Diseases of Fruits and VegetablesVolume II

Diseases of Fruits andVegetablesDiagnosis and Management

Volume II

Edited by

S.A.M.H. NaqviNational Research Centre for Citrus (Indian Council of Agricultural Research),Nagpur, Maharashtra, India

KLUWER ACADEMIC PUBLISHERSNEW YORK, BOSTON, DORDRECHT, LONDON, MOSCOW

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CONTENTS

Preface.............................................................................. vii

List of Contibutors .............................................................. xi

Colour Plates from Chapter 10 ............................................ xv

1. Avocado Diseases of Major Importance Worldwideand their Management......................................................... 1

L. J. Marais

2. Diseases of Banana and their Management........................... 37S.P. Raut and Suvarna Ranade

3. Management of Grape Diseases in Arid Climates.................. 53Peter L. Sholberg

4. Guava Diseases - their Symptoms, Causes andManagement....................................................................... 81

A. K. Misra

5. Lettuce Diseases and their Management............................... 121Richard N. Raid

6. Management of Diseases of Onions and Garlic ..................... 149Mary Ruth McDonald, Maria de los Angeles Jaimeand Marilyn H.Y.Hovius

7. Papaya Diseases and Integrated Control................................ 201José Aires Ventura, Hélcio Costa and Joseli da Silva Tatagiba

8. Virus and Phytoplasma Diseases of Passion Fruit................... 269S.J. Singh

9. Pea Diseases and their Management..................................... 301N. J. Grünwald, W. Chen, and R. C. Larsen

10. Diseases of Pepper and their Management............................ 333P.D. Roberts, S. Adkins, K. Pernezny and J.B. Jones

v

11. Potato Viruses and their Management................................... 389S.M. Paul Khurana

12. Strawberry Disease Management......................................... 441John L. Maas

13. Stone Fruit Diseases and their Management.......................... 485Ved Ram and L.N. Bhardwaj

14. Biologically-Based Alternatives to Synthetic Fungicides forthe Control of Postharvest diseases of Fruit and Vegetables... 511

Ahmed El Ghaouth, Charles Wilson and Michael Wisniewski

15. Mycorrhiza in Management of Fruits and Vegetables Diseases 537Nikhat S. Naqvi and S.A.M.H. Naqvi

16. Diseases of Minor Tropical and Sub-tropical Fruits andtheir Management............................................................... 559

M.P. Srivastava and R. Mehra

Author Index...................................................................... 633Subject Index...................................................................... 669

vi

PREFACE

Among the Horticultural Crops, Fruits and Vegetables (FV) are of primary im-portance as the key source of essential components in an adequate and balanced humandiet. FV have supported largely the daily food requirement of mankind since ages andeven before man learned to grow cereal crops systematically. Over the years, growingFV has been the mainstay of rural economy and has emerged as an indispensable partof agriculture world over, offering farmers a wide range of crops in varied topographyand climate. In certain parts of the world, FV are the major dietary staple. Apart frombeing a rich source of vitamins and minerals, this sector also contributes significantlyin economy of the region or the nation. The increased income from per unit area of FVis far ahead and can not be compared with that of cereal crops.

A recent survey by the Economist revealed that the world population has in-creased by 90 % in the past 40 years while food production has increased only by 25 %per head. With an additional 1.5 billion mouth to feed by 2020, farmers worldwidehave to produce 39 % more. Looking at the load of the future food requirement, theglobal increased production of FV during last few years has absorbed the additionalfood requirement and accordingly the eating habits are also changing and shifting to-wards more consumption of these commodities worldwide. During 2002, world fruitproduction excluding melons was recorded 471.377 million metric tons and that ofvegetables including melons 772.71 million metric tons and thus a total world produc-tion of FV to the tune of 1244.377 million tones has substantially absorbed the addi-tional food requirement needed for the increasing population (FAOSTAT ,2002).

Unlike cereal crops, there is a wide range of diversity available to farmers toselect suitable FV crops. However, the cultivation of these crops for optimum yieldand quality produce, is highly technical and needs improved technological support.Management of perennial fruit crops requires further close monitoring especially forthe management of diseases that can affect production significantly and subsequentlythe post-harvest life of these highly perishable commodities. In given favourable con-ditions, even a single pathogen or disease may cause catastrophe and complete failureof the crop. The famous Irish potato famine is a well-known example where singledisease could devastate the whole socio-economic fabric of the country and in fact laida strong foundation of Plant Pathology.

Obviously with area and population to feed, China stands first in production ofFV with 68.43 million tones of fruits and 368.57 million tons of vegetables in the worldfollowed by India with 48.57 million tons of fruits and 68.06 million tons of veg-etables. India leads the world in production of banana, mango, sapota and acidlime andamong vegetables it is the largest producer of pea and cauliflower and second largest inonion, brinjal (egg plant) and cabbage. However, there has been huge gap in produc-

cultivation is far ahead in developing nations. Hence there is an ample scope and po-tential in increasing production per unit area in developing nations and in certain devel-oped nations. The low productivity and short productive life of fruit plants has been

tion per unit area in developing nations and developed nations though the area under

vii

mainly attributed to the unavailability of disease free planting stocks and among veg-etable crops, inadequate plant protection measures and quality seeds. For example,China is the third largest producer of Citrus after Brazil and USA, having maximumharvested area under Citrus (1.42 million ha) with production only 8.45 MT/ha ascompared to Citrus productivity 33. 33 MT / ha of USA from 0.441 million ha during2001-2002 ( FAOSTAT, 2002). Like Irish potato famine, the citrus tristeza virus hasbeen highly destructive and this single pathogen could ravage citrus industry of manycountries like Argentina, Brazil etc. amounting to billions dollars. Budwood certifica-tion programme developed to get rid of these viruses is very effective but still in coun-tries where it has not been adopted fully are facing the problem of low productivity andshort productive life of Citrus plants. Thus, effective disease management plays a keyrole in successful quality production of fruits and vegetables. In favourable environ-ment conditions, the pathogen attack may reduce the productivity significantly andmay also become the cause of total crop failure.

There has been a drastic deviation in global weather pattern under El Nino ef-fect. Black Sigatoka and weak to moderate El Nino weather pattern could affect bananaproduction. Rampant eruption of new races of banana pathogens and their rapid resis-tant development to new fungicides has posed a threat to banana industry in Africa thatproduces around 30 million tons of bananas yearly, which is mostly consumed locally.But production is already being reduced and may very well cease entirely within tenyears, Scientists warn in a report published in British Weekly ‘New Scientist’ maga-zine. Because existing banana plants are reproduced from cuttings, there is little ge-netic diversity. Diseases, in particular fungus, rapidly can wipe out entire productionregions.

With the imposition of WTO conditions in export and import of fresh fruits andvegetables, now it has become more relevant to produce disease free quality produce inorder to comply strict phytosanitary conditions laid by certain countries. Recent mo-lecular advancement in our knowledge to detect and diagnose the pathogens in com-modities even at very low level made it rather mandatory to produce exportable com-modities free from the pathogens.

The new millennium promises excitement and hope for the future by new ad-vancement in eco-friendly technologies in integrated disease management of fruits andvegetables. During past twentieth century, Plant Pathology has witnessed a dramaticadvancement in management of fruits and vegetable diseases through in-depth investi-gations of host-pathogen interactions, development of molecular diagnostic tools, inte-gration of new concepts, principles and approaches.

My effort in bringing out this edited book is to update the achievements oftwentieth century in diagnosis and management of diseases of fruits and vegetables ofinternational trade and some under-exploited minor fruits which otherwise are widely

millennium. The book includes latest diagnostic tools and management strategies ofdispersed in various scientific journals and to develop future strategies for the new

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almost all the economically important temperate, tropical and subtropical fruits andvegetables at one place which would be easier to refer by the students, research workers,planners, administrators, policy makers and other end users like grower of fruits andvegetables world-wide. The chapters on individual crop on various aspects of diseaseslike geographical distribution of disease, diagnosis, disease forecast, approaches toeliminate difficult sytemic pathogens, production of disease free planting material andintegrated disease management at nursery, orchard and post-harvest level are contributedby leading Plant Pathologists having authority and significant contributions in respectivefields at international level.

The diseases of economic importance caused by fungi, bacteria, viruses andvirus like organisms, Phytoplasma and nematodes of each crop are covered, describingtheir history, distribution, losses incurred, symptoms, latest diagnostic tools,epidemiology and integrated applied management approaches including cultural,chemical, genetic resources, use of bio-control agents being adopted world-wide. Thelayout of each chapter includes a brief abstract, introduction and pathogen-wisedescription of the diseases. Each chapter is vividly illustrated with photographs of typicalsymptoms, graphs, tables and line drawings to make the subject more interesting andeasy to understand for students, Scientists, planners, administrators, growers and otherend users with latest pertinent references.

In volume I, diseases of Apple, Citrus, Grapes, Mango and Pineapple amongfruits and Carrot, Celery and Cucurbits among vegetable crops with special referenceto integrated diseases management practices have been included. Volume II coversAvocado, Banana, Grapes, Guava, Papaya, Passion fruit, Strawberry, Stone fruits andMinor tropical and subtropical fruits. Among vegetables, Lettuce, Pea, Pepper, Potato,Onion and Garlic have been included in this volume besides role of mycorrhiza andbiocontrol agents in disease management. I am sure that these two volumes will be ofimmense help and use to the fruits and vegetables growers world over, students, re-search workers, planners, administrators, teachers and other end users engaged in diag-nosis and management of fruits and vegetables diseases.

I am grateful and indebted to all the learned galaxy of contributors who havespent their considerable time in contributing the chapters on various internationallyimportant fruits and vegetables crops. I thank them for their cooperation and supportduring this project.

I dedicate this work to all those great Scientists who have spent their life time indiagnosis and management of diseases of fruits and vegetables world over in order toimprove the quality and productivity of fruits and vegetables, to uplift the nutritionalstatus of human diet and fight against hunger. I am thankful to my wife Dr NikhatSarwar Naqvi, for her constant encouragement and help in various ways while editingthe book.

25th September, 2003 S.A.M.H. Naqvi

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1. Adkins, S.USDA-ARS Horticulture ResearchLab, Ft. Pierce,FL, 34945, USA

2. Bhardwaj, L.N.Deptt. of Mycology and PlantPathology, Dr. Y.S. Parmar Universityof Horticulture and ForestryNauni (Solan) 173 230,Himachal Pradesh, INDIA

3. Chen, WeidongVegetable and Forage Crop ResearchUnit, USDA ARS,Washington State University-IAREC,241206 N. Bunn Rd.,Prosser, WA 99350, USA.

4. Costa, HélcioIncaper, Rua Afonso Sarlo,160 (Bento Ferreira),Vitória – ES,29052-010,BRAZILe-mail: ventura@incaper.es.gov.br

5. Ghaouth, Ahmed ElUniversite De Nouakchott, Faculte desSciences et Techniques, Nouakchott,MAURITANIE, B.P. 5026email: elghaouth59@yahoo.com

6. Grünwald, Niklaus J.Vegetable and Forage Crop ResearchUnit, USDA ARS,Washington State University-IAREC,241206 N. Bunn Rd.,Prosser, WA 99350, USA.Fax:509/786.9277Phone:509/786.9237e-mail:ngrunwald@pars.ars.usda.gov

7. Hovius, Marilyn H.Y.Dept. of Plant Agriculture,University of Guelph, Guelph,Ontario, Canada N1G 2W1email:hoviusmhy@hotmail.com

8. Jaime, Maria de los AngelesBotany Department,University of Toronto,3359 Missisauga Road North,Mississauga, Ontario,CANADA L5L 1C6email: mjaime@utm.utoronto.ca

9. Jones, J.B.Plant Pathology Department,University of Florida,Gainesville, FL 32611,USA

10. Khurana, SM PaulCentral Potato Research Institute,(Indian Council of AgriculturalResearch), Shimla 171 001Himachal Pradesh, INDIAe-mail: director@cpri.hp.nic.in /Fax:0091-177-2224460Phone: 0091-177- 2225073;

11. Larsen, Richard C.Vegetable and Forage Crop ResearchUnit, USDA ARS,Washington State University-IAREC,241206 N. Bunn Rd.,Prosser, WA 99350, USA.

12. Maas, John L.Fruit Laboratory, AgriculturalResearch Service,United StatesDepartment of Agriculture, Beltsville,Maryland, 20705, U.S.Aemail: maasj@ba.ars.usda.gov

List of Contributors

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13. Marais, L. J.Department of Plant Pathology,University of California Riverside,Riverside CA 92521, USA.Tel. & Fax : (909) 787-2959e-mail: lmarais@alltech.com

14. McDonald, Mary RuthDept. of Plant Agriculture,University of Guelph,Guelph, Ontario, CANADA N1G 2W1email: mrmcdona@uoguelph.ca

15. Mehra, RakeshDeptt. of Plant PathologyCCS Haryana Agricultural UniversityHisar – 125004, Haryana, IndiaPhone : 01662-243140 (R),

01662-231171-4203 (O)email: rmehra@hau.nic.in

16. Misra, A.K.Central Institute for SubtropicalHorticulture, Rehmankhera,PO. Kakori, Lucknow-227 107, INDIAFax-0522-2841025,Tel. 0522-2767004,email- Misra_a_k@yahoo.co.in

17. Naqvi, Nikhat, S.Botany Department, SFS College,Seminary Hills, NAGPUR – 440 006,Maharashtra, INDIAPhone: 91-712-2500518email: naqvi_ngp@sancharnet.in

18. Naqvi, S.A.M.H.National Research Centre for Citrus(Indian Council of AgriculturalResearch) PO Box 464, AmravatiRoad, NAGPUR 440 010Maharashtra, INDIAFax:91-712-2500813Phone:91-712-2500249; 2500518e-mail naqvi_ngp@sancharnet.in

19. Pernezny, K.Plant Pathology Department,Everglades Research andEducation Center,University of Florida,Belle Glade, FL 33430, USA

20. Ram, VedDeptt. of Mycology and PlantPathology, Dr. Y.S. Parmar Universityof Horticulture and ForestryNauni (Solan) 173 230,Himachal Pradesh, INDIA

21. Raid, Richard, N.Everglades Research and EducationCenter, University of Florida,3200 East Palm Beach Road,Belle Glade, FL 33430, USA.Fax:561-993-1582Phone:561-993-1564e-mail:rnr@mail.ifas.ufl.edu

22. Ranade, SuvarnaDept. of Plant Pathology,College of Agriculture, DapoliDr. Balasaheb Sawant Konkan KrishiVidyapeeth, Dapoli 415 712Maharashtra, INDIA

23. Roberts, P.D.Plant Pathology Department,Southwest Florida Research andEducation Center, University ofFlorida, Immokalee, FL 34142, USAPhone: (941)658-3400Fax: (941)658-3469email: pdr@mail.ifas.ufl.edu

24. Raut, S.P.Dept. of Plant Pathology,College of Agriculture, DapoliDr. Balasaheb Sawant Konkan KrishiVidyapeeth, Dapoli 415712Maharashtra , INDIA

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25. Sholberg, Peter L.Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada,Pacific Agri-Food Research Centre,Summerland, British Columbia,CANADA V0H 1Z0Phone: 1-250-494-6383Fax: 1-250-494-0755email: SholbergP@em.agr.ca

26. Singh, S.J.Indian Agricultural ResearchInstitute, Regional Station,Agricultural College Estate,Shivajinagar,Pune 411005, Maharashtra, INDIAPhone/ Fax91-20-25537601

27. Srivastava, M.P.Dept. of Plant PathologyCCS Haryana Agricultural University,Hisar, Haryana – 125004, INDIAPhone:01662-230170 (R),Fax : +91-1662-234952, 234613email: mpsrivastav@indiatimes.com

28. Tatagiba, Joseli da SilvaCNPq./Incaper;CRDR-Linhares,Caixa Postal 62,–Linhares-ES, 29900-970.e-mail: joseli@incaper.es.gov.br

29. Ventura, José AiresIncaper, Rua Afonso Sarlo,160 (Bento Ferreira),Vitória – ES,29052-010,BRAZILemail: ventura@incaper.es.gov.br

30. Wilson, CharlesAppalachian Fruit Research Station,USDA-ARS, 45 Wiltshire Road,Kearneysville, WV, 25430.USA

31. Wisniewski, MichaelAppalachian Fruit Research Station,USDA-ARS,45, Wiltshire Road,Kearneysville, WV, 25430, USA

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COLOUR PLATES from CHAPTER 10

xvFigure 3: Phytophthora blight lesion on pepper fruit (Photo courtesy R.J. McGovern)

Figure 1: Mature pepper fruit exhibiting multiple lesions of anthracnose (Photo courtesy T.AKucharek)

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Figure 2: Phytophthora blight lesion at crown of a pepper plant (Photo courtesy R.J. McGovern)

Figure 4: Powdery mildew on underside of pepper leaf (Photo courtesy K. Pernezny)

Figure 5: Postharvest decay of pepper fruit infected with bacterial soft rot, gray mold, and secondary microorganisms (Photo courtesy P.D. Roberts)

xvii

Figure 6: Bacterial spot lesions on foliage of pepper (Photo courtesy K. Pernezny)

Figure 7: Bacterial spot lesions on pepper fruit (Photo courtesy of K. Pernezny)

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xix

Figure 8: Pepper leaves and fruit exhibiting symptoms of Pepper mottle virus (Photo courtesyK. Pernezny)

Figure 9: Pepper leaves exhibiting symptoms of Tomato spotted wilt virus infection (Photo courtesy P.D. Roberts)