directorate for human capital unclassified islam in rural afghanistan: this presentation is...

Directorate for Human Capital

Unclassified

Islam in Rural Afghanistan:

This presentation is Unclassified

Instructor: Ms. Lyla Kohistany


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Why Culture and Religion Matter

Maulvi Qayamuddin Kashaf, Leader of the Afghan Ulema Council

(Photo: Pajhwok Afghan News)

“The issue of desecration cannot be resolved with apologies. Those behind the tragic

incident must be punished and sent to jail,…we Afghans have rendered countless sacrifices to protect our religion, with millions embracing

martyrdom and suffering disabilities during jihad against the Soviet occupation army!”


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Learning Objectives TLO#1: Understand the basic tenets of Islam and how they manifest

in rural Afghanistan

TLO#2: Understand how Islam was once in balance with rural Afghan Society (Musahiban Dynasty) and the presenters perspective on how this could be again

TLO#3: Understand the historical role of Islam within the context of Pashtun society and its place within Pashtunwali

TLO#4: Understand the underlying historic tensions between Pashtun Khans and Mullahs, with Mullahs upsetting the balance of stability and rising to the forefront of power under the banner of Islam

TLO#5: Understand the historic inability of Mullahs to make peace and establish stability and that normally Khans or external actors are required to put things back in balance

TLO#6: Attendees are familiar with some recommendations on how to deal with Islam when conducting VSO


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BLUF Afghanistan is a 99% Muslim state Islam permeates all aspects of life Pashtuns make little distinction between culture

and religion Greater tension between Pashtunwali and Sharia in the

Loya Paktia area, less in the South

Pashtuns consider themselves pious Muslims and see no forced “conversion” or ever having been non-Muslim

You can’t out-Muslim an Afghan, you can’t out-Pashtunwali a Pashtun Abdul Rahman and Taliban have tried, with terror and

force


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BLUF Islam and Informal Governance MUST be balanced

Jirga without Mullah is largely ineffective Line between Mullah and Malik blurred

If government courts worked, locals would use them for conflict resolution related to land, water, etc. Taliban Sharia Court not traditional form of dispute

resolution, but more and more accepted due to reach and enforcement


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Islamic Identity in Afghanistan

shahadah “testimony of faith”

masjid (mosque)

allah-u akbar

“God is greatest”


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Islam: An Abrahamic Faith

Monotheism

Commonalities?Prophets

Judgment Day

Angels & Demons

Heaven

Sacred Texts


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Five Pillars of Islam and Manifestations

shahadah: lit. “bearing witness” (kalima)

salat: “prayer,” 5 x daily

zakat: “almsgiving”

sawm (Persian ~ roza): “fasting” during Ramadan (ramazan)

hajj: “pilgrimage” to Mecca

I S L A M


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The Quran-e Sharif (“Holy/Noble Qur’an”)

Muslims believe the Qur’an (Arabic ~ “Recitations”) is revealed word of God

Muhammad received message in Arabic during a period of 23 years from Angel Jibril (Gabriel)

As Allah’s final message to mankind,

Muslims believe that the Qur’an supersedes all others: the Old Testament, Gospels, etc.

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Hadith (al-hadith) : Narrative

Oral traditions relating to the words and deeds of the prophet

Regarded by all madh’hab as tools for determining the sunnah

Estimated from 159,000 - 203,000, collected hundreds of years after Muhammad’s death

Determined by isnad (“chain of transmission”) and graded

Six Sunni compilations Three Shia compliations

Page from 9th Century Hadith Collection, Syria


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Khorasan: Land of al-Mahdi

Hadith: "If you see the black flags coming from Khorasan, join that army, even if you have to crawl over ice, for that is the army of the Imam al-Mahdi and no one can stop that army until it reaches al-Quds“

Strength of hadith is disputed, --- but militants around the world (esp. Al Qaeda) use it to muster support for insurgency in AFPAK

Some even infer Mullah Omar (as amir ul-mu’minin) or UBL could be al-Mahdi

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Sources of Authority in IslamTitle Safeguard Substance

Qur’an Allah Collated after Prophet Muhammad’s death; compiled under Umar and standardized under Uthman

Aḥadīth(Traditions or Sayings)

Prophet Muhammad 6 major compilations in Sunni Islam; 3 major compilations in Shi’ism

Ijmā‘ (Consensus) Community or Hidden Imam (Shi’a)

Four Sunni madhhabs; Shi’a Imam in every age

Qiyās(analogy)

Qur’an, ahadith, Ijma Analogical reasoning of jurists with regard to the teachings of 3 prior sources

Istislāh(“to deem proper”)

Mujtahid (personal interpreter)------------------------------- Mujtahid/Marja-e taqlid

Supported by Hanafi madhhabSupported by Maliki madhhab-------------------------------------------------Supported by Ja’fari (Shi’a) madhhab


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Sectarian Schism: Sunni and Shi’a

Like Christianity, Islam had its own schism

Schism over succession of Prophet Muhammad upon his death

Sunnis believe that leadership should be based on consensus of the community of beleivers (ummah)

Shiites believe leadership should be based on Prophet’s bloodline


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Schools of Jurisprudence (madh’hab)

Schools deal with rites (orthopraxis) not sects

All schools concerned with study and practical application of jurisprudence ( fiqh )

Fiqh: The human endeavor to determine the will of God on any matter; fiqh subject to error, sharia’h is not

Muslims in Afghanistan and Pakistan are majority Sunni Hanafi

Important Note: Most Muslims are not overly concerned with the differences between schools except Sunni-Shi’a split

Madh’hab

Hanafi

Maliki

Shafi’i

Hanbali

Ja’ffari Shi’a

Sunni


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Sufism (tasawwuf)

Lexical root: ṣūf "wool” (simple clothing of early ascetics) or possibly ṣafā "purity"

Mystical tradition that emerged in early 8th cent. in Iraq / Persia

Emphasizes internal, spiritual dimension of Islam; asceticism

Values insight, union with divine via meditation, music, and dance (zhikr, qawwali, sema) to focus awareness on Allah

O Allah! if I worship you for fear of hell…Burn me in hellIf I worship you in hope of paradise…Exclude me from paradiseBut if I worship you for your own sake…Grudge me not your everlasting beauty - Rabia al-Basra, 8th Cent.


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Sufi Orders (Tariqa)

Sufi teacher known as shaykh or pir ; murids are followers or disciples

Hundreds of sufi orders; nearly universal membership prior to 18thc.

Some of most prominent tariqat: Naqshbandi, Baha Din Naqshband (14th c.) Qadiri, Abd al-Qadir Jilani (12th c.) Chishti, Mu’in ad-Din Chishti (13th c.) Shadhili Abu’l-Hasan ash-Shadhili (13th c.) Bektashi (Alevi), Haji Bektash Wali (13th c.) Mevlevi, Jalal ad-Din Rumi al-Balkhi (13th c.) Nimatullahi(Shi’a), Shah Wali Nimatullah (15th c.)

17th c. Mughal painting showing Sufi founders in

imaginary council


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Overview of Islam in Afghanistan and South Asia

Sunni: Hanafi madhhab Sunni masalak since the

19th century Deobandi Ahl-e Hadith/Salafi Wahhabi

Shi’a: two sub-sects Imami or “Twelver” Ismai’li or “Sevener”

Sufism: both Sunni and Shi’a

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SufiSunni Shi’a

Hanafi

Hanbali

Deobandi

Wahhabi

Muslims

mad

hhab

Jaffari

Ismai’liNizari

Bohra

Barelvi

Sala

fi

Madhhab (school) in blackMasalak (denomination) in dark blue or grey


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Sunni Muslims in Afghanistan Sunni majority, approx. 80% of pop.

Arrived in early 9th cent.; full conversion by 14th cent.

Majority of ethnic groups except for Hazaras (mostlyshia)

Sufism and Deobandism influential

Sunni Political Islam Muslim Youth Organization Mujahideen Tanzims (e.g. Jamiat Islami, Hezb-e Islami) Taliban

Shamshir-e Do Masjid in downtown Kabul


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Role of the Mullah Persian word derived from Arabic mawla

("vicar", "master" and "guardian“)

Not always used as a term of respect; mullahs often subjects for humor

Normally implies a person with a limited or incomplete religious education

In Afghanistan/Pakistan, most mullah’s paid by local, regional, or tribal leader --- or government

Community religious leader, provide dispute resolution on family/personal issues; great orator; collects zakat tax

Rise of Taliban changed traditional role of mullah 19


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Role of Mosque (Masjid)

Center of religious life in rural areas/ “Community Center”

Site of communal Friday prayer

Hujrah is communal space adjacent to mosque to accommodate guests/visitors

Madrassa: school focused on memorization of Quran

Madaris/mosques supported by wafq (an Islamic communal trust fund and educational board)


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Denomination: Salafism Sunni revivalist movement started in the

19th century (but claims earlier)

Advocates return to practices of original ummah in 7th century; --- often Islamist

Pious predecessors (first three generations) of Muslims are exemplary: Sahaba ("Companions“) Tabi‘un ("Followers") Tabi‘ al-Tabi‘in ("Those after the Followers")

Not monolithic – has undergone many structural and ideological changes

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The Muslim Defense Force, a self-declared Salafi organization, stages protest against “crusaders” in UK

Anachronistic reconstruction of the banner of the as-salaf salih


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Denomination: Wahhabism Sunni Reformist movement founded by

Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab (1703-1792)

Influenced by ibn Hanbal , ibn Tamiyyah, spartan desert upbringing

Additions to Islam after Prophet and first four caliphs is bidah (“innovation”) – including maddhabs

18th c. reform movement that forged an alliance with House of Saud (Hanbali)

Advocates “puritanical” version of Islam; rejection of Sufism/hostility towards Shiism

Petro-dollars used to export interpretation

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4a/First_Saudi_State_Big.png


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Wahhabism and Salafism ComparedName Overview Founder or

Prominent Thinkersmadh’hab and kalam

Central Beliefs

wahhabiyya or

muwahhidun (“unitarians”)

or ahl-e hadith (South Asia)

Reformist (“puritanical”)

movementOrigin: 18th c. Arabia (Nejd); Saudi Arabia

ibn Hanbali (d. 240 AH / 855 AD);

Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab (d. 1206 AH / 1792 AD)

Hanbali madh’hab; Athari theology

tawhid: uniqueness and unity of God;Islam must be purged of impurities and heretical practices, esp. shirk and bid’ah

salafiyya or

ahl-as-sunnah

Revivalist movement

Origin: 7th c. Arabia (Hejaz)

-or- 19th c. Egypt (esp. al-Azhar)

as-salaf as-salih (“pious

predecessors”) or first three Muslim

generations; Muhammad Abduh (d. 1905 AD); et al

Disavow all madh’hab as un-necessary; Athari theology

Same as above to incl.Imitation of the salaf should be the basis of social order

Note: As a general rule of thumb; many Wahhabi might also consider themselves Salafi, --- but not all Salafi regard themselves as Wahhabi


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Ahmad Sarhindi Purify Islam of Hindu influence, return to Sunnah

Shah Waliullah (d. 1762) - Indian Sufi Pilgrimage to Mecca/Medina Contemporary of al-Wahhab Islam an individual pursuit

1865-66: Indian Roots Dar-ul-Uloom University

Hanafi fiqh and al-Ashari theology Many teachers associated with Naqshbandi and

Qadari tariqas Anti-Colonial Revivalist movement that emerged in

wake of the 1857 “Indian Mutiny”

Late 1800’s – early 1900’s: Generated hundreds of affiliated madaris throughout India/Afghanistan

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Denomination: Deobandism

Dar ul-Uloom Madrassa, Deoband, Uttar Pradesh, India


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Beliefs Movement seeks to purify Islam of syncretism and

popular devotional practices, seen as being “Hindu” Over time, became more strict, austere, and anti-Barelvi Rejects popular mysticism

Affiliations Strong madaris network, represented by the Wafq-ul-

Madaris al-Arabia in Pakistan Pashtun-majority JUI political parties in Pakistan Pakistani Militant groups Taliban groups and “Talibanism”

UNCLASSIFIED

Deobandi Details


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Shi’a Sub-sects

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Result of disagreements over succession of the Imamate

Three branches/sects of Shi’ism:

Zaydiyya (“Fivers”)

Ismai’li (“Seveners”)

Imami (“Twelvers”)

5

712

7.


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Shi’ism in Afghanistan

Shi’a minority; approx. 19% of pop.

Shi’ism first appears during Mongol Ilkhanate (1200 -1300s) then Safavid Dynasty (1600 - 1700s)

Afghan Shi’a are Jaffari (“Twelver”) or Ismai’li (“Sevener”)

“Dovazdah Imami”: Hazara, Qizilbash, Tajiks (Farsiwan, Nimruzi, Yazidi, some Kabuli)

Ismai’li - Tajiks (Baghlan and Badakhshan), Pamiri, some Hazara and Qizilbash

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Shi’a masjid in west Kabul


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Prominent Afghan Shi’a Leader

Grand Ayatollah Muhammad Asif Muhsini (aka Mohseni) (b. 1935); Qizilbash Shi’a scholar

Received training in Qom (Iran) under Ayatollah Khui (a rival of Khomeini); Kandahar born, speaks Pashto

Many consider him an Islamist, misogynist, and human rights violator; --- infamous for marriage to underage girl and advocacy of Shi’a marriage “rape law” in Feb 2009

Founded Harakat-I Islami-yi Afghanistan in 1978; most effective military Shi’a mujahidin group against Soviets, later joined NA against Taliban

Owner of Tamadon (“Civilisation”) TV station; has visual appearance and religious content similar to Iranian state-run TV

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Sufism in Afghanistan

Permeates society (both Afghan and Pakistani) Influences poetry, literature,

music, and folk customs Offers alternative to rigid

orthopraxy

Often blends pre-Islamic or localized beliefs and customs with Islamic practices (syncreticism)

Many sufi pir and waliullah acquire legendary reputation for heroic feats or miraculous healing powers 29

Pir Syed Ahmad Gailani (b. 1932);

Qadiri tariqat


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Wandering Sufis: Malang, Qalander, or Fakir Itinerant sufis who wander the country begging for alms

(similar to the Hindu sadhu); often gather at ziarats and for urs

Some venerated (if truly pious), some distrusted (as charlatans and dope-smoking social “drop-outs”)

Shams-e malang, shab-e palang: “In daytime, a holy man… but at night,…a leopard (predator)”

In past, some renowned for miraculous powers or having defeated djinn, dragons, or monsters

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“…The malang is an example of syncreticism, the blending of Islam with elements of Hinduism, Zoroastrianism, or even older shamanic and animistic beliefs (in Afghanistan)”

--- M. H. Sidky


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Islam in Afghanistan: S3T vs. R3PS3T

► Soft (pluralist) ► Sufism ► Syncretic(ism) ► Traditional

Key figures: malang and pir

R3P ► Rigid (literalist) ► Revivalist* ► Radicalized** ► Puritanical

Key figures: mujahidin and taliban

mullah, maulana, and some mujahidin

* Salafi (Muslim Youth Organization) ** “Jihadi” (Taliban, HQN, AQ)

Tension


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Pashtunwali – The Way of the Pashtun

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Melmastia • Hospitality for all visitors

Ghayrat (or Nang) • Personal honor, self respect, dignity

Nanawati• Asylum; Acceptance of a surrender;

Protection of those who seek it

Badal • Justice; Revenge against wrongdoers

Tureh • Bravery; Defense of land and property

Sabat • Loyalty to friends, relatives, tribe

Namus • Honor of women (honor of country)

Tarburwali • “Law of the Cousins” – hatred, rivalry


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Other Codes of Honor

Practiced by non-Pashtuns in Afghanistan Abdur Zadegi (Tajik)

Jealousy Inheritance Competition

Siyal Misyar (Hazara) Baluchmiyar (Baluch) Yasa-e Moghali (Uzbek)

Very prevalent in Northern Afghanistan

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Unclassified


Village Governance

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Unclassified

(Hazara)

Maraka

(Uzbek)

Karbalayi

Executive

Legislative

Judicial


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Traditional Conflict Resolution

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Mullahs find chiga (common rally cause) to unit local tribes against real or perceived external threat

Pashtun society back in equilibrium; elders/elites playing lead roles at different levels of Jirgas

Mullahs retreat to original role as clerics, elders/elites take back leadership

Tribal elites sidelined and Mullahs/young Pashtuns assume leadership

Elites take back seat, don’t openly challenge mullah for fear of being labeled as supporters of infidels

Tribesman tire of conflict and question wisdom of war and mullah’s leadership

Elites, sensing mood shift, mobilize elders to end conflict/restore peace


Unclassified

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So…what happened? Internal

Pan-Islamic Ideology Muslim Youth Organization: Burhanuddin Rabbani,

Ahmad Shah Massoud, Abdul Rasul Sayyaf, and Hekmatyar

Mujahideen/Arabs supporting “jihad” in Afghanistan

External Radicalization of Pakistani Society under Zia ul-Haq

Destroy traditional Pashtun Islam and replace with an Islam that respected and acknowledged outside authority

Influx of Saudi ideology Prevention of Shia Iranian influence

Targeting of Traditional Tribal Structure by Soviet, Taliban and Tehrik-e Taliban Pakistan (TTP)

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Unclassified


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The “Afghan Arabs” (1980s – Present)

Afghan and Arab Mujahidin cross Pakistan Border to fight Anti-Soviet Jihad, 1985

Arab / other Muslim fighters who came to help Mujahideen

Questionable effectiveness asfighting force

Attained hero-status for role in defeat of atheist superpower

Many stayed and married local Pashtun women; formed strong bonds with tribes in FATA, RC East/South

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b7/Afghan_Muja_crossing_from_Saohol_Sar_pass_in_Durand_border_region_of_Pakistan,_August_1985.png


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Mujahideen Groups and Orientations

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Leader Party Supporters Orientation Notes

Gulbuddin Hekmatyar

Hizb-e Islam Eastern Pashtuns, Pashai, Nuristanis,(Konar, Nuristani, Laghman, Kunduz)

Islamist b. 1947 -

Younis Khalis Hizb-e Islam Khalis

Eastern Pashtuns (Nangarhar)

Islamist 1999 - 2006

Burhanuddin Rabbani

Jamiat-e Islami

Tajiks and Uzbeks (Panjshir and Northern Alliance)

Islamist b. 1940 - 2011

Abdul Rabb Rasul Sayyaf

Ittehad-al Islami

KSA, Gulf states, Ikwan al-Muslimeen

Islamist (Wahhabi) b. 1946 -

Mohammad Nabi Mohammadi

Harakat-e Inqilib-e Islam

Eastern and Southern Pashtuns (Logar)

Traditionalist (village-based) and Islamist

1920 - 2002

Pir Sayyid Ahmed Gailani

Mohaz Mille Islami

Nationalist/Pro-Democracy Pashtuns, Qadiri tariqat

Nationalist / Royalist, pro-West

b. 1932 -

Sibghatullah Mojaddedi

Jabhe Mille Nejad

Nationalist Pashtuns, Nasqhbandi tariqat

Nationalist / Royalist

b. 1926 -


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The Taliban and Sharia Law

Pre-Taliban rural governance largely rooted in Pashtunwali, Jirgas/Shuras

Pre-Taliban rural religion largely rooted in folk Islam

Taliban caught between Pashtun ethnic Nationalism and supra-ethnic Islamic identity

Taliban governance firmly rooted in fundamentalist religious law Ministry for Promotion of Virtue and Prevention of Vice Demoted role of jirgas/shuras Claimed some aspects of Pashtunwali were against Islam However, collectivism gives them credibility (Quetta Shura)

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A Strange Mix: Folk Islam and Salafism

Salt collected from “Arab Qabiristan” (graveyard) in Kandahar for its blessing and used as miracle cure

In the east, many shrines, totems, graveyards destroyed by wahhabi / salafi Arabs

Local population killed those responsible

Example of religious syncreticism and complexity of debate concerning what is cultural versus religious tradition

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Shaheed (male) or shaheeda (female) Honorific title for Muslims who die fulfilling a religious commandment, or while fighting in jihad


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Folk Traditions and Superstitions

Falgeer (Palmistry Fortune Tellers) in Mazar-

e Sharif with Falnameh collection

Djinn possession often attributed as cause of

mental illness, addiction, or irrational behavior

Ta’weez, protective amulet containing prayers or verses from Qur’an or Ahadith


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The Way Ahead

Enable traditional village governance

Include both religious and secular representatives

Achieve balance between Mullahs and Maliks

Reach out to moderate Islamic voices (i.e. Jordanians) who want to assist with de-radicalization

Practice cultural and religious judo (read the Quran, Hadiths, understand Codes of Honor)

Spend funds on religious items (mosques, shrines, prayer rugs, etc.)

And remember, be patient and tolerant…

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Religious Etiquette Mosques (masjid) normally closed to

non-Muslims unless invited or escorted

Always remove shoes - socks or bare feet are acceptable- cover head in masjid (men and women)

Men and women pray in separate spaces

Avoid crossing qibla (direction of prayer)

Polite to state “Peace Be Upon Him” after referring to “Prophet Muhammad”

Refer to Isa, Ali and Rashidun as “Hazrat” (Arabic honorific; literal translation = “Great Presence”)


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Summary Identities in Afghanistan are multi-layered and complex, with

religious affiliations as only one of many layers

Understanding Islam can greatly assist in building rapport, especially in an ethnically/tribally diverse society such as Afghanistan where Islam can be a unifying factor

Religious identity in Afghanistan is not monolithic but may be characterized by a tension between older pluralist and more recent reformist (or extremist) interpretive traditions

Islam permeates all aspects of society, but has historically served as moral guidelines, not as an all-encompassing governance mechanism


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Questions and Discussion


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Recommended Reading (Articles) Mad Mullahs, Opportunists, and Family Connections: The Violent

Pashtun Cycle by Tribal Analysis Center (http://www.tribalanalysiscenter.com/PDF-TAC/Mad%20Mullahs.pdf)

Islam and Islamism in Afghanistan by Kristen Mendoza (http://www.law.harvard.edu/programs/ilsp/research/mendoza.pdf)

Jirga System in Tribal Life by Dr. Sherzaman Taizi (http://www.tribalanalysiscenter.com/PDF-TAC/Jirga%20System%20in%20Tribal%20Life.pdf

Pashtun Tribal Dynamics by Tribal Analysis Center (http://www.tribalanalysiscenter.com/PDF-TAC/Pashtun%20Tribal%20Dynamics.pdf)

Doing Pashto: Pashtunwali as the ideal of honourable behaviour and tribal life among the Pashtuns by Lutz Rzehak (http://aan-afghanistan.com/uploads/20110321LR-Pashtunwali-FINAL.pdf)

How Tribal are the Taleban? by Thomas Ruttig (http://aan-afghanistan.com/uploads/20100624TR-HowTribalAretheTaleban-FINAL.pdf)

http://www.tribalanalysiscenter.com/PDF-TAC/Mad%20Mullahs.pdf

http://www.law.harvard.edu/programs/ilsp/research/mendoza.pdf

http://aan-afghanistan.com/uploads/20100624TR-HowTribalAretheTaleban-FINAL.pdf

http://aan-afghanistan.com/uploads/20100624TR-HowTribalAretheTaleban-FINAL.pdf


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Recommended Reading (Articles) Being Pashtun - Being Muslim by Bernt Glatzner

(http://www.khyber.org/publications/021-025/glatzer1998.pdf)

Legal Authorities in the Afghan Legal System (1964-1979) by Bruce Etling (http://www.law.harvard.edu/programs/ilsp/research/etling.pdf)

Tribal Law of Pashtunwali and Women’s Legislative Authority by Palwasha Kakar (http://www.law.harvard.edu/programs/ilsp/research/kakar.pdf)

Local Governance in Rural Afghanistan by Human Terrain System-Afghanistan(http://publicintelligence.net/human-terrain-system-report-local-governance-in-rural-afghanistan/)

The Political Economy of Customary Village Organizations in Rural Afghanistan by Jennifer Brick (http://www.bu.edu/aias/brick.pdf)

Hindustani Fanatics, India’s Pashtuns, and Deobandism – Connections by Tribal Analysis Center (http://www.tribalanalysiscenter.com/PDF-TAC/Hindustani%20Fanatics.pdf)

http://www.law.harvard.edu/programs/ilsp/research/etling.pdf

http://www.law.harvard.edu/programs/ilsp/research/kakar.pdf

http://publicintelligence.net/human-terrain-system-report-local-governance-in-rural-afghanistan/

http://publicintelligence.net/human-terrain-system-report-local-governance-in-rural-afghanistan/


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Recommended Reading


Unclassified

Recommended Reading (Books) No god but God: The Origins, Evolution, and Future of Islam (2006)

by Reza Aslan

Destiny Disrupted: A History of the World Through Islamic Eyes (2009) by Mir Tamim Ansary

Jirgas: The Pashtun Way of Conflict Resolution (2009) by Dr. Khan Idris

After the Prophet: The Epic Story of the Shia-Sunni Split (2009) by Lesley Hazleton

God’s Terrorists: The Wahhabi Cult and the Modern Roots of Modern Jihad (2006) by Charles Allen

Islam in Tribal Societies: From the Atlas to the Indus (1984) Edited by Akbar S. Ahmed and David M. Hart

Chapter 9 - Holier than Thou: Islam in Three Tribal Societies by Richard Tapper

Chapter 10 – Tribal Warfare in Afghanistan and Pakistan: A Reflection of the Segmentary Lineage System by Louis Dupree

Chapter 13 – Religious Presence and Symbolism in Pukhtun Society by Akbar S. Ahmed

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