discourse theory

DISCOURSE THEORY

04/11/2023 LANGUAGE THEORIES: Discourse Theory 2


Definitions of Discourse

• a conversation or text

• collection of texts or conversations

• a shared way of talking or creating texts (code)

• codes, languages, ways of speaking of a topic- Dictionary definitions


Definitions of Discourse

any connected piece of speaking or writing- Cambridge Delta


What is Discourse?

• “While it used to be generally held that mere exposure to language is sufficient to set the child’s language generating machinery in motion, it is now clear that , in order for successful first language acquisition to take place, interaction, rather than exposure is required; children do not learn language from overhearing the conversations of others or from listening to the radio, and must, acquire it in the context of being spoken to.”

- J. Berko-Gleason


Discourse Analysis

• Analysis of the function of language

• Language is more than just a sentence-level phenomenon


Discourse Analysis

the study of how the separate ‘bits’ of language which make up the discourse are connected in such a way that the discourse makes sense. And if it doesn’t make sense, discourse analysis enables us to find out why.

- Cambridge Delta


What is Discourse Analysis?

‘I only said “if”!’ poor Alice pleaded in a piteous tone.

The two Queens looked at each other, and the Red Queen remarked, with a little shudder, ‘She says she only said “if” –’

‘But she said a great deal more than that!’ the White Queen moaned, wringing her hands. ‘Oh, ever so much more than that!’- Lewis Carroll: Through the Looking Glass


Discourse Theory

• proposes that in our daily activities, the way we speak and write is shaped by the structures of power in our society, and that because our society is defined by struggle and conflict our discourses reflect and create conflicts. - Foucault, Althusser, PUcheux and Hindess and Hirst


Discourse Theory

• The idea that language learning evolves out of learning how to carry on conversations


Discourse Theory

• It follows from a theory of language use, in which communication is treated as the matrix of linguistic knowledge: that language development should be considered in terms of how the learner discovers the potential meaning of language as he participates in communication


CLARE: It’s not dewberry.SAM: Urgh, it’s horrible.CLARE: It’s not dewberry. It’s white musk.SAM: So it doesn’t mean to say it can’t be

horrible does it? Huh. Don’t spray it on my face.

CLARE: I’m not. I’m spraying it on my hand so you can smell it . . .

SAM: It smells of . . .CLARE: It’s quite nice.SAM: Hang on, let’s smell. Mm. I can smell

something funny now now.CLARE: I think I’ve broken Mum’s hair–drier.SAM: How?CLARE: Don’t know. It doesn’t work any more.SAM: What’s this? Is – is this the travel soc thing?CLARE: Ahh. It’s awful. Don’t have a look?SAM: Is it the travel soc thing?CLARE: No, it’s not the travel soc.

- Beth Sims’ unpublished data, 1992


Discourse Theory

• FLA is related to this theory.• Halliday (1975) studied his own child and

concluded that the development of formal linguistic devices grows out of the interpersonal uses to which language is put.


Discourse Theory

• As Cherry (1979) puts it:

Through communicating with other people,

children accomplish actions in the world

and develop the rules of language structure

and use.


Main PrinciplesI. SLA follows a natural route in syntactical development


Main PrinciplesI. SLA follows a natural route . . . (cont’n)

SLA followed a universal route in syntactical development largely uninfluenced by:

- learner’s age- context of learning- learner’s L1 background



SLA controlling factor: faculty for language that all human beings possess and which is also responsible for L1 acquisition



To establish the existence of the natural route in SLA, the following research studies were made:

a) cross-sectional research

b) longitudinal studies



a) cross-sectional research - morpheme studies were carried out to investigate the order of a range of

grammatical functions in the speech of L2 learners

Standard order reported was different from the order of morpheme acquisition for L1 acquisition.



b) longitudinal studies- tried to account for the gradual growth of competence in terms of the strategies

learned by a L2L at different development points



b) longitudinal studies(cont’n)- All L2 learners pass through:

1. basic syntax (arrangement of words)

2. variant word order (rearrange words)

3. morphological development (word formation)

4. complex sentence structure (complex sentences)


Main PrinciplesII. Native speakers adjust their speech in order to negotiate

meaning with non-native speakers


Main PrinciplesII. Native speakers adjust their speech in order to negotiate meaning . .

. (cont’n)

emphasizes interaction and discourse

Characterized by modifications in both:a) Inputb) Discourse



. (cont’n)

a) Input - exaggerated enunciation, greater overall loudness, the use of full forms rather than contractions



. (cont’n)

b) Discourse – expansions, repetitions, classifications, paraphrasing and topic simplification

NS role: to enable the NNS to communicate NNS role: to use various strategies in the

negotiation of meaning



. (cont’n)

Together, the NS and NNS strive to overcome the communicative difficulties which are always likely to arise as a result of the learner’s limited L2 resources.



. (cont’n)

The negotiation of meaning between the NS and NNS makes the INPUT more comprehensible.



. (cont’n)


Main PrinciplesIII. Conversational strategies used to negotiate meaning, and

the resulting adjusted input influence SLA in a number of ways


Main PrinciplesIII. Conversational strategies used to negotiate meaning, and

the resulting adjusted input influence SLA in a number of ways: (cont’n)


Main PrinciplesIII. Conversational strategies used to negotiate meaning,

and the resulting adjusted input . . . (cont’n)

1) The learner learns the grammar of the L2 in the same order as the frequency order of the various features in the input

Simply put, the first structures that the L2 learner acquires are those that s/he is exposed to most frequently.




2) The learner acquires commonly occurring formulas and then later analyzes these into their component parts.




3) The learner is helped to construct sentences vertically. Learner utterances are constructed by borrowing chunks of speech from the preceding discourse.


Main PrinciplesIV. The natural route is the result of learning

how to hold conversations

This is the strongest claim for the role of interaction in SLA.



how to hold conversations (cont’n)

It emphasizes the role of the linguistic environment, which is shaped jointly by the L2 learner and the native speaker in discourse, and plays down the role of internal processing factors.




Hatch (1978)suggest that interaction determines the route of SLA. He adds:

“One learns how to do conversations, one learns how to interact verbally,and out of this interaction, syntactic structures are developed.”




The learner is convinced to communicate and it is by learning to do this that s/he systematically acquires L2 grammar.


CONVERSATION: A Mode of Discourse

Conversations are cooperative ventures.- Hatch and Long


Rules of Conversation


Rules of Conversation1) Attention getting

2) Topic nomination

3) Topic development

4) Topic shifting and avoidance

5) Topic termination



1) Attention getting



Have the attention of the hearer or the audience


Rules of Conversation1) Attention getting (cont’n)

Attention-getting conventions within each language (verbal and nonverbal) , need to be carefully assimilated by learners.


Rules of Conversation2) Topic nomination

H.P. Grice noted that certain conversational maxims enable the speaker to nominate and maintain a topic of conversation .


Rules of Conversation2) Topic nomination (cont’n)



Say only what is TRUE




Say only what is RELEVANT





Say only as MUCH as necessary





Say only as MUCH as necessary

Be CLEAR


Rules of Conversation3) Topic development


Rules of Conversation3) Topic development

Use conventions of turn-taking to accomplish various functions of language.


Rules of Conversation3) Topic development (cont’n)

It involves clarification, shifting, avoidance, and interruption.


Rules of Conversation4) Topic termination

An art that even native speakers of a language have difficulty in mastering at times


Rules of Conversation4) Topic termination (cont’n)



Each language has verbal and non-verbal signals for termination


Implications to Language Learning and Teaching

Encourage interaction among learners.



“As one learns how to do conversation, one learns how to interact verbally, and out of this interaction, syntactic structures are developed.”



Be aware of the Rules of Conversation.



Create situations that will allow interaction and communication.


Bottomline

• For a child to learn a second language, allow her/him to engage or participate in meaningful communication.


Conclusion

• Schumann and Giles are interested in explaining the rate of SLA and the level of proficiency achieved, Hatch is interested in explaining how SLA takes place.


Conclusion

• The Discourse Theory does not address the nature of the learner strategies responsible for SLA.


Conclusion

• When Hatch talks of processes, she means external processes – those which can be observed in face-to-face interaction – not internal processes, those that can only be inferred by observing how learners perform


References

• Ellis, Rod. Understanding Second Language Acquisition• Macdonnell, Diane. Theories of Discourse: An Introduction• Pohlman, Craig. Revealing Minds• Hatch, Evelyn. Second Language Acquisition• Brown, Douglas. Principles of Language Learning and Teaching• www.camebridgedelta.org• www.slideshare.net• Images from:

– www.flickr.com, www.google.com, www.dogpile.com, www.istockphoto.com, personal file

http://www.camebridgedelta.org/

http://www.slideshare.net/

http://www.flickr.com/

http://www.google.com/

http://www.dogpile.com/

http://www.istockphoto.com/

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