diseases of pleura
DESCRIPTION
Diseases of Pleura. ALOK SINHA Department of Medicine Manipal College of Medical Sciences Pokhara , Nepal. Negative intrapleural pressure: ~ 5mm. PLEURISY . Disease process involving the pleura and giving rise to pleuritic pain evidence of pleural friction Common feature of - PowerPoint PPT PresentationTRANSCRIPT
ALOK SINHADepartment of Medicine
Manipal College of Medical SciencesPokhara, Nepal
Negative intrapleural pressure: ~ 5mm
PLEURISY
Disease process involving the pleura and giving rise to • pleuritic pain • evidence of pleural friction
Common feature of • Pulmonary infection • Infarction• Malignancy
Primary pleural involvement – in T.B.
Clinical features
Characteristic symptom – Pleural pain On examination: Rib movement restricted – reduced chest
expansion Pleural rub may be present
• may only be heard in deep inspiration near pericardium - pleuro-pericardial rub
Loss of the pleural rub and diminution in the chest pain indicate • Either recovery
or • development of a pleural effusion
Normal X-ray does not exclude pulmonary cause for pleurisy• pulmonary infection which may not have
been severe enough • may have resolved before the chest X-ray
was taken
The accumulation within the pleural space of
Serous fluid -
Frank pus -
Blood -
pleural effusion
empyema
haemothorax
Pleural fluid accumulates
increased hydrostatic & decreased osmotic pressure – ‘Transudate’
Increased microvascular pressure due to disease of pleural surface or injury in the adjacent lung ‘Exudate’
Common causes Tuberculosis Pneumonia ('para-pneumonic effusion') Cardiac failure Pulmonary infarction Malignant disease Subdiaphragmatic disorders - subphrenic abscess - pancreatitis etc Hypoproteinaemia
Nephrotic syndrome Liver failure Malnutrition
Uncommon causes Connective tissue diseases systemic lupus erythematosus rheumatoid arthritis Acute rheumatic fever Post-myocardial infarction syndrome Meigs' syndrome (ovarian tumour + pleural effusion) Myxoedema Uraemia Asbestos-related benign pleural effusion
Transudate Congestive heart failure Cirrhosis (hepatic hydrothorax) Hypoalbuminemia Nephrotic syndrome Myxedema Constrictive pericarditis
Tuberculous Parapneumonic
causes Malignancy
(carcinoma, lymphoma,mesothelioma)
Pulmonary embolism
Pancreatitis Collagen-vascular conditions
(rheumatoid arthritis, SLE) Asbestos exposure Trauma
Postcardiac injury (Dressler’s) syndrome
Esophageal perforation Radiation pleuritis Drug use Chylothorax Meigs syndrome Sarcoidosis Yellow nail syndrome
Exudate
Clinical assessment
Symptoms and signs of pleurisy often precede the development of an effusion in patients with• Tuberculosis• underlying pneumonia • pulmonary infarction • connective tissue disease
Particular attention should be paid to a recent history of • contact with tuberculosis• respiratory infection• presence of heart disease• liver or renal disease • occupation (e.g. exposure to asbestos)• risk factors for thromboembolism
BREATHLESSNESS - only symptom related to effusion and its severity depends on the • size • rate of accumulation
Clinical features
Manifest when pleural effusions >300 mL
On inspection: Fullness of chest on affected side Reduced expansion of chest Tracheal shift with Trail’s sign - observed
with effusions of > 1000 mL• Prominence of lower part of
sternocleidomastoid due to tracheal deviation
On palapation
Trachea & apex beat shifted to opposite side
Decreased tactile fremitus
• Displacement toward the side of the effusion is an important clue to obstruction of a lobar bronchus
Percussion: Dullness on percussion- stony dull
• obliteration of tympanitic percussion note over Traube’s space in left sided effusion
Level of dullness goes up in axilla Dullness over grocco’s triangle
surface markings • left sixth rib• left midaxillary line• left costal margin
Traube's space
Grocco’s triangle
XII th rib
Upper margin of fluid
Grocco's Paravertebral Triangle
Triangular area of dullness at the back of chest on the healthy side
Base – horizontally along the XII th rib Apex – at the level of upper margin of fluid on
diseased side Internally – vertebral line Externally – line joining the apex and lateral
base
Ascultation
Decreased or absent breath sounds
Pleural friction rub may be present ONLY WHEN EFFUSION IS SMALL
compressed lung
zone of compensatory emphysema
Findings at the upper level of moderate effusion
Skodaic resonance – percussion
Dull on percussionAbsent Br sound
Increased VF, egophony & bronchial breath sounds
Egophony: high-pitched nasal or bleating quality sound
Possible findings at the upper level of dullness in case of moderate pleural effusion:
1. lung is compressed Increased vocal fremitus & aegophony –
nasal quality of sounds transmitted Bronchial breath sound2. there may be a zone of compensatory
emphysema above it Skodaic resonance on percussion
INVESTIGATIONS
1.Chest X ray
P A view: minimum of 200cc of fluid required to produce blunting of costophregnic angles in
Lateral view: 60 ml lateral decubitus Xray: 10 ml
200 ml fluid required to produce this shadow60 ml in lateral view10 ml in decubitus Xray
X ray tube
X rays
Some atypical pleural effusions
Localised effusions: previous scarring or adhesions in the pleural space
Subpulmonary effusion: Pleural fluid localised below the lower lobe simulates an elevated hemidiaphragm
Fluid localised within an oblique fissure may produce a rounded opacity simulating a tumour
Subpulmonic effusion - Rt
Phantom tumor-Pleural effusion inInterlobar fissure
2. Ultra sonography of thorax
2. USG of thorax:
• Can detect even less than 10 ml• Can differentiate between pleural thickening
& effusion• USG guided needle aspiration in small effusion
3. Diagnostic aspiration of pleural fluid
1. Protein2. L.D.H.
3. Sugar – low in bacterial infections & Rh. arthritis4. A.D.A – high (>42) in T.B. & some fungal
infections5. Amylase – high in pancreatitis, oesophageal
rupture, malignancy
Required for calculating LIGHT’S CRITERIA
1.Biochemical analysis
6.pH • Low pH suggests
infection rheumatoid arthritis ruptured oesophagus advanced malignancy
(FOR DISTINGUISHING PLEURAL TRANSUDATE FROM EXUDATE)
Pleural fluid is an EXUDATE if one or more of theFollowing criteria are met:
1. Pleural fluid protein:serum protein ratio > 0.5
2. Pleural fluid LDH: serum LDH ratio > 0.6
3. Pleural fluid LDH > two-thirds of the upper limit of normal serum LDH
2. Microscopic examinationPredominant cell type
• provides useful information and cytological examination is essential
Polymorphs suggest bacterial infection
Lymphocytes: tuberculous High ADA + Pl. fluid lymphocyte/neutrophil > 0.75 – Highly diagnostic of tuberculous pleural effusion
Malignant cells ma be seen in malignancy
3.Gram stain • may suggest parapneumonic effusion
4.ELISA or
PCR• Helpful in diagnosing T.B. if acid-fast bacilli
are not seen
5. Cultures: positive in 30 to 70%
(Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay)
(Polymerase chain reaction)
May be required if all fails With all methods combined yield is close
to 95%
4. Pleural biopsy
Combining pleural aspiration with biopsy increases the diagnostic yield
Ultrasound or CT guided biopsy with Abrams needle is most frequently employed
Pleural aspiration and biopsy Abrams needle
If all of them unhelpful:
5. Throcacoscopy
6. HRCT
THORACOSCOPY
Summary of Investigations X ray USG thorax Pleural fluid examination
• Biochemical• Microscopic• Gram staining• Culture
PCR or ELISA Pleural biopsy Thoracoscopy HRCT
Cardiacfailure*
Serous,Strawcoloured
Transudate Few serosal cells Other evidence of leftventricular failure.Response to diuretics.
PLEURAL EFFUSION: MAIN CAUSES & FEATURES
Cause
Appearance offluid
Type offluid
Predominantcells in fluid
Other diagnostic features
Tuberculosis Serous,UsuallyAmbercoloured
Exudate Lymphocytes(occasionallypolymorphs)
+ tuberculin testIsolation of M.tuberculosis frompleural fluid (20%)Positive pleural biopsy(80%)
Malignantdisease
Serous,OftenBloodstained
Exudate Serosal cells &LymphocytesOften clumps ofmalignant cells
Positive pleural biopsy(40%)Evidence of malignantdisease elsewhere
Pulmonaryinfarction
Serous or blood-stained
Exudate(rarelytransudate
Red bloodCellsEosinophils
Evidence ofPulmonaryInfarction.Source ofEmbolism.Factorspredisposingto venousthrombosi
Rheumatoid disease
SerousTurbid ifchronic
Exudate Lymphocyte(occasionalpolymorphs)
Rheumatoid arthritis; rheumatoid factor in serum.Cholesterol in chronic effusion; very low glucose in pleural fluid
SystemicLupuserythematosus
(SLE)
Serous Exudate Lymphocytesand serosalcells
• OtherManifestationsof SLE• Antinuclearfactor or AntiDNA in Serum(Ds DNA)
Acutepancreatitis
Serous orBloodstained
Exudate No cellspredominate
High amylasein pleural fluid(greater thanin serum)
Obstruction ofthoracic duc
Milky Chyle(Chylous Effusion)
None Chylomicrons
Hemorrhagic Chylous- thoracic duct obstruction
Transudate in CCF
Presence of blood is consistent with Pulmonary infarction Malignancy Tuberculosis Traumatic Anticoagulation Mesothelioma
Result from: Hypersensitivity reaction to Mycobacterium
Microbial invasion of the pleura (less common)
• acid-fast bacillus stains of pleural fluid are rarely diagnostic (<10-20 % of cases)
• pleural fluid cultures grow Mycobacterium tuberculosis in less than 65% of cases
Tuberculous pleural effusion
Effusion may accompany1.Primary T. B.
• commonly unilateral, and results from a hypersensitivity phenomenon
• May recover without treatment, but in close to two thirds active tuberculosis develops within 5 years
2. Post primary T. B.: Subpleural T B focus
ruptures into the pleural space Clinically presentation as
• acute • subacute • chronic form
With fever, nonproductive cough or chest pain
Diagnosed on the basis of: Microscopy + Adenosine deaminase
(ADA) activity ADA > 43 U/mL in pleural fluid supports
the diagnosis of TB pleuritis. sensitivity - 78%
ADA + Pl. fluid lymphocyte/neutrophil > 0.75 – Highly diagnostic of tuberculous pleural effusion
Other investigation
Chest radiography: • shows a small to moderate effusion (only
4% are large)• Parenchymal disease is seen in a third
of cases
• Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay(ELISA) • Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)
may be helpful diagnostically Provide a more rapid diagnosis in the
more than 90% of cases in which acid-fast bacilli are not seen on smear
Cultures: positive in 30 to 70% - results take a long time
Treatment
Fever resolves within 2 weeks of instituting category I ATT • may persist for 6 or 8 weeks
The effusion usually resolves by 6 weeks • may persist for 3 to 4 months
Very ill patients may be helped by short-term corticosteroid treatment
ADA can be +in: Fungal infections like coccidomycosis & HistoplasmosisSome cases of malignancy & connective tissue disorder
Malignant
P l e u r a l e f f u s i o n
CausesMost malignant effusions are metastatic
Investigations
Pleural fluid cytology CT chest with pleural contrast
• Nodular, mediastinal, or circumferential pleural thickening on CT-highly specific for malignant disease
Treatment options Therapeutic pleural aspiration
Intercostal chest drainage pleurodesis - seal the visceral to the
parietal pleura to prevent pleural fluid accumulating
commonly used agents are sterile talc, tetracycline, and bleomycin • Corticosteroids should be discontinued
beforehand