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TRANSCRIPT
P.O. Box 5675, Berkeley, CA 94705 USA
DISCRIMINATION AGAINST WOMEN IN THE WORKPLACE
Contact Information: Ida Florianne Kersten, Edith Coliver Intern
[email protected] Representing Human Rights Advocates through
University of San Francisco School of Law’s International Human Rights Clinic
Tel: 415-422-6961 Professor Connie de la Vega
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I.Introduction
We all expect to be judged on our merits at work and to be recognized for our
accomplishments,uniquetalents,insights,andefforts. Butdoesthatactuallyhappen?Sexorgender
discrimination in employment involves treating someone unfavorably because of the person’s sex,
whether theyareapplying fora joborarea currentemployee.Theessenceof sexdiscrimination is
unequaltreatmentonthebasisofsex.Thetreatmentmustnotsimplybedifferent,butalsounequal,
andthereforeunfair.
Discriminationagainstwomenintheworkplaceisabroad,complicatedandverycontroversial
topicthatreachesmanyfacetsofmodernsocietyandculture.Thisreportwilldefineanddiscussthe
history of the issue, examine the gender gap pay, the discrimination policies and discuss solutions.
Particular focus will be paid to public policies and the legal justification and foundation of such
policies.
Evidenceanddiscussion ispresentedbutacloserexamination is takenofcasestudies inthe
United States, Ivory Coast, Mexico, and India. These cases studies show both the benefits and the
limitationsof a legal framework to addressdiscrimination, aswell asotherpotentialpublicpolicies
thatcanaddressdiscriminationagainstwomenintheworkplace.
This analysiswill also address the specific issues of discrimination treatments inworkplace
thathavebeensuccessfullyaddressedthroughlegalmeans,aswellasthosethataremorechallenging
to address. Lastly, recommendations are suggested for reducing gender discrimination in the
workplace.
II.HistoryofDiscriminationAgainstWomen
Discrimination against women has essentially been around since the beginning of time.1In the
developedworld,womenhavemadegreatstridesintheworkplacebutdiscriminationstillexistseven
inthemostprogressiveofsocieties.Inshort,basedonastudyoftheexistingliteratureeachcountry
andeveneach individual cityor region isuniqueandhasauniquehistoryandsetof circumstances
1“DiscriminationAgainstWomen,”NoBullying.com,(Sept.2016)1-2.
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that has created the statusquo that dictates theprevalenceof discrimination againstwomen in the
workplace.
Furthermore,manycasesillustratethatdiscriminationagainstwomenissomethingthatisdeeply
rootedinmanysocietiesandsomethingthatmostpeoplehavegrowthaccustomedto.Thisacceptance
makes change challenging, but not impossible, albeit change will likely takemany years andmove
slowly. The international community has been working along with governments on the issue of
discriminationagainstwomenintheworkplace.
III.InternationalStandardsontheProhibitionofGenderDiscrimination
Thereexistsasignificantbodyofinternationalstandardsthatcodifywhatdiscrimination
basedongenderisandhowtoaddressitthroughalegalframework.Discriminationonthegroundsof
sexisamajorformofdiscrimination,andhasbeenafocusofattentionfortheinternational
communitysincetheSecondWorldWar.2
TheUnitedNation’sInternationalLaborOrganization(ILO)hasdesignatedeightconventions
asembodyingthefundamentalprincipalsandrightsofwomenwithregardtodiscriminationincluding
workplacediscrimination.3ThesemajorinternationalinstrumentsincludetheUniversalDeclaration
ofHumanRights(1948)4;theInternationalCovenantsonCivilandPoliticalRights(ICCPR)5andthe
InternationalCovenantonEconomic,SocialandCulturalRights(ICESCR)(1966)6;theConventionon
theEliminationofallFormsofDiscriminationagainstWomen(CEDAW)(1979)7anditsOptional
Protocolof1999);theUNDeclarationontheEliminationofViolenceagainstWomen(1993)8;the
2DevahPagerandHanaShepherd.“TheSociologyofDiscrimination:RacialDiscriminationinEmployment,Housing,Credit,andConsumerMarkets,”AnnualReviewofSociology.January1,2008;34:181-182.3“PaperonInternationalLaborStandardsintheContemporaryGlobalEconomy,”GlobalEmploymentInstitute,May2015,pg.6.4“UniversalDeclarationofHumanRights,”UnitedNationsGeneralAssembly,GeneralAssemblyresolution217A,10December1948.http://www.un.org/en/universal-declaration-human-rights/5“InternationalCovenantsonCivilandPoliticalRights,”UnitedNationsGeneralAssembly,19December1966.https://treaties.un.org/doc/publication/unts/volume%20999/volume-999-i-14668-english.pdf6“InternationalCovenantonEconomic,Social,andCulturalRights,”UnitedNationsGeneralAssembly,16December1966.https://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=IND&mtdsg_no=IV-3&chapter=4&clang=_en7“ConventionontheEliminationofallFormsofDiscriminationAgainstWomen,”UnitedNationsGeneralAssembly,18December1979,http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/cedaw/8“DeclarationontheEliminationofViolenceagainstWomen,”UnitedNationsGeneralAssembly,20December1993.http://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/48/a48r104.htm
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BeijingDeclarationandPlatformforAction(1995)9anditsfollow-upandtheMillenniumDevelopment
Goals.10
Perhapsthemostsignificantguidingdocumentisthe“ConventionontheEliminationofAll
FormsofDiscriminationAgainstWomen(CEDAW),”whichoutlinestheinternationalstandard
definingdiscriminationagainstwomenandalso“laysdownacomprehensivesetofrightstowhichall
persons,includingwomen,areentitled.”11“TheConventionwasadoptedbytheGeneralAssemblyin
1979toreinforcetheprovisionsofexistinginternationalinstrumentsdesignedtocombatthe
continuingdiscriminationagainst.”12
Article1providesadefinitionofdiscriminationagainstwomenonthebasisofsex,statingthat
thediscriminationagainstwomenshallmeanany“distinction,exclusionorrestrictionmadeonthe
basisofsex”whichhastheeffectof“impairingornullifyingtherecognition,enjoymentandexerciseby
women…ofhumanrightsandfundamentalfreedoms.”13Inaddition,Article1goesstillfurtherand
definesbothdirect,indirectdiscrimination,requiringstatesto“ensureequalityofopportunityand
result.”14
Article11,onemploymentandlaborrights,furtherdelineatesthatparties“shalltakeall
appropriatemeasurestoeliminatediscriminationagainstwomeninthefieldofemploymentinorder
toensure,onabasisofequalityofmenandwomen,thesamerights”andgoesontodescribeanumber
ofadditionalspecificrightsincludingtherighttoequalpay,maternityleave,andemployment
opportunities.15
9“BeijingDeclarationandPlatformforAction,”FourthWorldConferenceonWomen,September1995.http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/beijing/platform/10“MillenniumDevelopmentGoals,”MillenniumSummit,CommissionedbytheUNSecretary,September2000.http://www.unmillenniumproject.org/goals/11“ShortHistoryofCEDAWConvention.”UnitedNationsDepartmentofPublicInformation.1-2.http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/cedaw/history.htm
12“ShortHistoryofCEDAWConvention,”supraat1-2,n.1113Id.14Id.15Id.
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TheUnitedNationshasadoptedaninternationalstandardforhumanrightslawthatstipulates
whatequalpayforequalworkis.EqualpayforequalworkiscoveredbyArticle7oftheInternational
CovenantonEconomic,SocialandCulturalRights,16andArticle15ofAfricanCharteronHumanand
Peoples'Rights.17Specifically,Article7oftheInternationalCovenantonEconomic,SocialandCultural
Rightsstatesthat“eachmembershall,bymeansappropriatetothemethodsinoperationfor
determiningratesofremuneration,promoteand,insofarasisconsistentwithsuchmethods,ensure
theapplicationtoallworkersoftheprincipleofequalremunerationformenandwomenworkersfor
workofequalvalue.”18.
IV.CountryExamplesofDiscriminationAgainstWomen
ThefollowingcountrycasestudiesfromtheUnitedStates,IvoryCoast,India,andMexico
providevaluableinsightintothelegalframeworkandprevalenceofworkplacegenderdiscrimination
againstwomen.
A. UnitedStates
1. LegalFramework
TherearemanystudiesexaminingdiscriminationintheUnitedStates.19Thisdiscriminationexists
despitelawsthatseektoendgenderdiscriminationintheUnitedStates.20Discriminationinthe
workplaceisprohibitedbylawandenforcedbytheEqualEmploymentOpportunityCommission.21
TitleVIIoftheCivilRightsActof1964isafederallawthatrecognizestheprotectionofindividuals
fromdiscriminationbasedonsex.22Thislawmakesitillegalforanemployertodiscriminateagainst
individualsinhiring,firing,andothertermsandconditionsofemployment,suchaspromotions,raises,
16 “InternationalCovenantonEconomic,SocialandCulturalRights,”UnitedNationsGeneralAssembly,Article7,(Dec.1966).17“AfricanCharteronHumanandPeoples'Rights,”OrganizationofAfricanUnity,1979,Article15.18“InternationalCovenantonSocialEconomic,andCulturalRights,”UnitedNationsHumanRights,OfficeoftheHighCommissioner.Article7.http://www.ohchr.org/EN/ProfessionalInterest/Pages/CESCR.aspx 19“USMakesStridesTowardEquality,ButWorkRemains,”byMiaBush,VOANews,March8,2016,1-5.http://www.voanews.com/a/international-womens-day-us-women-gender-equality-work-remains/3223162.html20“Idat6.21“USEqualEmploymentCommission,”website,Statuessection.https://www.eeoc.gov/laws/statutes/22“TitleVIIoftheCivilRightsActof1964,”Preamble.https://www.eeoc.gov/laws/statutes/titlevii.cfm
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andotherjobopportunitiesbecauseoftheirsex.23Thelawsofmoststatesalsomakeitillegalto
discriminateonthebasisofsex.24TheEqualEmploymentOpportunityCommission(EEOC)isthe
agencyofthefederalgovernmentresponsibleforinvestigatingchargesofjobdiscriminationrelatedto
sexdiscriminationinworkplacesof15ormoreemployees.Moststatesalsohavetheirownagencies
thatenforcestatelawsagainstdiscrimination.25
Womenwhoarediscriminatedagainstunderthelawsofthestatesandfederalgovernmenthave
recoursetothecourts,butthisrequireshiringalawyerandgoingthroughthelegalprocess,whichis
expensive.26Barrierstoequalityincludelackofinformationabouttheirrights,potentialremediesand
theabilitytobringsuitsagainstpotentialviolationsduetoeconomichardship.27
2. GenderWorkplaceDiscrimination
Asignificantamountofresearchandstudyhasbeendoneonwomen’srightsand
discriminationagainstwomenintheUnitedStates.28Theresearchshowsthatdespitefarreaching
lawsandpublicpoliciesthatseektoaddressworkplacediscriminationwidespreaddiscriminationstill
existsbasedongenderintheworkplacesuchasunequalpay,interviewquestions,diminished
responsibilities,glassceiling.29Thefindingssuggestthattheworkisnotdoneandadvocatesmust
continuetopushfornewandinnovativewaystoaddressthegenderpaygap,andotherdiscriminatory
policies.30
TheUnitedStateshasmadegreatstridestocombatgenderdiscriminationsincethefirstwomen’s
Marchin1908.31Butacloserlookshowsthatwomenearnfarlessforthesameamongofwork,and
thisvariesgreatlywithlocation,arecommonlystuckinlow-wagejobs,andfacefargreaterbarriersto
23Idat1-10,n.2224“KnowYourRights:TitleVIIoftheCivilRightsActof1964.”AmericanAssociationofUniversityWomen(AAUW),website.http://www.aauw.org/what-we-do/legal-resources/know-your-rights-at-work/title-vii/25“Sex/GenderDiscrimination,”WorkplaceFairnesswebsite,1-10.http://www.workplacefairness.org/sexual-gender-discrimination26“SexualHarassment:LegalStandards,”WorkplaceFairnesswebsite,http://www.workplacefairness.org/sexual-harassment-legal-rights#9,1-3.27“SexualHarassment:LegalStandards,”note15.28Idat1-3,n.229Idat5-17,n.230Id.31Idat1-6,n.19
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careeradvancementthantheirmalecounterparts.32TheWorldEconomicForumindicatesthatthe
U.S.ranks28thoutof145countriesinannualworldrankingsfortheequalityofwomen,basedonan
economic,educational,health-basedandpoliticalindicators.33
B.IvoryCoast
1.LegalFramework
Article30oftheIvoirianConstitution—adoptedfollowingareferendumin2000—grantsequal
rightstowomenandArticle3commitsthestatetotakingappropriatemeasurestoensurethe
developmentofwomenandrealizationoftheirhumanrights.34Thecountryratified(CEDAW)in
1995,andin2012,itratifiedtheOptionalProtocolonviolenceagainstwomen.35TheIvoryCoasthas
alsosigned,butnotratified,theProtocoltotheAfricanCharteronHumanandPeoples’Rightsonthe
RightsofWomeninAfrica.”36
Thereareanumberofotherlaws,whichseektoaddressdiscrimination,buttherearemajor
loopholesandissueswiththeenforcementoftheselaws.37Reliablestatisticsarenotavailabledueto
twocivilwarsin2002and2010,butsubstantialtestimonyandanecdotalreportsgatheredbyHuman
RightsWatchandAmnestyInternationalindicatethatsuchgenderdiscriminationiswidespread.38
2. DiscriminationAgainstWomenintheWorkplace
“Overall,women’spositioninIvoiriansocietyremainslow,withmanysubjectedtodiscriminatory
practices,significantlylimitingthecapacityofwomentoplayanactiveroleinsociety,aswellas
32GarySiniscalco,LauriDamrell,andClaraMorainNabity.“ThePayGap,theGlassCeiling,andPayBias:MovingForwardFiftyYearsAftertheEqualPayAct,”ABAJournalofLaborandEmploymentLaw,Vol.29,Number3,Spring2014,1-5.33“GlobalGenderGapReport,”WorldEconomicForum,2016,onlinereport,UnitedStatesFindings,http://reports.weforum.org/global-gender-gap-report-2015/blogs-and-opinion/34“SocialInstitutionsandGenderIndex,”OECDDevelopmentCentre,2014,Coted’IvoireSummarySection,pg1.http://www.genderindex.org/country/cote-d03935“SocialInstitutionsandGenderIndex,”supraat1,n.3436Idat1,n.35
37“CommitteeontheEliminationofDiscriminationagainstWomenconsidersreportofCoted’Ivoire,”ReportfromtheUNCommitteeontheEliminationofDiscriminationagainstWomen,(Oct.2011),1-5,http://reliefweb.int/report/c%C3%B4te-divoire/committee-elimination-discrimination-against-women-considers-report-c%C3%B4te-d38“CommitteeontheEliminationofDiscriminationagainstWomenconsidersreportofCoted’Ivoire,”supraat1-5,n.37
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representingviolationsoftheirhumanrights,”accordingtoareportbyOECDDevelopmentCenter.39
However,thereislimiteddataavailablewithregardtoworkplacediscriminationagainstwomeninthe
IvoryCoast.TheNationalCommitteetoCombatViolenceAgainstWomenandChildrenrankstheIvory
Coast136thinthegenderinequalityindexpertheUNDP2011gender-relateddevelopmentindex.40
Thislowrankingcomesdespitethefactthatthecountryhasratifiedseveralinternationalandregional
conventionsonequaldignityandrightsforallcitizens.Inthatreport,CEDAWCommitteehasnoted
“whiletherearealmostequalrightsformenandwomen,nointerestisgiventogenderandwomen
empowermentissuesintheimplementationofnationalpolicies”.41Culturalfactorsperpetuate
traditionsthatareharmfulwomen,whichareusetojustifydiscriminationinworkplace.42
C. Mexico
1. Legalframework
Inaccordancewithinternationalstandards,Mexicohasenactedaseriesoflawsthatpromote
genderequalityincludingequalpayforequalworklaws,maternitylaws,andequalopportunitylaws.43
InOctober2015,theMinistryofLaborandSocialWelfare,togetherwiththeNationalInstitutefor
WomenandtheNationalCounciltoPreventDiscrimination,publishedtheMexicanStandardonEqual
EmploymentOpportunitiesandNon-discrimination.44Thestandardisnon-bindingbutis“intendedto
serveasaguidelinetoensurecompliancewithnationalandinternationallawsonemployment
discrimination,”accordingtoapublicationbytheInternationalLawOffice.45
39Idat1,n.3540“BeingaWomaninCoted’Ivoire:EmpowermentChallenges,”AbidjanCountryOfficeGenderConsultationsReportSummary,WorldBank,June2013,3.http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/263671468243906965/pdf/797440WP0Cote00Box0379789B00PUBLIC0.pdf41“CommitteeontheEliminationofDiscriminationagainstWomenconsidersreportofCoted’Ivoire,”supra11,n.37
42Idat4,8-9n.3743“NewStandardIssuedonEqualEmploymentOpportunitiesandNon-Discrimination,”InternationalLawOffice,(Dec.2015),pgs.1-3.http://www.internationallawoffice.com/Newsletters/Employment-Benefits/Mexico/Santamarina-y-Steta/New-standard-issued-on-equal-employment-opportunities-and-non-discrimination44“NewStandardIssuedonEqualEmploymentOpportunitiesandNon-Discrimination,”supraat1,n.4345Idat1,n.43
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UndertheMexicanConstitution,menandwomenareequalbeforethelawandallcitizenshavethe
freedomtoworkinalawfulprofessionoftheirchoice.46TheConstitutionalsoenumeratesanumber
ofequalrights,regardlessofgender,includingthepreventionofdiscriminationagainstworking
mothers.47MexicanFederalLaborLawalsostatesthatemployeesperformingequalworkmust
receiveequalpay.48
DespitetheseConstitutionalandfederalprotections,genderdiscriminationinemploymentpersists
inMexico.49Overthepastfewyears,theMexicangovernmenthasconsideredvariousproposalsto
furtherreformthecountry’slaborlaws.OnNovember29,2012,departingMexicanPresidentFelipe
deJesúsCalderónsignedacomprehensivereformofMexico’sFederalLaborLaw(FLL),instituting
morethan300changes,effectiveDecember1,2012.50Mexico’sgovernmentstatedthatthepurposeof
thisbillistoincreaseproductivityandbetterpayingjobs,whilealsoallowinggreateremployment
accessforwomenandyoungerworkers.TheamendmentsalignMexicowithinternationalanti-
discriminationandharassmentstandardsbyexpresslyprohibitingdiscriminationonthebasisof
ethnicorigin,nationality,disability,healthconditions,religion,immigrationconditions,opinions,
sexualpreferenceorcivilstatus.ThisisimportantbecauseemployersinMexicoareprohibitedfrom
requestingpregnancytestsasahiringcondition,andtheycannotrequireawomantoresigndueto
pregnancyorchangeofcivilstatus.51
2.DiscriminationAgainstWomenintheWorkplace
GenderinequalityinMexicohasbeendiminishingthroughouthistory,butcontinuestopersistin
manyforms.Asof2016,theWorldEconomicForumrankedMexico66thintermsofgenderequality
outof144countries.52InMexico,26percentofwomenreportedlabordiscriminationin2015.53 The
46PaulHastings,“GenderParity:Mexico,”pgs.1-2.https://www.paulhastings.com/genderparity/countries/mexico.html47“1917ConstitutionofMexico,”Articles4-5.https://www.oas.org/juridico/mla/en/mex/en_mex-int-text-const.pdf48PaulHastings,supraat1-2,n.4649“Mexico:29%to42%ofWomenSufferSomeWorkplaceViolence,”LaJornada,10December2015,pgs.1-2.50DianaJ.Nehro,“MexicoLaborReformIncreasesProtectionforEmployeesandClarityforEmployers,”publishedbyOgletree,Deakins,Nash,Smoak&Stewart,Feb12,2013,pgs.1-3.51DianaJ.Nehro,supraat1-3,n.5052“TheGlobalGenderGapReport2016,”WorldEconomicForum,OnlineSummaryandFullReport,2016.http://reports.weforum.org/global-gender-gap-report-2016/
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lawprovideswomenthesamelegalstatusandrightsasmenand“equalpayforequalworkperformed
inequaljobs,hoursofwork,andconditionsofefficiency.”AccordingtoElInstitutoNacionaldelas
Mujeres(INMUJERES),Mexicanwomencontinuedtoearnbetween5and30percentlessthanmenfor
comparablework,whereastheWorldEconomicForumreportedwomenearned43percentlessthan
menforcomparablework.Womenweremorelikelytoexperiencediscriminationinwages,working
hours,andbenefits.54
Anexpert,PatriciaEspinosa,PresidentoftheNationalInstituteforMexicanWomen,statesthat
despitesignificantstepstakenbythegovernmentofMexicotofulfillitscommitmentsunderthe
ConventiononAllFormsofDiscriminationagainstWomen“discriminationagainstwomenremaineda
constantthatviolatedtheprinciplesofequalityandrespectforhumandignityandprofoundly
influencedthatdevelopmentofMexicansociety.”55ThekeychallengesofthecurrentAdministration
includefosteringacultureofnon-violence,bringingjudicialpracticeinlinewithinternational
instrumentsconcerningprotectionandpromotionofwomen’srights,motivatingchangesinsexistand
discriminatorypractices;andincorporatingagenderapproachintopublicspendingandbudgeting.56
D. India
1. LegalFramework
TheConstitutionofIndiahasseveralprovisions,whichgrantcertainfundamentalrightstoits
citizens,whichincludesrighttoequalityunderthelaw.Article14oftheConstitution,which
“guaranteesequalitybeforelaw”,andArticle15“prohibitsstatefromdiscriminationonthegrounds
sex,”bothapplytothepublicsectorwhichhiresthemostwomen.57TheEqualRemunerationActof
1976statesthatitisthedutyofemployerstopayequalremunerationtomenandwomenworkersfor
thesameworkorworkofasimilarnature.58Section5oftheActprohibitsemployersfromformulating
53“Mexico:29%to42%ofWomenSufferSomeWorkplaceViolence,”supraat1-2,n.4954HumanRightsReport,Mexico2015,page20,citetoINMUREJES.55“MexicanWomenStillFaceDiscrimination,DespiteSignificantSteps,CommitteeTold,”UnitedNationsArchives,PressRelease,2002,pg.1.56Idat1-3,n.5057“India:TheLegalFrameworkforWomenandWork,”CatalystInformationCenter,October2012,1-3,citetoconstitution.58“EqualRemunerationAct,1976,”ArticleII.http://labour.gov.in/sites/default/files/equal_remuneration_act_1976_1.pdf
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ahiringprocessthatputswomenatadisadvantageonaccountoftheirgenderwithrespecttohiring,
compensation,transfers,andpromotions.However,“discriminationonthebasisofsexisnot
prohibitedunderthelawforthoseinvolvedintheprivatesector,thelawchangedbelow.”
Discriminationintheprivatesectoroftencomesintheformofrefusingtograntajob,ordismissing
womenfromajobwhensheisfoundtobepregnant.59In2005,theNationalCommissionforWomen
draftedabillentitled.“TheprotectionofwomenfromDomesticviolencerules”,ofwhichaversion
finallypassedintheLokSabhain2012.60Thebilliscelebratedforthecontentsofthepreamble,which
statesthatsexualharassmentisaviolationofwomen’sfundamentalrights.61Thebillalsooutlinesa
uniformprocedureforconductinginquiriesintocomplaintsofsexualharassmentacrossaverywide
rangeofemployersincludinggovernment,armedforces,privateorganizedsectoraswellasthe
unorganizedsector.62Inshort,thebillenvisionsthateveryworkplaceshouldhaveaforumtotakeup
complaintspertainingtosexualharassment.63
GenderjusticehasbecomeaburningissueinIndiawithinthelastdecade,particularlyinlight
oftheincreasedfocusbynon-Governmentalorganizationsandwomen’sgroups.64“Themajorityof
employersstilldonothaveComplaintsCommitteesestablished.Apartfromafewpublicsectorbodies,
universities,andsomelargeprivatecompanies,ComplaintsCommitteeshavenotbeensetupona
largescale”.65Theyareoftensetupquicklyandevenwhentheyaresetuptheyremainlargelynon-
activismwithmanyjusticesgivingincreasedimportancetotherightsofwomen.66
Vishakhav.StateofRajasthanisanIndianSupremeCourtlandmarkcaseonwomen
discriminationonAugust13,1997,whereVishakhaandotherwomengroupsfiledPublicInterest
59“PregnancyRemainsaCurseforWorkingWomeninCorporateIndia,”QuartzIndia,April17,2015,1-3.https://qz.com/385866/pregnancy-remains-a-curse-for-working-women-in-corporate-india/60RameshaNiratanka,“GenderDiscriminationattheWorkplace,”(Jan.2016),pg.4.https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/gender-discrimination-workplace-ramesha-niratanka61RameshaNiratanka,supraat4,n.6062Idat4,n.6063Idat5,n.6064RajaniSuresh,Dr.SambaturScridharandSnehaS.Kairanna.“ASystemsApproachtoCombatWorkplaceSexualHarassment,”IOSRJournalofHumanitiesandSocialScience,(Oct.2014),pgs.29-36.65“ASystemsApproachtoCombatWorkplaceSexualHarassment,”supraat5,n.6466Idat5,n.64
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Litigation(PIL)againstStateofRajasthanandUnionofIndiatoenforcethefundamentalrightsof
workingwomenunderArticles14,19and21oftheConstitutionofIndia.Thecourtdecidedthatthe
considerationof"InternationalConventionsandnormsaresignificantforthepurposeof
interpretationoftheguaranteeofgenderequality,righttoworkwithhumandignityinArticles14,15,
19(1)(g)and21oftheConstitution."67
2. DiscriminationAgainstWomenintheWorkplace
Despitelegalprotections,discriminationagainstwomenintheworkplacepersistsinIndia.Arecent
pollbyOpportunityNow,whichsurveyedmorethan25,000womenfoundthatalmostone-fifthof
womensurveyedsaidtheircareershavestalledbecausemanagersfailedtopromotethemoroffer
trainingopportunities.68AccordingtoasurveymadebyTeamLease,some48%ofIndianswomen
havefacedsomekindofdiscriminationattheworkplace.69Thisisdespitethelawsthatmakecertain
typesofdiscriminationillegalsuchasequalremunerationanddiscriminationduetopregnancy.70
IV.PotentialSolutions
Ashasbeendiscussed,discriminationagainstwomenintheworkplaceremainsacriticalissue,even
inwhatarewidelyperceivetobe“progressive”societiessuchastheUnitedStates.Thecausesrun
deepandtouchtheveryfabricofsocietyandunderlyingtheeconomicproblemsthatarethecauseof
somuchstrifeintheworld.Mostcountrieshavesomesortofconstitutionalprotection,whichpromise
equaltreatmentunderthelawaswellasspecificlawsoutlawingspecifictypesofdiscriminationinthe
workplacebasedongender.Theselawsarebynomeansuniform,andenforcementvariesfromspotty
tonon-existent.ForexampleasdiscussedintheMexico,IvoryCoast,andIndiacountrysections,
significantloopholesstillexistbothinthelegaldefinitionsandtheabilitytobringcomplaintspursuant
67Vishakav.StatesofRajasthanandothers(1997SupremeCourt3011),citetoConstitution,Articles24,29,21.hpps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/vishaka-guidelines68“ManyWomenFaceDiscriminationattheWorkplace,”TimesofIndia,(Feb.2014),1-3.http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/life-style/relationships/work/Many-women-face-discrimination-at-workplace/articleshow/28186529.cms69“WorkplaceBiasesStillRampantinIndia:TeamLeaseStudy,”PRIPress,(Aug.2013)1-2.http://nripress.com/workplace-biases-still-rampant-in-india-teamlease-study/70“Idat1-2.
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totheselegalprotections.Thus,thereisstillalotofroomforimprovementinthewayoflegislative
protectionsthatseektotackletheproblem.Legislatingalonewillnotsolvetheproblemandmay
resultinaproblemwherelawsareonthebooksthatarerarelyenforcedduetosocialnormsandlack
ofenforcementpowersandmechanisms.Withthatsaid,basedontheliteratureandlegalframework,
thereexistssignificantlegalprecedentinmostcountriesthatcanbefurtherutilizedtobuiltuponand
addresstheissue.
Therealsoexistsomeinnovativesolutionsthatworkacrosscountries,whichcouldbepursuedina
moreuniformbasisaroundtheworld.71Forexample,theprivatesectorneedstotakesome
responsibilityforcombattingworkforcediscrimination,particularlysinceitisintheirfinancial
interesttodoso.72Workplacepoliciesneedtobeenactedtosetguidelinesfordiscriminationaswell
asremedieswhentheirguidelinesarebroken.73Fundinganddedicatedenforcementunitsalsoneed
tobecreatedeitheraspartofgovernmentorinmajorcorporationstohandlesuchcomplaints.There
aresomelimitsregardingtheextenttowhichworkplacediscriminationagainstwomencanbe
addressedinthepoliticalareaduetolackofpoliticalwill.Itwilltakealotoftimetoorganize,but
majorwomen’sorganizationsandfoundationscouldlookatrunningbroadscalepublicinformation
campaignstofurtherraiseawarenessoftheissueandspurpoliticalaction.Inaddition,discrimination
andworkplacebarrierstoequalityarecommonlylinkedtowidespreadpoverty,economicstrife,and
lackofaneducationsystemthatpromotesupwardmobility.74
Eachcountryandstatepartystartsinadifferentplacebasedonitssocioeconomicandpolitical
conditions,aswellasitssocietalnorms.Therefore,thesolutionsmustlargelybestateorcountry-
specific.Thereisavastbodyoflegaldefinitions,guidelines,conventions,andprecedentthatcanbe
usedtoenactbetterlaws,improveexistinglaws,andcloseloopholes.75Butthereismuchroomfor
innovativeapproachesbasedonthespecificsocioeconomicconditions,andpoliticalconsiderations71“ABCofWomen’sWorkerRightsandGenderEquality,”InternationalLaborOrganization,UnitedNations,pgs.20-30.72“PregnancyRemainsaCurseforWorkingWomeninCorporateIndia,”Supranote59,pgs.1-3.73Dr.ArundhatiBhattacharyya.“IndianWomenintheWorkplace,”MediterraneanJournalofSocialSciences,July2015,121.74“SocialInstitutionsandGenderIndex,”supraat1,n.3475“ABCofWomen’sWorkerRightsandGenderEquality,”Supranote71.
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thatexistinthecountry.Recentworldwidewomen’smarchesandeventsheldinJanuary2017,
particularlyinresponsetosomeofPresidentTrump’spositionsonwomen’sissues,demonstratethat
thereisasignificantdesiretoaddresswomen’sissues,includingworkplacediscrimination,fromthe
generalpopulace.76Effortstoaddressworkplacediscriminationmustalsotakerelatedissuesinto
accountsuchaseconomicopportunity,prevalenceofpoverty,andeducationaladvancement.
Conclusion
Thisresearchhassoughttoprovideanintroductionandsummaryoftheworldwideissueof
workplacediscriminationbasedongenderespeciallywomen.Wehaveseenthatthisisanextremely
broadandcomplicatedtopic.Furthermore,onaglobalscalediscriminationagainstwomenisstilla
seriousissuethatmeritsattentioninthesocietyingeneral.Eachcountryandsocietyhasit’sown
uniquehistoryontheissuewhichexplainstheprevalenceandnatureoftheproblemwithinits
borders.
ExaminationofemploymentbasedgenderdiscriminationintheUnitedStates,IvoryCoast,Mexico,
andIndiagasshownthateachcountryisinitsownuniqueplaceandgasitsownuniquesetof
circumstancesthatreformersmuchacknowledgeandunderstand.
76“Women’sMarchHighlightsasHugeCrowdsProtestTrump,”NewYorkTimes,January21,2017.https://www.nytimes.com/2017/01/21/us/womens-march.html