discovery of the higgs boson - tata institute of...
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Discovery of the Higgs BosonBefore, during and after
Amol DigheDepartment of Theoretical Physics
Tata Institute of Fundamental Research
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Outline
1 What is the Standard Model ?
2 Why did we need a Higgs boson ?
3 How the Higgs was found
4 After the Higgs discovery: what now?
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Outline
1 What is the Standard Model ?
2 Why did we need a Higgs boson ?
3 How the Higgs was found
4 After the Higgs discovery: what now?
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Zooming on the elementary particles
Atom→ nucleus→ proton/neutron→ quarks
Atom→ electrons
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Describing forces between particles
Why do electrons go around the nucleus ?Electromagnetic forceWhat keeps quarks bound inside the nucleus ?Strong nuclear forceWhat causes radioactive beta decay of the nucleus ?Weak nuclear force
Elementary particles and Fundamental forcesThat is the Standard Model of Particle Physics !
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Describing forces between particles
Why do electrons go around the nucleus ?Electromagnetic forceWhat keeps quarks bound inside the nucleus ?Strong nuclear forceWhat causes radioactive beta decay of the nucleus ?Weak nuclear force
Elementary particles and Fundamental forcesThat is the Standard Model of Particle Physics !
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Explaining nature using particles and forces
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The Standard Model of Particle Physics: June 2012
γ: EMg(8) : strongW±,Z : weak
We observeall theseparticles !
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Fermions and bosons
Enrico Fermi
Fermions:Spin 1/2, 3/2, ...Similar particles cannotstay togetherQuarks, leptons(e.g. electrons)
Satyendra Nath Bose
Bosons:Spin 0, 1, 2, ...Similar particles liketo stay togetherForce carriers, Higgs(e.g. photons)
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Masses of the particles
1 GeV ≈ proton massAll fermions have massesPhoton and gluons masslessW± and Z have large masses (∼ 100× proton mass)
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Outline
1 What is the Standard Model ?
2 Why did we need a Higgs boson ?
3 How the Higgs was found
4 After the Higgs discovery: what now?
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Why do we expect a new particle: understanding atom
To understand cathode rays(electrons)To explain the substructure of a particle(u and d quarks for proton and neutron properties)
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Why do we expect a new particle: 1935-1970
For explaining radioactive beta decay(electron neutrino)Some particles come completely unexpected(muon, muon neutrino, strange quark)To explain the absence of some reactions(charmed quark)
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Why do we expect a new particle: 1975-2000
To allow for matter-antimatter asymmetry(quarks from the third family)For completing the family pattern(leptons from the third family)
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Why did we expect a Higgs ?
The most common answerTo give masses to elementary particles
The most natural questionBut why cannot the particles just have masses to begin with ?Why can “mass” not be an intrinsic property of a particle ?
This is not a philosophical question, but a scientific one.
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Why did we expect a Higgs ?
The most common answerTo give masses to elementary particles
The most natural questionBut why cannot the particles just have masses to begin with ?Why can “mass” not be an intrinsic property of a particle ?
This is not a philosophical question, but a scientific one.
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Symmetry: foundation of the Standard Model
Symmetries allow us to describe things in a compact form
Gauge symmetry: changes in the descriptions of particlesthat do not change the final observations
Very powerful principle: when you identify the Gaugesymmetry, you can predict all interactions
We have tested and confirmed the Standard Modelthrough thousands of experiments !
Gauge symmetry is extremely important: like the conservationof energy and momentum. Cannot throw it away !
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Symmetry: foundation of the Standard Model
Symmetries allow us to describe things in a compact form
Gauge symmetry: changes in the descriptions of particlesthat do not change the final observations
Very powerful principle: when you identify the Gaugesymmetry, you can predict all interactions
We have tested and confirmed the Standard Modelthrough thousands of experiments !
Gauge symmetry is extremely important: like the conservationof energy and momentum. Cannot throw it away !
![Page 19: Discovery of the Higgs Boson - Tata Institute of ...theory.tifr.res.in/~amol/talks/popular/2012/amol-higgs.pdfThe most common answer To give masses to elementary particles The most](https://reader034.vdocuments.us/reader034/viewer/2022042219/5ec4ecddc976db754b7fd2f2/html5/thumbnails/19.jpg)
Symmetry: foundation of the Standard Model
Symmetries allow us to describe things in a compact form
Gauge symmetry: changes in the descriptions of particlesthat do not change the final observations
Very powerful principle: when you identify the Gaugesymmetry, you can predict all interactions
We have tested and confirmed the Standard Modelthrough thousands of experiments !
Gauge symmetry is extremely important: like the conservationof energy and momentum. Cannot throw it away !
![Page 20: Discovery of the Higgs Boson - Tata Institute of ...theory.tifr.res.in/~amol/talks/popular/2012/amol-higgs.pdfThe most common answer To give masses to elementary particles The most](https://reader034.vdocuments.us/reader034/viewer/2022042219/5ec4ecddc976db754b7fd2f2/html5/thumbnails/20.jpg)
Symmetry: foundation of the Standard Model
Symmetries allow us to describe things in a compact form
Gauge symmetry: changes in the descriptions of particlesthat do not change the final observations
Very powerful principle: when you identify the Gaugesymmetry, you can predict all interactions
We have tested and confirmed the Standard Modelthrough thousands of experiments !
Gauge symmetry is extremely important: like the conservationof energy and momentum. Cannot throw it away !
![Page 21: Discovery of the Higgs Boson - Tata Institute of ...theory.tifr.res.in/~amol/talks/popular/2012/amol-higgs.pdfThe most common answer To give masses to elementary particles The most](https://reader034.vdocuments.us/reader034/viewer/2022042219/5ec4ecddc976db754b7fd2f2/html5/thumbnails/21.jpg)
Symmetry: foundation of the Standard Model
Symmetries allow us to describe things in a compact form
Gauge symmetry: changes in the descriptions of particlesthat do not change the final observations
Very powerful principle: when you identify the Gaugesymmetry, you can predict all interactions
We have tested and confirmed the Standard Modelthrough thousands of experiments !
Gauge symmetry is extremely important: like the conservationof energy and momentum. Cannot throw it away !
![Page 22: Discovery of the Higgs Boson - Tata Institute of ...theory.tifr.res.in/~amol/talks/popular/2012/amol-higgs.pdfThe most common answer To give masses to elementary particles The most](https://reader034.vdocuments.us/reader034/viewer/2022042219/5ec4ecddc976db754b7fd2f2/html5/thumbnails/22.jpg)
So what’s the problem ?
Implications of Gauge symmetry
Fundamental particles (fermions) need to be masslessForce carriers (Gauge bosons) need to be masslessWeak interactions need to be long range
ObservationsFundamental particles (quarks, leptons) have massesPhoton and gluon massless, but W±,Z have large massesWeak interactions are short-range, confined to the nucleus
A consistency problem !
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So what’s the problem ?
Implications of Gauge symmetry
Fundamental particles (fermions) need to be masslessForce carriers (Gauge bosons) need to be masslessWeak interactions need to be long range
ObservationsFundamental particles (quarks, leptons) have massesPhoton and gluon massless, but W±,Z have large massesWeak interactions are short-range, confined to the nucleus
A consistency problem !
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So what’s the problem ?
Implications of Gauge symmetry
Fundamental particles (fermions) need to be masslessForce carriers (Gauge bosons) need to be masslessWeak interactions need to be long range
ObservationsFundamental particles (quarks, leptons) have massesPhoton and gluon massless, but W±,Z have large massesWeak interactions are short-range, confined to the nucleus
A consistency problem !
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The proposed solution
Anderson - Higgs - Kibble, Guralnik, Hagen, Englert, Brout
“Spontaneous symmetry breaking” mechanism can givemasses to Gauge bosons: Anderson 1962For weak interactions, this mechanism gives rise to anelementary particle: Higgs+, 1964“Higgs boson” name given by Benjamin Lee, 1966
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Higgs field, particle mass and Higgs boson
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The Goddamn particle
Proposed in 1964, not found till 1992(and took 30 more years)
Leon Lederman wrote the book “The Goddamn Particle”“.. the publisher wouldn’t let us call it theGoddamn Particle, though that might be a moreappropriate title, given its villainous nature andthe expense it is causing.”
The publisher changed the title to “The God particle”
The book sold a lot of copies
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And the Higgs boson was found in 2012 !
H → γγ H → ZZ ∗ → ````
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Outline
1 What is the Standard Model ?
2 Why did we need a Higgs boson ?
3 How the Higgs was found
4 After the Higgs discovery: what now?
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LHC accelerator and detectors
Some numbersAccelerator: 27 km circumferenceProton-proton collision Energy: 8000 GeVCollisions per second: 20 MillionsTotal Number of Collisions: 1015 (a thousand trillion)
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The CERN tunnel
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The CMS collaboration (where India participates)
Some numbers3600 physicists, engineers, students183 institutes, 38 countriesDetector weight: 12500 tonsDiameter: 15 m, length: 22 m
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Detection of particles: CMS
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Assembly of the detector: CMS
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Inside the detector: ATLAS
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Inside the detector: ATLAS
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Inside the detector: ATLAS
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A typical proton-proton collision event
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How is Higgs produced ?
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Detecting Higgs through its decays
H → γγ H → ZZ ∗ → ````
Other modes: H →WW , H → bb̄, H → t t̄
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Main problem: signal vs background
Number of Higgs events: a few lakhNumber of background events: 1000 trillions
Even after removing background using particle identificationtechniques, a lot of background still stays
Are we sure this peak isnot a statisticalfluctuation ?
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Statistical significance of signals
Statistical significance shows the confidence in a statementThe sun will rise tomorrow: 100%The coin will land heads up: 50%It will rain in the next hour: ?
Statical Confidencesignificance level
1 sigma 68.3 %2 sigma 95.45%3 sigma 99.73%4 sigma 99.994 %5 sigma 99.999942%
5 sigma is taken to be discovery
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Outline
1 What is the Standard Model ?
2 Why did we need a Higgs boson ?
3 How the Higgs was found
4 After the Higgs discovery: what now?
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Is this the Higgs of the Standard Model ?
Looks and waltks, but does it quack ?
Is it, perhaps, a part of a new theory beyond the StandardModel, like Supersymmetry or Extra dimensions ?
Only more experiments will give the answer
LHC may discover new particles from these new theories,or we may need new specialized experiments
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Other open problems in particle physics
Masses of neutrinos
Matter-antimatter asymmetry
Dark matter and dark energy: make 96% of the universe
Grand Unification of all forces (including gravity)
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Another perspective on this result
A triumph of theory and experiment !
Thousands of people from more than 45 countries, manyof whom would never meet each other in their lives, workedfor more than 20 years towards a common goal andsucceeded.
This is a great achievement of mankind and globalcollaborative nature of science, and we all should be proudof it