of communication and learners in every level of education are
expected to record a credit pass in English language before they are awarded
their certificates and diplomas. A credit in English language is a requirement
for admission into the NTIDLS and the students who participated in this
research study would have had their credits in English language at the
SSCE/WAEC/NECO/TCII examinations before they gained admission into the
NTIDLS.
Although performances in individual subjects varied from one centre to
another, the rankings as shown in the last column on the right hand side
indicated in the descending order Oron, Ikono and Itu in the first, second and
third positions while Eket, Uyo and Ikot Ekpene took the 9th, 10th and 11th
positions respectively.
Although the researchers were not going to pass judgments, it is
surprising that the performances of NTIDL students were generally better at in
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centres located away from the cities of Akwa Ibom State. Oron, Itu and Ikono
are rural communities while Eket, Uyo and Ikot Ekpene are urban centres in
Akwa Ibom State. The expection of the researchers was that the overall
results would favour the urban communities more. As it turned out, that was
not to be. The Ikot Ekpene centre was really left behind in all the four core
subjects.
Could it be that these centres that students performed poorly did not
give as much attention to the test as they would have done? Is it the quality
of students in those centres or the quality of teaching or both? The NTI has
been doing much to improve upon the quality of students admitted into its
programme. Recently, the minimum qualification admission into the TCII
programme was raised from the primary six certificate to the junior secondary
certificate. After the TCII level, NTIDL students usually don’t go into teaching,
they proceed to do the N.C.E. Are there some elements of NTIDLS-NCE who
did not attempt secondary education? Are the quality of students in the urban
centres worse than those in the rural areas? This is probably so because in
the rural communities where people know who is who, it is difficult to enroll in
the NTIDLS with fake credentials. The opposite is the case in urban centres
where people mind their businesses, and where many evening schools are
mounted not to teach their students to know, as to help them excel in
examinations and acquire certificates, which qualify them for employment and
for higher education.
Measuring learners’ outcomes is an indirect way of rating teaching
effectiveness of the course tutors. In this approach teaching effectiveness is
inferred from students’ performance – what students learnt in a given course
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(Berk, 2005). Rating of teaching effectiveness through learner outcomes has
been proved to be a very dependable source of measuring teaching
effectiveness. Very high correlations had been established between students’
ratings (which has been proved to be a very dependable source of measuring
teaching effectiveness) and performance in final examinations. Despite all
this assertions, measuring teaching effectiveness through learning outcomes
is problematic because teaching is not the only source of students’ learning.
Students learn through reports writing, tests, projects and students’
performances may be influenced by students’ characteristics, the educational
institution and even the home background of the student (Etuk, 1993).
Teachers have no control over these other variables. Therefore measuring
teaching effectiveness through learning outcomes should be approached with
extreme caution.
Byrne (1987) however indicated that pupils outcomes could be used to
compare the level of success of two or more different teachers. It could be
used in the interpretation of class marks, standardize tests, the input
measures, examination results, gender and ethnicity differences and absence
patterns. The author advised that researchers should always look at individual
teachers’ groups and see if results vary from the norm of the year and if so
what questions that raises. Byrne (1987) supported the use of pupils’
outcomes as a source for measuring teaching effectiveness, “because the
whole aim of teaching after all is to help pupils learn” (p.21). Klenfield(1975)
however did not show much support in the use of pupils outcome as an index
of teaching effectiveness at the secondary school level where different
teachers teach different subjects. Schultz (1978) ground for objection was that
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this source does not take into consideration other influences on pupils
learning other than the teachers. Moreover since instructors teach different
subject and use different examination patterns, the learning outcome from
their classes should not be compared. Suggestions proffered for improving
the use of learners’ outcomes as a source of teaching effectiveness offered by
Schultz (1978) include the use of externally-administered examination and the
use of context variables as moderators of process –product relationships.
Berk(2005) however suggested that pupils outcomes should be used together
with direct data sources in measuring teaching effectiveness.
Course Tutors’ Rating of the NTIDLS
In reference to Table 5.4, the course tutors gave themselves very high
ratings no matter how the question was twisted. When self-assessment came
as part of programme evaluation, the quality of course tutors was given the
highest rating (0 of 0 = 4.25). In terms of classroom management strategies,
the course tutors rated themselves best at the impacting strategies (0 of 0 =
4.34).
According to Apple (1994), in Sherry (1996), classroom management,
like technological expertise, is not a skill that is mastered once and for all by
instructors. They progress through a three-stage model of survival, mastery
and impact. Therefore, the course tutors claimed that they operated at the
impact stage of classroom management.
The course tutors however gave lower ratings to items that measured
availability of teaching/learning materials and students. This gives much room
to ponder about. If the students and instructional materials were not up to
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date, with what standard then did the course tutors measure their superior
performances? Regrettably, the triangulation of three direct observation
sources (students, peers and self) recommended by Berk (2005) was not
completed.
As a corollary, the NTIDL students however, indicated their course
tutors as their major sources of help in their academic pursuits (Table 5.2).
The course tutors might have acquired wealth of experiences as regular
classroom teachers and as distance learning teachers. The data collected
indicated that the lowest-serving course tutor served for five years, while
some served up to 15 years. In effect, the course tutors might have been
experienced teachers drawn into distance learning. In selecting their course
tutors, the NTIDLS subscribed to the recommendation made by Sherry (1996)
that site facilitators of distance learning should not be beginning teachers, but
should be mid-career staff who are selected because of their subject
backgrounds, availability and general teaching abilities.
According to Centra (1973) in Berk (2005), superior teachers
provide more accurate self ratings than mediocre or putrid teachers. It is
hoped that this set of teachers were superior teachers not mediocres who told
the researchers what they wanted to hear!
Classroom Behaviours of NTIDL-Produced Teachers
In Table 5.5, all the eleven classroom behaviours were empirically
identified criteria for teaching effectiveness (Levine & Wright, 1987; Marsh,
1994). The result from the study however indicated that the NTIDL-produced
teachers had more than average rating in terms of readiness for instruction (0
= 4.16), classroom management (0 = 4.05), and teacher personality (0 =
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4.00). These findings were in agreement to assertions by educationist like
Byrne (1987) that a teacher’s knowledge and understanding in relation to
what is taught and the pedagogical skills relevant to teaching it are crucially
important in teaching effectiveness. The respondents’ high performance in
classroom management is in contradiction with findings by Taylor, Christie &
Platts (1970) where the science teachers studied placed high premiums on
dimensions of effective teaching concerned with teacher classroom
behaviours and relationships and less emphasis on dimensions concerned
with standing requirements of teaching, which are lesson planning and
classroom management. This science teachers reported by Taylor, Christie &
Platts (1970) were found to place more emphasis on pupil-centered-ness,
goal directed teaching informed by an understanding and enthusiasm for
science, characterized by good-humoured discipline, concern for safety of the
laboratory and up-to-date-ness in subject matter and curriculum innovations
(p.21). Therefore, the respondents currently studied had a different emphasis
and could be categorized among the ‘old school’ who place emphasis on the
traditional requirements for teaching effectiveness which include lesson
planning, classroom management and teacher personality.
Whether or not to include teacher personality as a criterion for teaching
effectiveness had been hotly debated upon. Educators who approve that
teacher personality should be included among the teaching effectiveness
variables include Toylor (1973), Kyriacou & Newson (1982), Patrick (1987)
and Byrne (1987). Those who disapproved of including teacher personality
among teaching effectiveness variables include Adesina (1990). However,
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teacher personality was indicated as one of the seven teaching effectiveness
factors, in factor analysis by Levine & Wright (1987).
The NTI-produced teachers were rated below the mark under direct
teaching skills (0 = 3.31), knowledge of the subject-matter (0 = 3.35) and in
questioning skills (0 = 3.47). Poor performance in knowledge of the subject-
matter is particularly dangerous and could threaten the careers of those
teachers.
Knowledge of the subject-matter was identified among five others as
important criteria of teaching effectiveness by Marsh (1994) in factor analysis
of students’ evaluation of teaching effectiveness. A lot of importance is
attached to students’ evaluation of teaching effectiveness and to the identified
variables of good teaching. It is the most influential measure of performance
used in promotion and tenure decisions in those colleges in the U.S.A. and
Canada that emphasize effective teaching. A research conducted in 1991 by
the US Department of Education indicated that 97 percent of Educational
Departments in the U.S.A. used students’ evaluation to assess teaching
performances (Berk, 2005). Students’ rating of teaching effectiveness is
given so much importance for the reason that the learners are direct
consumers of teaching and they know when they are well taught (Abrami &
d’Appolonia, 1990). Among all the stake-holders in education, parents,
administrators, peers, teachers and students, students’ judgment of the most
effective teacher was considered the best (Toylor, 1973).
Based on these arguments, knowledge of the subject-matter by
teachers is of utmost importance. What can a teacher deliver if he/she does
not know? Indications to the effect that NTI-produced teachers might be weak
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in the subject-matter could be derived from comments by insiders like Vandu
(2005) who in his advice to students on how to maintain good examination
behaviour, alluded that some students copy answers to examinations by lifting
verbatim from their textbooks. Mbaya (2005) seemed to have hit the nail on
the head by mentioning unqualified students admitted into the programme as
one of the weaknesses of the NTIDLS. So many these days, enroll in
educational programmes not so much to study and know as to obtain the
diploma for employment. Such people are even in the habit of jumping
classes. It is not unlikely for someone to seek entrance and gain admission
into the NTIDLS when he/she does not meet the entry requirement or have
the necessary educational experiences. It was seen under students’ study
contexts that a good number of the NTIDL students claimed to be farmers.
One way of ensuring that most of the candidates admitted into the NTIDLS
have the requisite educational qualifications is to double-check with the
educational institutions that they claim to have attended and to reject those
whose admission credentials bear the names of suspicious schools. In the
long run, the NTIDLS may consider mounting secondary education
programme and admit products from such secondary schools into the teacher
programme. The TCII programme could be strengthened by adding one year
of secondary school work. Effective teacher behaviours of NTI-produced
teachers include readiness for instruction, classroom management and
teacher personality.
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Comparing Teaching Behaviours of NTI-Produced and N on-NTI-
Produced Teachers
In Table 5.6, the calculated t-value was less than the critical t-value in
respect to two classroom behaviours. These were in respect to readiness for
instruction, where the calculated t-value was 1.94 and the critical t-value was
1.96; also in respect to teacher enthusiasm, where the calculated t-value was
0.26 and the critical t-value was 1.96. In both cases the data were obtained
under 0.05 level of significance and 998 degrees of freedom.
In respect to nine other classroom behaviours, the calculated t-values
were higher than the critical t- values. This indicated that the results were
statistically significant, which implied that the differences between the mean
scores of teachers produced through the NTIDLS and those teachers who
were not was not by chance. The differences do exist in the actual
populations of those teachers.
Hypothesis one, which stated that there was no significant difference
between the teaching behaviours of NTI-produced and the non-NTI-produced
teachers was therefore rejected in respect to teacher personality, knowledge
of subject-matter, classroom management skills, questioning skill,
communication skills, interpersonal skills, direct teaching skills, indirect
teaching skills and tests/examinations skills. The alternative hypothesis that
there were significant differences between the teaching behaviours of these
two sets of teachers was upheld in respect to those mentioned variables.
The difference between the teaching behaviours of these two groups of
teachers was however in favour of the NTI-produced teachers under
questioning skills where the mean score of NTI-produced teachers was 3.47
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as against the mean score of 3.36 by the non-NTI-produced teachers. Both
mean scores were however, below the accepted 3.5.
The assertion that education offered by distance learning is better than
non-distance education (Rumble, 1982; Ayeni, 1983; Sherry, 1996; Hanser,
2006) might be true in terms of teachers’ mastery of questioning skills and not
in other teaching beahaviours.
Lack of any statistical difference between the non-NTI-produced and
NTI-produced teachers however agrees with the findings and conclusions by
Agboola (2000) that the effectiveness of distance teaching skills is identical
with non-distance teaching methods. The statistically significant results in
favour of the non-NTIDL-produced teachers agree with findings by Etuk &
Etudor (2006), where some head-teachers rated NTI-produced teachers as
being not very effective teachers.
It might be reasoned that teachers who were products of NTIDLS
mastered questioning skills better than non-NTIDLS teachers probably
because having been more or less, independent learners they must have
been more involved in managing their studies, which involves setting
hypothetical test/examination questions for themselves. Moreover, some of
the merits of distance education include accommodation of different learning
styles, and the encouragement of active learning. This means that on the
whole, distance learners are more participative learners than the non-distance
learners. Having been more participative learners, the NTI-produced teachers
were bound to be more at home with questioning skills, which is one of the
strategies often used by all levels of teachers.
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Lack of statistical differences between NTI-products and other teachers
in certain aspects of classroom behaviours (readiness for instruction and
teacher enthusiasm), agrees with the expectations of the researchers, based
on the literature on distance education which claims that there is not much
difference between distance and non-distance learning (Agboola, 2000). It
would be disappointing if some difference were established as in the cases of
teacher personality, knowledge of the subject-matter, classroom management
skills, communication skills, interpersonal skills, and test/examination skills.
These classroom attributes had been established as the criteria of
teaching effectiveness (Toylor, 1973; Kleinfield, 1975; Schultz, 1978; Levine &
Wright, 1987; Patrick, 1987; Marsh, 1994). Any teacher who is worth his/her
salt should be equipped to excel in the classroom in demonstrating his/her
capabilities in these skills, whether the teacher is alone with the students or in
the presence of external assessors.
The general opinion in the society is that the NTI-produced teachers
are not as good as teachers from other agencies. These are said even to the
hearing of these teachers. Such negative comments may add to reduce the
self-concepts and performance of the NTI-produced teachers.
In the course of data collection in the NTI study centres, the current
NTIDL students were very jittery. They expressed the fear that they may not
be employed after their educational programme since the State Universal
Education Board was beginning to discriminate in employment against NTIDL
graduates. The perceived poor performances of NTIDL graduates may be an
outcome of many factors. Some of these were mentioned by Mbaya (2005)
as including weaknesses in the area of programme delivery, which border on
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late delivery of instructional/support materials, unqualified students admitted
into the programmes, unqualified course tutors, poor attendance at tutorials
by course tutors and students, unsatisfactory handling of vital operations of
the programme, such as continuous assessment and inadequate facilities at
the study centres for teaching and learning. The dearth of each of these
mentioned educational necessities leave much vacuum in an educational
programme with the consequence of poor quality products.
The issue of unqualified students may still rear its ugly head despite
the strengthening of admission policies to exclude people without basic
secondary education. Even the current population of NTIDL students have a
large number of people who may not have much interest and experience in
teaching. The composition of the current student population as seen in Table
5.2A, had a large percentage of farmers and perhaps traders (61%). This
type of teacher trainees are suspiciously people who want to enter into
teaching not because they like the teaching job but because they find the
teaching job very convenient for combining with their regular employments to
increase their incomes. Such cannot become very committed teachers!
Parents’ and Administrators’ Rating of Teaching Eff ectiveness of NTIDL
Products
On Table 5.7A & 5.7B, the mean scores by the administrators were
statistically significant in all but one item, the global item (0 = 2.84). The
parents’ mean scores were statistically significant in all except on two items -
the global item (0 = 2.98) and on teaching behaviour (0 = 2.99). Based on the
judgment of parents, N.T.I.-produced teachers were least effective when the
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global item, which was a general item stating that the NTI-produced teachers
were generally more effective was used. The item which carried the next low
rating by parents was the item which measured direct teaching behaviour.
This was followed by social behaviour, students’/teachers’ relationships,
commitment, relationship with parents, personal development, examination
habit and teacher personality respectively.
From the result in the Table 5.7B, it can be seen that, the results of all
attributes of teaching effectiveness ratings by school administrators were
greater than ratings by parents. This means that the school administrators
had significantly higher opinions of teaching effectiveness of the NTI-
produced teachers than the parents with regards to commitment, teaching
behaviour, students’/teachers’ relationships, parents’/teachers’ relationship,
personal development, examination habits, social behaviour, personality and
on the overall rating of teaching effectiveness.
The results also show that although the parents had higher opinions (0
= 2.98) in the total specific rating of teaching effectiveness of NTI-produced
teachers than the administrators (0 = 2.84), the mean scores of both groups of
respondents were however, lower than the average (3.50). This indicated that
both groups had less than average opinions of the overall teaching
effectiveness of NTI-produced teachers. Although the mean scores of the
administrators seemed lower than those of parents (0 = 2.84, 2.98) for
administrators and parents respectively, the different in means was not
significant. The administrators had significantly higher opinions of teaching
effectiveness of NTI-produced teachers than the parents on individual items,
187
but both had low opinions of teaching effectiveness of NTI-produced teachers
using a global item.
According to Berk (2005) parents’ rating of teaching effectiveness
provides an indirect source of evidence for programme evaluation decisions
about teaching effectiveness and attainment of programme outcomes. Based
on Unruh & Willier (1974), in Etuk (2007), educated members of the
community are usually the ones who show more interest in what the school in
their community is doing and they have very high expectations of the schools
in their community. The school administrators are considered qualified to rate
teaching effectiveness because they are considered to be experts in teaching
methods, classroom evaluation techniques and content in their disciplines
(Diamond, 2004).
In effect, these two groups of stakeholders in education are considered
qualified to rate teaching effectiveness. The pattern noticed was the tendency
for the parents to be harder in judging the teachers than the school
administrators did. Thus, the parents’ tendency agreed with the assertion by
Unruh & Willier (1974), in Etuk (2007) that the enlightened community
members who show interest in school affairs are usually very hard judges of
what the school in the community is doing. The school-heads tended to give
high ratings to the teachers because they were probably not convinced that
the information needed was strictly for research purposes and not for
promotion. Although the administrators were not strictly peers of the
teachers, in view of the Nigerian society, the social distance between the
head-teacher and the teachers working under them are rather thin.
Therefore, the school administrators might have acted like peers in the
188
attempt to protect the interests of their teachers. Some of the criticisms
against peer ratings include being subjective and personalized, having low
reliability and failure to measure important characteristics of teaching
effectiveness. This might have been the case with administrators’ ratings of
teaching effectiveness in this study.
Quality Assurance through Examinations
As shown in Table 4.8, the concentration of the test items was more on
the knowledge level of cognitive categories, seconded by comprehension and
followed by analysis, synthesis, application and evaluation in that order. This
trend of finding suggests that the items were, most times, set void of the table
of specifications which according to Etuk, Udosen & Edem (2004), helps the
examiner to assess the number of items that fit into different categories of the
cognitive domain. For subjects like Mathematics and English to lack items on
synthesis and evaluation levels of cognition implies that students were not
challenged to combine the form a whole, composed, summarized and to
design nor compare, contrast and justify (Etuk, Udosen & Edem, 2004).
A subject like Social Studies which had no item for the application level
of cognition signifies that students were not challenged to use the knowledge
and skills lent in the course of studying social studies, to manipulate their
environment to solve some personal and societal problems. Besides, the
Primary Education Studies English lacked items in comprehension, meaning
that, the ability of the students to explain, give example, rewrite in own words
and to summarise (Etuk et al, 2004) was not tested. This explained in part,
why some students oftentimes involve in examination malpractice by lifting
portions of textbooks from which the test items were set into their booklets.
189
Some of them reproduce what is contained in the study texts instead of
understanding the topic that is treated and tested (Vandu, 2005). This
prompted the author to advice the NTI on how to plan the examination to
cover every objective and topic through the use of tables of specifications.
This will actually enhance the effectiveness of the NTI programme and ensure
its quality delivery system.
The fewness of examination questions under the category of
application is of much concern. It through setting examinations which require
students to apply the knowledge they acquired in the classroom that it can be
established that the learners have actually acquired the requisite knowledge.
Moreover, the number of examination questions in some courses were rather
few. The number of items that students were required to attempt were equally
few. In some cases, students were required to answer just one question at
the end of a course. One question cannot cover all the objectives set for the
course and all the content areas covered. Besides, students should be
relatively stressed by examinations to give them the feeling that they have
achieved something! A standard policy should be set on how many questions
to set for courses based on their credit unit and how many items a student
should attempt in each course bearing in mind the credit unit for the particular
course.
Conclusion
1. The NTIDL course texts rated high in appropriate ness but low in
readability.
2. The NTIDL-students had a lot of face-to-face contacts both with
the course tutors and with fellow students.
190
3. The NTIDL-students in Akwa Ibom State performed best in
English language and worst in Mathematics.
4. Generally, the performances of the students in centres located
in rural communities were better than those of students in
centres located in the urban areas.
5. The NTIDL course tutors rated the NTIDL programme high not
low on the availability of teaching/learning materials.
6. The NTIDL-produced teachers rated high on instructional
planning and classroom management but low on the knowledge
of the subject-matter.
7. NTIDL-products were rated to be less effective in teaching and
in the knowledge of the subject-matter than teachers produced
through other educational agencies.
8. Parents rated most teaching behaviours of NTIDL-products
more negatively than primary school-heads did when specific
rating items were used. However, when a global item was used,
both parents and school-heads rated the teaching behaviours of
NTIDL-products negatively.
9. A large proportion of examination questions set in the NTDLS
were limited to the lowest level of the cognitive domain –
knowledge. Applicational item were fewest in number among
the test items examined.
On the whole, participation in a research of this magnitude has been
very challenging for each of us. We have learnt from each other through
interactions in this study. Some of us have learnt new ways of collating data.
191
We have experienced the difficulties involved in getting documents from a
State agency. Most importantly, we have discovered that the secret of
success of group is co-operation.
Recommendations
Bearing in mind the findings of this research, the following
recommendations are made towards improving the NTIDLS.
1. The Course Texts
The NTI should make the course texts to be more appealing to
students by putting colours, pictures and by using higher quality papers
fore their course texts. These modifications would increase the reading
appeal of their textbooks.
2. Early Delivery of Course Materials
Every course material should be delivered in good time and
modalities should be set in motion for organized distribution to students
at the different centres.
3. Secondary DL by the NTI
It were high time the NTI mounted secondary education
programme for teachers to make sure that those who present
credentials actually went through the levels of education that they
claimed to have passed. Graduates of such programmes would then
proceed into teacher training. To attract entrants into it, graduates of
such a programme should be employed in teaching immediately they
finish.
4. Students’ Discipline
192
The NTIDLS should be firmer in its quality control measures and
expel hose who do not measure up academically.
5. Supporting National Policies
The NTIDLS should make a case for discrimination against its
products to the legislature, that should then promulgate a policy against
discrimination of NTIDL-products. Such an action would help protect
the interest of the DLS and its products.
6. Selection of Teachers for Employment
Selection of teachers for employment in Primary Schools should
be based on written examinations in the four core subjects of English
Language, Mathematics, Social Studies and Integrated Science.
7. Teacher Education
The School boards who employ NTIDL-products should
examine those who did not have the basic secondary experience and
mount special English Language and Mathematics education for them.
8. In the study of this nature, both the specific items and global
items should be used in rating the respondents.
9. A standard policy should be instituted by the NTI regarding the
number of examination questions that course tutors should set. This
should be based on the credit hours for that course. The number of
examination items that an individual student should attempt in each
course should be equally regulated.
Suggestion for Further Research
Further studies should be conducted in the following areas:
193
1. The educational backgrounds and performance of NTIDL
students and products in the field.
2. Interactive behaviours of course tutors and their effect on the
academic performances of the distance education students .
3. The roles of the centre co-ordinators in the NTIDLS.
4. The use of specific and global items in rating behaviours.
Limitations of the Study
This study has some limitations which may affect the credibility of the findings.
These include weaknesses inherent in the use of the rating scale and
weaknesses arising from the magnitude of the sample size used by the
researchers.
Limitations arising from using the rating scale is that the rating scale is weak
for two reasons:
• it can only be used to collect data from literate populations; and
• it is prone to response bias (Jenk,1987; Educational Research Network
for West and Central Africa (ERNWCA),2006).
The researchers chose to use the rating scale despite all its inherent
weaknesses because in the first place, all the populations from which opinions
were to be sampled were literate populations. These included the head
teachers of primary schools, three key members of the Parents’- Teachers’
Association, NTI-Students and NTI-course tutors.
The limitation imposed by the rating scale is by it being extremely
sensitive to response bias (the tendency of individual respondents to limit their
judgments to a narrow range along the scale by making all their scores to fall
on either ends of the scale or in the middle (ERNWCA, 2006). This tendency
194
is what Jenk (1987, p.106) termed “scoring”. The scoring tendency noticed
among rating scale users makes it difficult for researchers to have
dependable information or have a good perception of the situation studied.
The scoring tendency in using the rating scale could become more
pronounced in an organic culture such as we have in Akwa Ibom State
(Ekong, 2006). Work groups usually develop into a family group such that
members try very much to cover up the weaknesses of fellow members.
To overcome the problem of scoring inherent in the rating scale, the
researchers took a special care by collecting information from many sources.
These included information collected from head teachers, from PTA
members, from NTIDL students, from NTIDL course tutors, from NTIDLS
textbooks, and from NTIDLS examination questions. Besides all these, the
researchers also observed the primary school teachers teaching in their
different classes.
To further avoid ‘scoring’ which tends to inflate scores, instructions
were given to respondents that the exercise was not meant for promotion or
dismissal, but for research. To further prove that point, neither the names of
the evaluators nor names of those evaluated were asked for in the
questionnaires.
In addition to all the cares taken to offset the limitations, data collectors
were asked to keep their ears wide open for comments made by members of
the different populations sampled for the data. Collectors were told to even
initiate discussions on the state of affairs in their different organizations. Thus,
the grapevine and the unstructured interview approaches supplemented the
use of the rating scale.
195
In respect to removing the limitations imposed by the small sample size
in evaluating teachers in the classroom, it was discovered in the field that the
proposed observation of ten percent (10%) teachers was over-ambitious, if
researchers were going to sit-in through lessons. Therefore, the sample size
was modified to 6.2 percent (6.2%) of the teachers’ population.
Decision on using a smaller than earlier proposed sample size was
based on the time at hand and the human resources at the disposal of the
researchers. Such a decision was reinforced by advice from ERNWACA
(2006) to the effect that, qualitative research need not have a large sample
size, because it is an investigative research which may not necessarily be
used for decision making by the organizations studied.
To make up for the paucity of sample selected by the researchers, data
from the head teachers and PTA members on rating of primary school
teachers, were supplied in large numbers, to make up for the small
researchers’ sample-size.
In effect, the researchers recognized the limitations of this study,
conscious steps were taken to counteract those limitations.
Regrettably, the questionnaire should have provided options rather
than the rating scale in measuring study contexts and study strategies of NTI
students.
Although they were collected from the field, data were not analysed
based on demographic variables like age, education, gender and years of
working experiences. The volume of data and the period of time available did
not permit such analyses.
196
Problems Encountered
Some Problems were encountered in the course of conducting this
research. Some of the problems were minor while some others were major
problems. The major problems encountered in this study had to do with
getting the approval of both the Akwa Ibom State Universal Basic Education
Board (SUBEB) and getting the population size of NTIDL students in Akwa
Ibom State. The SUBEB was contacted to allow primary school administrators
participate in the research study, as well as allow the researchers visit some
selected schools to observe teachers teach. The reply to that request never
came. Our follow up on that letter did not get anyway. It was like the letter was
thrown into a waste paper basket somewhere within the Board.
We dared and visited the primary schools without permission from
SUBEB. That decision cost us some fortunes, because the primary school-
heads complained of being owed three months salary. They perceived the
researchers as people who were better off than they were and needed to be
persuaded despite evidence provided by letters of introduction that the
research team was from the nearby university of Uyo. When it seemed like we
were not going to get any headway with primary school-heads, who were also
going to be contact persons for members of the Parents’-Teachers’
Association, the team decided to offer tokens for kerosene to primary school-
heads. That token helped a great deal to mellow them down to co-operate in
the study. Similarly, particulars of primary schools in Akwa Ibom State and the
curricula of the four core subjects of interest – English Language,
Mathematics, Social Studies and Primary Science were not officially obtained.
The head of Curriculum Department of the Akwa Ibom State Ministry of
197
Education proved very hostile. He assumed that we were going to write
textbooks using materials from those documents. We obtained the documents
unofficially too!
The barricade which the ERNWACA research team could not
overcome was mounted by the Akwa Ibom State officials of the National
Teachers’ Institute. They said they were interested in our study; they
endorsed our going to their study centres to collect information on their
programme; they gave us their publications and old examination papers. But,
they would not give us the population of their students! An order was given to
the centre co-ordinators not to give students’ populations at the different
centres either. No amount of entreaties would make them yield to our request.
Hence, the research is devoid of the population description of NTI-students in
Akwa Ibom State. The students were quite many though. They counted up to
300 each, in three centres we visited.
Other problems which were experienced in the course of the research
were lack of commitment by some team members, lack of constant supply of
electricity in Nigeria, which was worse within the study period, rise in the price
of fuel in the period of data collection, which increased the cost of transport of
members of the research team and their assistants. Delays in getting
ERNWACA funds caused financial stress to the team-members too,
especially when we had to settle data collectors on a daily basis and the
purse was quite empty!
On the whole, participation in a research of that magnitude was quite
an interesting experience. It makes you feel stressed, but it was eutress not
distress (Neimeth, 2004).
198
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the learning of mathematics and sciences: Implications for counseling interventions. In C. M. Ekpo (Ed.). Strategies for effective teaching and learning of science, technology and mathematics (STM) education (pp. 138 – 149). Uyo: IVY Press.
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Udosen, A. E. (2003). A strategy for laying a sound foundation for permanent literacy to enhance acquisition of life-coping skills. Nigerian Journal of Curriculum Studies, 10(1), 71-76.
Ugwu, C. (2003). Strategies for relating the school curriculum to productive
work. Nigerian Journal of Curriculum Studies, 10(1), 12-15. Ukeje, B. O., Okorie, N. C. & Nwagbara, U. A. (1992). Educational
administration – Theory and practice. Owerri: Totan Undie, J. A., Udida, L. A. & Ugal, G. (2005, March). Teachers’ utilisation and
students academic performance in Cross River State private/public secondary schools. Nigerian Journal of Educational Administration and Planning 5 (1), 154 – 160.
United Nations, Educational, Scientific and Cultural organization (2000).
About education for sustainable development. Retrieved 2/6/2003 from: http://www.unesco.org/education/esd.
Vandu, M. (2005). What is examination? NTI Newsletter, 20. Verduin, J. R. & Clark, T. A. (1991). Distance education: The foundations of
effective practice. San Francisco, CA: Jossey – Bass. Wertheim, E. (2006). Learning and behavioural modifications: A technical
note. Retrieved 19/21/007 from: http://web.cbarneu.edu/ewertheim/indiv/learn.htm.
Wojciechowski, A. & Palmer, L. B. (2005, Summer). Individual student
characteristics: Can any be predictors of success in online classes? Online Journal of Distance Learning Administration, viii (ii), 1 – 6.
Yaya, D. O. (2005). Assessment of tutorial support in the distance learning
system of the NTI. NTI Newsletter, 15. Yaya, D. O. (2006). Assessment of course tutors’ instructional competence in
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ASSESSMENT OF CURRICULUM TEXTBOOKS BASED ON CONTENT INSTRUCTION: Please score the curriculum text book of the National Teachers’ Institute based on the criteria given below and on a 5-point scale of 5-1. A score of 5 indicates you are highly impressed by the content and a score of 1 (one) means you are not at all impressed by the content.
S/N CRITERIA FOR ASSESSMENT RESPONSE GRADE
5 4 3 2 1
1 MEETING LEARNERS’ NEEDS AND INTERESTS: Are the beginning activities attractive enough to catch the attention of all categories of students: the slow/fast learners; the high/low achievers; those who like/those who don’t like school?
2 SIGNIFICANCE: Is the subject-matter formed from basic ideas/concepts/principles?
3 VALIDITY: Is the content true and authentic?
4 PRACTICABILITY/LEARNABILITY: Are the content practicable enough for students to perform?
5 TRANSFERABILITY: Are the learning experiences embodied in the content transferable from school to life outside the schoolyard from one learning situation to another?
6 GRADIENT OF DIFFICULTY OF THE CONTENT: Are the activities embodied in the content suitable bearing in mind the age of the students and knowledge level?
7 FEEDBACK: Are there workbooks, review questions and answers to help the students judge their performances as to whether or not they have achieved the objectives?
8 VARIETY: Does it provide for various learning opportunities?
9 SUITABILITY: Is the selected content suitable for that level of learners?
10 RELEVANCE: Is the learning embodied relevant to the overall educational goals/aims/objectives of the people?
11 BALANCE: Does the curriculum maintain a balance among the subject disciplines so that one subject area does not overshadow the others?
12 SCOPE OF COVERAGE: Is sufficient subject-matter covered in each form/level?
13 CONTINUITY: Are the content and learning opportunities continuous so as to ensure that learners smoothly move from one level of schooling to the next, without any difficulty in understanding what is taught at the higher level?
14 SEQUENCE: Does the order of curriculum content allow the subsequent experiences to build on earlier ones?
15 INTEGRATION: Are the learning opportunities organized in such a way that they enable the learners to relate one field of knowledge to another?
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NTI STUDENTS ASSESSMENT OF THEIR EDUCATION
INSTRUCTION: Please answer each question based on its requirement by filling in or by ticking (π).
SECTION A: PERSONAL INFORMATION (tick the right option)
1. Sex (gender) MALE FEMALE
2. Age 12-21 22-30 31-40 41-50 51 and above
3. Year of Study 2 3 4 5
SECTION B: STUDENT’S STUDY DATA 4. HAVE YOU EVER SOUGHT HELP FROM SOMEONE IN STUDYING
YES NO (tick one)
5. In studying at the NTI, indicate the degree to which you seek help from the following sources:
I seek help from SA A UN D SD
a) NTI Course Tutors
b) Past NTI – Students
c) Present – NTI students
d) Graduate teachers in my subject area
e) Books not written for NTI
f) The Internet
6 WHAT DO YOU SEEK HELP FOR: To help you:
a) Understand some points better
b) Write term papers
c) Study for examinations
d) Pass examinations
7 WHEN DO YOU MOSTLY DO YOUR PRIVATE STUDIES?
a) Late at night
b) Early in the morning
c) On week-ends
d) Any time of the day
e) In the afternoons
8 APART FROM STUDYING, WHAT ELSE DO YOU DO FOR A LIVING?
a) Teaching in a public school
b) Teaching in a private school
c) Civil servant
d) Farming
e) Family / home care
f) Nothing
9 INDICATE THE DEGREE TO WHICH YOU INDULGE IN THESE STUDYING TENDENCIES
a) Reading course textbooks only
b) You read through your course textbooks several times
c) You read through your course textbooks once before exams
d) You read only some sections that you consider important in examinations
e) You read course textbooks plus other textbooks
10 INDICATE THE DEGREE TO WHICH YOU USE THESE STUDY HABITS
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a) You make notes after reading the course text
b) You read the text several times to make it stick
c) You reduce the text to small prints to help you carry
d) You use a dictionary to understand some words
11 COMPARED TO REGULAR COLLEGES, INDICATE THE DEGREE TO WHICH YOU LIKE THESE ABOUT THE NTI/DLS
a) You can pay the fees installmentally
b) The course tutors are more painstaking
c) The NTI supplies course reading materials
d) NTI/DLS gives someone more time to do other things
e) NTI examination conditions help students to pass better
f) The NTI/DLS course content are relevant to my needs
g) Examinations / tests are graded and published each time it is taken
12 INDICATE THE DEGREE TO WHICH YOU DISLIKE THE NTI/DLS IN THE FOLLOWING:
a) The course tutors are not serious
b) The fees charged are too high
c) The course books are not sufficient for all students
d) The course contents are difficult to understand
e) The course books are too big to cover
f) The courses do not give practical knowledge
g) The course contents will not help me teach in my level
h) The programme does not allow sufficient time for studying
i) It does not publish test/exam results in good time.
13 INDICATE THE DEGREE WHICH YOU USE THE FOLLOWING WAYS TO INTERACT WITH YOUR COURSE TUTORS
a) Through direct contact in class
b) Through phoning to get information
c) Through letter writing and greeting cards
d) Through e-mailing
e) Through answering tests and examinations
f) Through visiting their offices
g) Through visiting their homes
14 INDICATE THE DEGREE TO WHICH WHAT YOU LEARN THROUGH THE NTI/DLS IS USEFUL TO YOU
a) It is useful in giving new knowledge / skills
b) It has helped to change my attitude to life
c) It has prepared me for future employment
d) It has reminded me of those things which I had long forgotten
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ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEST Section A: Comprehension Instruction: Read the passage carefully and answer the questions that follow: Birds are almost found everywhere, even in the heart of cities, and because they are active creatures they easily lend themselves to study. One of the first things that a child notices is how noisy many kinds of birds are…. Guinea-fowl are renowned for this. Even when they are feeding, many birds are make characteristics calls, and with practice you can tell which species are in a wood just from their calls without seeing the birds at all. 1. One of the first thing that is noticeable about birds is their
(a) feathers (b) feeding habits (c) noise 2. According to the passage, for what are guinea fowls particularly noted?
(a) they are extremely noisy (b) they are not active (c) they are difficult birds to study
3. Based on the passage birds make characteristic calls (a) while they are jumping (b) while they are feeding (c) while people are studying them
SECTION B: WORD STUDY Instruction: Choose from the words or group of words below each sentence, the expression which best complete each of the following sentences. 4. He was filled with ……. when he discovered that the medical treatment was
successful. (a) pleasure (b) dismay (c) affliction
5. When a seed is sown, it is expected to (a) ripen (b) germinate (c) pollinate
SECTION C: WORDS SIMILAR IN MEANING Instruction: Choose one word which is nearest in meaning to the underlined word(s) in the sentences. 6(a) This boy resembles his father
(i) Takes to (ii) takes from (iii) takes after (b) The champion took up the challenge
(i) accepted (ii) refused (iii) wanted 7. The man is equal to the task
(i) is same as (ii) can do (iii) refuses Instruction: Choose from the words or group of words in brackets, the expression which best completes each of the following sentences. 8. The teacher wouldn’t even look at my work; he says my writing is shocking to
look… (i) upon (ii) at (iii) up
9. He wants to stop me from going there, by playing … my fears. (i) for (ii) round (iii) upon
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Instruction: Decide which of the following three options closely represents the statement below 10. I have no idea why father objected to our plans. (i) Father never has good ideas about our plans (ii) I do not know what father didn’t like about our plans (iii) Father had no idea what our plans were
MATHEMATICS TEST 1. List all prime numbers between 1 and 20 2 Find the L.C.M. of 8 and 12 Instruction: Write >, < or = 3 ½ of 20 ¼ of 100
4 1000m 1Km
5 If 10 exercise books cost N500, what will be the cost of 50 exercise books? 6 what percentage of 100 is 25? 7. In a class of 50 pupils, 20 are girls while the rest are boys. What is the ratio of
boys to girls in that class? 8 Find the simple interest on N5000.00 for 2years at 5% per annum. 9. What is the perimeter of a box having 50cm in length and 30cm in breadth? 10 Find the area of this triangle with the following dimensions
PRIMARY SCIENCE Instruction: Write short answers to the questions that follow 1. Name at least two instruments each for measuring the following quantities
Quantity Instrument Length Time
Instruction: Fill in the blank spaces 2. Names the senses associated with the following sense organs
(a) the nose is used for sense of …………………… (b) the ear is used for sense of …………………….. (c) the tongue is used for sense of ………………… (d) the eye is used for sense of ……………………. (e) the skin is used for sense of ……………………
15cm
8cm
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Instruction: Fill in the blank with a word selected from the options below each sentence: 3. ----------- is the largest joint on the body.
(a) kneel joint (b) phalanges (c) elbow joint 4. In science solvent + solute =
(a) solution (b) salt (c) mixture
5. The preparation of food in the leaves by plant in the presence of sunlight is know as (a) photosynthesis (b) chlorophyll (c) osmosis
6. Animals with backbone are known as ……………. (a) invertebrates (b) vertebrates (c) herbivores
7. Mention two (2) usefulness of electricity that you know. 8. The age for sexual maturity for both boys and girls is referred to as ……….. (a) adolescence (b) adult (c) puberty 9. Mention three conditions necessary for seeds to germinate. 10a. Name the three states of matters b. Name a mater that can exist comfortably in the three states.
SOCIAL STUDIES TESTS Instruction: Fill in the blank spaces with appropriate words. 1. ………………….. was the founder of Christianity. 2. ………………….. is the holy city of Christians. 3. the Holy Bible is to Christians as ………… is to Moslems. 4. Mention the three levels (tiers) of government in Nigeria. 5. State any three functions of government that you know. 6. What do we mean by democracy? 7. Name the various stages of formal education that a child passes before
entering the University. 8. Name three agencies responsible for socializing the child. 9. How many states are there in Nigeria? 10. The Head of States and President of Nigeria is called ………………..?
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COURSE TUTOR’S ASSESSMENT OF DISTANCE LEARNING QUESTIONNAIRE (COTADLQ)
Dear Respondent,
We are undertaking a study of the NTI Distance Learning Scheme. We solicit your co-operation and honest opinions in answering the questionnaire that accompanies this memory. Your responses will be held strictly confidential and will be used exclusively for academic purposes.
Thank you very much for paying attention to this memo. The Researchers.
COURSE TUTOR’S ASSESSMENT OF DISTANCE LEARNING QUESTIONNAIRE (COTADLQ) INSTRUCTION: This questionnaire is in two sections. A and B fill in the required information in section A.
SECTION A: PERSONAL INFORMATION OF RESPONDENTS 1. NAME OF STUDY CENTRE ___________________________________________________
2. COURSE TUTOR’S AREA OF SPECIALISATION __________________________________
3. COURSE TUTOR’S EDUCATIONAL LEVEL _____________________________________
1ST Degree Holder 2nd Degree Holder Doctoral Degree Holder
(Please tick as it applies to you in number 3)
4. THE LEVEL OF DISTANCE LEARNING YOU ARE INVOLVED IN:
TC II PIVOTAL NCE DEGREE
POST GRADUATE DIPLOMA (Tick as appropriate)
5. LIST THE COURSE(S) YOU TUTOR AT NTI ______________________________________
6. YOUR DESIGNATION (RANK AT THE CENTRE) ___________________________________
7. YOUR YEARS OF EXPERIENCE WITH THE NTI ___________________________________
8. YOUR GENDER (SEX) ________________________________________________________
9. GENDER OF YOUR CENTRE SUPERVISOR. ______________________________________
10. HOW WERE YOU SELECTED TO SERVE IN THE NTI? ______________________________ (a) Through Formal Interview (b) Examination of Credentials (c) Both of the above
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SECTION B: PROGRAMME ASSESSMENT Instruction: You are given five (5) options as follows: Strongly Agree (SA) Agree (A); Undecided (UN); Disagree (D) and Strongly Disagree (SD). Tick (π) one option against each statement based on your honest opinion of that statement.
Response Categories S/N
STATEMENT SA A UN D SD
The NTI Distance Learning Scheme 1. Sets moderate objectives, for students
2. Has a reasonable subject scope
3. Selects contents, which reflect contemporal developments in knowledge
4. Selects difficult subject-matter contents
5. Gives students sufficient level of experiences
6. Utilizes varieties of teaching methods
7. Is relevant to Nigeria educational goals/objectives for teachers education at that level
8. Maintains continuity from one cycle to another
9. Has well-sequenced learning content
10. Is very successfully implemented
The Teaching/Learning Materials Consists of;
11. Difficult textbooks written for students
12. Inadequate textbooks for course tutors
13. Insufficient textbooks for students
14. Books supplied at unaffordable prices
15. No well-circulated study guides
The Study Centre Activities 16. Consist of well-organised weekly international activities for
students
17. Consists of well-organised vocational programme for students
18. Utilizes good teaching methods
19. Are sufficient for students
20. Makes the study centers to be vibrant
NTI Tests/Examinations 21. Are usually well organized
22. Are usually free from malpractices
23. Are fair to every student
24. Are usually valid
25. Have reliable results
NTI Course Tutors 26 Attend classes regularly
27. Are punctual to classes
28. Are enthusiastic for the work
29. Carry moderate work loads
30. Relate well with students
31. Are effective teachers
NTI Students 32. Are punctual for classes
33. Are regular for classes
34. Show much interest in studying
35. Have good understanding of textual materials
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36. Obey rules/regulations governing the center
37. Have competence for higher education
38. Make useful contribution in society
39. Are useful in schools
40. Are generally good
SECTION C: CLASSROOM SURVIVAL STRATEGIES In serving at the NTI, I am always anxious about:
41 my appearance in front of my class
42 my presence in the NTIDLS environment
43 student’s misbehaviour in class
44 explaining things clearly to students
45 using unfamiliar teaching equipment
SECTION D: CLASSROOM MASTERY STRATEGIES – In serving at the NTI, I usually:
46 anticipate some problems
47 develop strategies for solving my problems
48 search for information to enrich my lessons
49 share information freely with my students
50 encourage my students to develop more interests in their studies
SECTION E: CLASSROOM IMPACTING
STRATEGIES
I can definitely say that in serving at the NTI, I:
51 understand the philosophy of distance education
52 can identify the characteristics of my students
53 can change my teaching methods to suit my students and course requirements
54 have introduced my students to modern information technology
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EVALUATION SCALE FOR TEACHERS’ EFFECTIVE
CLASSROOM BEHAVIOURS (ESTECB )
SECTION A: TEACHERS’ DEMOGRAPHIC DATA 1. Teacher’s gender: Male Female (tick one) ----------------------- 2. Teacher’s Age ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 3. Teacher’s Year of Teaching Experience -------------------------------------------- 4. Teacher’s Educational Qualification --------------------------------------------------- 5. Teacher’s NTI Experience: YES NONE (Tick one) 6. Certificate obtained from NTI
INSTRUCTION: In section: B-F that follow, there are five (5) columns in which to record observed behaviours. The columns read as follows: AS = Strongly Agree; A = Agree; UN = Undecided; D = Disagree and SD = Strongly Disagree.
STATEMENTS RESPONSE
Section B: Readiness for Instruction SD A UN D SD
The Teacher:
1 Writes good lesson notes
2 Formulates adequate instructional objectives
3 Selects relevant instructional materials
4 Provides for step-wise lesson preparation
5 Prepares coherent lesson plans
6 Explores the environment for useable instructional resources
7 Sets appropriates expectations for pupils
Section C: Teacher Personality
8 Shows interests in individual pupils
9 Has patience with pupils
10 Smiles in class
11 Is neat in appearance
12 Is generally friendly
13 Looks well-groomed
14 Dresses shabbily
15 Wears neat hair
16 Works with self confidence
17 Behaves shily
18 Appears vibrant in class
19 Over-dresses for class
20 Handles lessons with confidence
21 Is an excellent teacher
Section D: Teachers’ Knowledge Of The Subject Matt er 22 Demonstrates mastery of the subject-matter
23 Is generally literate
24 Feels at home with numeracy skills
25 Knows but cannot deliver
26 Is generally deficient in the subject-matter area
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Section E: Classroom Management Skills
27 Goes around helping pupils in class
28 Has a nature’s corner in class
29 Puts attractive pictures on the walls
30 Formulates rules/regulations binding pupils
31 Punishes offenders
32 Keeps pupils’ attendance records
33 Keeps records of pupils’ performances
34 Orderly manages chalkboard space
35 Maintains orderliness in class
36 Uses class time effectively
Section F: Questioning Skills
37 Interspaces Questions in the course of lesson delivery
38 Fairly distributes questions to reach everybody
39 Asks direct questions
40 Asks questions that require high cognitive skills
41 Repeats questions
42 Answers own questions
43 Repeats pupils’ answers
44 Gives insights into questions
Section G: Communication Skills
45 Makes orderly/logical communication of information
46 Talks clearly
47 Speaks fluently while teaching
48 Amplifies pupils’ responses
49 Gives pupils attention
50 Uses vocabulary appropriate for the class
51 Explains sometimes in vernacular
52 Talks while writing on the board
53 Establishes eye contact with pupils
54 Varies pitch, stress and tone
55 Makes facial expressions
56 Writes legibly on the chalkboard
57 Communicates effectively in English language
58 Writes well in English language
59 Lacks self-expression
60 Makes spelling mistakes on the board
61 Demonstrates the ability to read and understand professional material
Section H: Interpersonal Skills
62 Is friendly with pupils
63 Praises pupils when they do well
64 Asks the class to clap for those who do well in class
65 Smiles at the pupils
66 Informs pupils of their progress
67 Encourages pupils to participate in class
68 Has a good rapport with people
69 Calls pupils by name
70 Jokes with pupils
71 Accepts pupils’ ideas
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72 Criticizes pupils
73 Is harsh to pupils
74 Is warm to pupils
75 Punishes pupils
76 Makes pupils to answer questions
77 Helps pupils to initiate questions
78 Causes pupils to keep mute in class
79 Shows interest in pupils’ progress
Section I: Teacher Enthusiasm
80 Starts classes promptly
81 Varies tone and pitch
82 Makes frequent demonstrative movements
83 Makes facial expressions to show joy, sadness, awe etc.
84 Uses many adjectives and descriptive words
85 Works with vigour
86 Has a high degree of drive and vitality
87 Is enthusiastic for his/her work
Section J: Direct Teaching Technical Skills
88 Asks pupils questions
89 Gives notes of lessons to pupils
90 Utilizes advance organizers in lesson presentation
91 Uses teaching/study guide
92 Appears resourceful in lesson delivery
93 Uses varied teaching methods
94 Guides pupils to select learning activities
95 Talks most often in class
96 Tells stories to pupils
97 Reads for pupils to listen
98 Makes pupils stay quietly
Section K: Indirect Teaching Technical Skills
99 Encourages pupils to participate in class
100 Accepts contributions from pupils
101 Makes pupils work in groups
102 Provides for individual differences
103 Develops lesson notes as he/she teaches
104 Takes pupils out on excursions
105 Uses pupils’ ideas in teaching
106 Praises pupils when they make contributions
107 Gives attention to individual pupils
Section L: Tests/Examination Skills
108 Gives homework/assignment
109 Marks homework/assignment
110 Sets fair examination questions
111 Marks test/examinations
112 Assigns difficult work to pupils
113 Is fair in marking test/examinations
114 Relates evaluation with instructional objectives
115 Keeps records/charts of pupils’ progress
116 Makes encouraging comments in pupils’ work-books
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117 Gives continuous assessment to pupils
118 Gives high scores to the same pupils
119 Coaches pupils for success in final exams
120 Coaches pupils for success in external exams
121 Helps pupils to develop self confidence in taking examinations through nice comments
Section M: Teachers’ Aspiration For Professional G rowth/Development 122 Has interest for further education
123 Has enrolled for higher education
124 Reads very widely
125 Reads textbooks and teacher’s guides only
126 Is a member of a professional body
127 Attends professional conferences
128 Longs for professional growth development
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FACULTY OF EDUCATION – UNIUYO
TEACHING EFFECTIVENESS QUESTIONNAIRE
We are a team of researchers interested in evaluating the concept of teaching
effectiveness from administrators and parents. We solicit your help in evaluating
teachers who are working under you using the items in the questionnaire. We count
on your cooperation.
SECTION A: GENERAL INFORMATION
1. Teacher’s Number
2. Teacher’s Gender: Male Female
3. Teacher’s year of teaching experience: 1-20 21-40
4. Teacher’s Educational Qualification
5. Teacher’s NTI Experience: YES NONE
6. Name of certificate from NTI
INSTRUCTION: Please tick appropriate response that best describes your opinion about the teacher in each of the sections follow. SA = Strongly Agree; A = Agree; UN = Undecided; D = Disagree and SD = Strongly Disagree.
ADMINISTRATORS’ AND PARENTS’ EVALUATION OF TEACHERS ’
EFFECTIVENESS QUESTIONNAIRE
STATEMENTS RESPONSE SD A UN D SD The Teacher: Section B: Parents/Teacher Relationships 1 Has a cordial relationship with parents 2 Has a cordial relationship with the administration 3 Advices parents to make wise decisions 4 Is generally warm towards people 5 Informs parents of children’s progress Section C: Teacher Personality 6 Dresses neatly Section D: Commitment to Work 7 Participates in P.T.A. meetings 8 Readily accepts school assignments 9 Always complains about school work 10 Not enthusiastic about his/her job 11 Is often absent from school 12 Comes to school regularly
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STATEMENTS RESPONSE SD A UN D SD Section E: Teaching Behaviour 13 Shies away from teaching 14 Master his/her subject 15 Does not mark students’ notes 16 Corrects pupils’ error 17 Gives homework to pupils 18 Marks pupils’ homework 19 Is a good teacher 20 Is a disciplined teacher 21 Is an excellent teacher 22 Develops materials for pupils’ learning needs 23 Understands his roles/responsibilities as a teacher 24 Ensures continuity between classes 25 Produces coherent lesson plans Section F: Examination Habit 26 Encourages pupils to indulge in examination
malpractice
Section G: Student/Teacher Relationships 27 Has patience for pupils 28 Likes punishing the pupils 29 Does not discipline the pupils 30 Has interest in the students 31 Gives good counsel to pupils Section H: Social Behavior 32 Extorts money from parents 33 Asks favours from parents 34 Is see in bars and hotels Section I: Personal Development 35 Is willing to read further 36 Has potentials for further education Section J: Global Item 37 The non-NTI teachers are generally better
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Book Assessors Dr. D. E. Ukpong/ Miss Itoro Ekpenyong – Social Studies Dr. Eno E. Etudor/ Dr. (Mrs.) G. K. Etuk – Integrated Science Mrs. Lucy Akpan/ Dr. E Akpan – English Language Mr. Uduak Umoh/ Glory J. Akpan – Mathematics Dr. (Mrs.) G. Etuk/ Dr. E. Etudor – Evaluation of NTIDL examinations Collators Mr. E. J. Akpan Miss Glory J. Akpan Mr. Idongesit K. Etuk Mr. Ekomobong A. Effiong Miss Grace J. Akpan Miss Idongesit Etuk Miss Honesty Miss Otobong O. Udoh Miss Ubong Ituen Dr. Eno Etudor Mrs. Eno Gabriel Akpan Data Collectors from Primary Schools and NTI Centre s Mr. Idanta Gomiluk Mrs. Ataisi Ngerebara Mrs. Uduakobong Okon Mr. Kenneth Assam Mrs. Edoho Ben Ekanem Mr. E. Akpan Mr. Uwem Akpan Uduak D. Akpan Mrs. Imaikop V. Ekpo Mrs. Ama J. Eduek Mrs. Lucia Ituen Mr. Essien Akpan Miss Glory Akpan Mr. Patrick Edem Mr. Bassey Bassey Umoh Mrs. Eno Gabriel Akpan Miss Glory E. Akpan Eno Antia Akaninyene Antia James Akpan Mr. Leo Ukeme Bassey Mr. David Jacob Okon Dianaobong Ukut Post-graduate Students in Vocational Education Data Analysis Mr. E. E. Akpan Corporate Business Services 140 Ikot Ekpene Road, Uyo.
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Data Computation Miss Glory J. Akpan Miss Grace J. Akpan Mr. Essien J. Akpan Miss Kufre – Divine Links Computers Miss Idongesit Etuk