INTRODUTION:

Water molecule composed of two Hydrogen atoms and one Oxygen atom. Its molecular formula

is H2O. If water is badly polluted-- like raw sewage--- it might be obvious from its appearance or

odor. It might be colored or turbid (cloudy), or have solids, oil or foam floating on it. It might

have a rotten odor, or smell like industrial chemicals. A lot of dead fish floating on the surface of

a lake would be a clear sign that something was wrong. But many harmful-- and beneficial--

materials in water are invisible and odorless. In order to go beyond the obvious, to determine

what materials are in the water, and how much, we need to be able to conduct chemical or

microbiological analyses.

Analysis of a natural body of water will tell us how clean or polluted it is. If there is damage to

wild life, the measurements will help pin point the cause and the source. In a waste water

treatment plant, analyses are necessary for monitoring the effectiveness of the treatment

processes. In the United States, the clean water act requires waste water dischargers to have

permits. These permits set limits on the amount of specific pollutants which can be discharged,

as well as schedule for monitoring and reporting the results. Usually the reports must be filled

monthly, while the measurement frequency for a particular parameter (measurable property) can

run anywhere from continuously to just once a year. Only standard analytical procedures

specified in the “Code of Federal Regulations” may be used, so that the Government agencies

can feel responsibly confident that result from different laboratories are comparable.

Similar considerations apply to drinking water. The purity of the water we drink is of more

concern to the average person than the quality of the waste water discharge the sewage plant.

But, we should not forget that in many places, especially along a river, one town’s waste water

discharge may be part of the next town’s water supply. So, All the essential characteristics

should be examined in routine. Short description of meaning and significance for the health and

environmental measured parameters:

Odour is recognized as a quality factor affecting acceptability of drinking water and food

prepared from it, tainting of fish and other aquatic organisms and aesthetics of recreational

waters. Most organic and some inorganic chemicals contribute taste or odour. These chemicals

may originate from municipal and industrial waste discharges, natural sources, such as

decomposition of vegetable matter or from associated microbial activity.

pH value is the logarithm of reciprocal of hydrogen ion activity in moles per liter. In water

solution, variations in pH value from 7 are mainly due to hydrolysis of salts of strong bases and

weak acids or vice versa. Dissolved gases such as carbon di oxide, hydrogen sulphide and

ammonia also affect the pH of water. The overall pH range of natural water is generally between

6 and 8. Industrial wastes may be strongly acidic or basic and their effect on pH value of

receiving water depends on the buffering capacity of water. pH lower than 4 will produce sour

taste and higher value above 8.5 bitter taste. Higher pH values hasten the scale formation in

water heating apparatus and reduce the germicidal potential of chlorine. pH below 6.5 starts

corrosion in pipes, thereby releasing toxic metals such as Zn, Pb, Cd, Cu etc.

Hardness of water is caused by the presence of multivalent metallic cations and is largely due to

calcium, Ca++, and magnesium, Mg++ ions. Hardness is reported in terms of CaCO3. Hardness

is the measure of capacity of water to react with soap, hard water requiring considerably more

soap to produce a lather. It is not caused by single substance but by a variety of dissolved

polyvalent metallic ions, predominantly calcium and magnesium cations. The low and high value

of Hardness has advantages and disadvantages. Absolutely soft water are tasteless. On the other

hand, hardness upto 600 mg/L can be relished if got acclimatized to. Moderately hard water is

preferred to soft water for irrigation purposes. Absolutely soft water are corrosive and dissolve

the metals. More cases of cardiovascular diseases are reported in soft water areas. Hard water is

useful to growth of children due to presence of calcium.

Chloride is one of the major inorganic anion in water. In potable water, the salty taste is

produced by the chloride concentrations is variable and dependent on the chemical composition.

There is no known evidence that chlorides constitute any human health hazard. For this reason,

chlorides are generally limited to 250 mg/l in supplies intended for public use. In many areas of

the world where water supplies are scarce, sources containing as much as 2000 mg/l are used for

domestic purposes without the development of adverse effect, once the human system becomes

adopted to the water. High chloride content may harm metallic pipes and structures as well as

growing plants.

Color in water may be due to the inorganic ions, such as iron and manganese, humus and peat

materials, plankton, weeds and industrial wastes. The term color is used to mean the true color of

water from which turbidity has been removed. The term apparent color includes not only the

color due to substances in solution but also that due to suspended matter. Apparent color is

determined on the original sample without filtration or centrifugation.

Total dissolved solids (TDS) is the term applied to the residue remaining in a weighed dish after

the sample has been passed through a standard fiber glass filter and dried to constant mass at 103

– 105oC or 179 – 181oC. Many dissolved substances are undesirable in water. Dissolved

minerals, gases and organic constituents may produce aesthetically displeasing color, taste and

odor. Some dissolved organic chemicals may deplete the dissolved oxygen in the receiving

waters and some may be inert to biological oxidation, yet others have been identified as

carcinogens. Water with higher solids content often has a laxative and sometimes the reverse

effect upon people whose bodies are not adjusted to them. High concentration of dissolved solids

about 3000 mg/l may also produce distress in livestock.

Calcium is a major constituent of various types of rock. It is one of the most common

constituents present in natural waters ranging from zero to several hundred milligrams per liter

depending on the source and treatment of the water. Calcium is a cause for hardness in water and

incrustation in boilers.

Magnesium is a common constituent in natural water. Magnesium salts are important

contributors to the hardness to the hardness of water which break down when heated, forming

scale in boilers. The magnesium concentration may vary from zero to several hundred

milligrams. Chemical softening, reverse osmosis, electro dialysis, or ion exchange reduces the

magnesium and associated hardness to acceptable levels.

Copper is found mainly as a sulphide, oxide, or carbonate in the minerals. Copper enters the

water system through mineral dissolution, industrial effluents, because of its use as algicide and

insecticide and through corrosion of copper alloy water distribution pipes. It may occur in simple

ionic form or in one of many complexes with groups, such as cyanides, chlorides, ammonia or

organic ligands. The tests for copper is essential because of dissolved copper salts even in low

concentrations are poisonous to some biota. Desirable limit for copper in potable water is 0.05

mg/l maximum which can be relaxed in the absence of better alternate source to 1.5 mg/l.

The major physiological effects resulting from the ingestion of large quantities of sulfate are

catharsis, dehydration, and gastrointestinal irritation. Water containing magnesium sulfate at

levels above 600 mg/l acts as a purgative in humans. The presence of sulfate in drinking water

can also result in a noticeable taste, the lowest taste threshold concentration for sulfate is

approximately 250 mg/l, as the sodium salt. Sulfate may also contribute to the corrosion of

distribution systems.

Nitrates generally occur in trace quantities in surface waters but may attain high levels in some

ground waters. Nitrite in water is either due to oxidation of ammonium compounds or due to

reduction of nitrate. It can be toxic to certain aquatic organisms even at concentration of 1 mg/l.

In excessive limits, it contributes to the illness known as methenoglobinemia in infants.

Traces of fluorides are present in many waters. Higher concentrations are often associated with

underground sources. In seawater, a total fluoride concentration of 1.3 mg/l has been reported. In

groundwater, fluoride concentrations vary with the type of rock that the water flows through but

do not usually exceed 10 mg/l. Presence of large amounts of fluoride is associated with dental

and skeletal fluorosis (1.5 mg/l) and inadequate amounts with dental caries (< 1 mg/l).

Zinc is an essential and beneficial element in body growth. Concentrations above 5 mg/l may

cause a bitter estrangement taste and opalescence in alkaline water. Zinc most commonly enters

the domestic supply from deterioration of galvanized iron and dezincification of brass. Zinc in

water may also come from individual water pollution.

Alkalinity of water is its quantitative capacity to react with a strong acid to a designated pH.

Highly alkaline waters are usually unpalatable. Excess alkalinity in water is harmful for

irrigation which leads to soil damage and reduce crop yields. Alkalinity is significant in many

uses and treatments of natural and wastewaters. Alkalinity measurements are used in the

interpretation and control of water treatment processes.

Phosphate occurs in traces in many natural waters, and often in appreciable amounts during

periods of low biologic productivity. Traces of phosphate increase the tendency of trouble some

algae to grow in reservoirs. Waters receiving raw or treated sewage, agricultural drainage, and

certain industrial waters normally contain significant concentrations of phosphate. Also

phosphate is frequently added to domestic and industrial waters in various forms. Phosphate

analyses are made primarily to control chemical dosage, or as a means of tracing flow of

contamination.

Distilled water is water that has many of its impurities removed through distillation. Distillation

involves boiling the water and then condensing the steam into a clean container. Distilled water

is preferable to tap water for use in automotive cooling systems. The minerals and ions typically

found in tap water can be corrosive to internal engine components, and can cause a more rapid

depletion of the anti-corrosion additives found in most antifreeze formulations Distilled water is

also an essential component for use in cigar humidors. Mineral build-up resulting from the use of

tap water (including bottled water) will reduce the effectiveness of the humidor.

Distilled water is also used in Constant Positive Airway Pressure (CPAP) machines. These

machines are used by people with sleep apnea to help breathing throughout sleep cycles. The

water evaporates and is used to humidify the air going into the users mouth. Distilled water will

not leave any contaminants behind when the humidifier in the CPAP machine evaporates the

water.

In many arid and semi-arid countries water is becoming an increasingly scarce resource and

planners are forced to consider any sources of water which might be used economically and

effectively to promote further development. At the same time, with population expanding at a

high rate, the need for increased food production is apparent. The potential for irrigation to raise

both agricultural productivity and the living standards of the rural poor has long been recognized.

Irrigated agriculture occupies approximately 17 percent of the world's total arable land but the

production from this land comprises about 34 percent of the world total. This potential is even

more pronounced in arid areas, such as the Near East Region, where only 30 percent of the

cultivated area is irrigated but it produces about 75 percent of the total agricultural production. In

this same region, more than 50 percent of the food requirements are imported and the rate of

increase in demand for food exceeds the rate of increase in agricultural production.

Whenever good quality water is scarce, water of marginal quality will have to be considered for

use in agriculture. Although there is no universal definition of 'marginal quality' water, for all

practical purposes it can be defined as water that possesses certain characteristics which have the

potential to cause problems when it is used for an intended purpose. For example, brackish water

is marginal quality water for agricultural use because of its high dissolved salt content, and

municipal wastewater is a marginal quality water because of the associated health hazards. From

the viewpoint of irrigation, use of a 'marginal' quality water requires more complex management

practices and more stringent monitoring procedures than when good quality water is used. This

publication deals with agricultural use of municipal wastewater, which is primarily domestic

sewage but possibly contains a proportion of industrial effluents discharged to public sewers.

Expansion of urban populations and increased coverage of domestic water supply and sewerage

give rise to greater quantities of municipal wastewater. With the current emphasis on

environmental health and water pollution issues, there is an increasing awareness of the need to

dispose of these wastewaters safely and beneficially. Use of wastewater in agriculture could be

an important consideration when its disposal is being planned in arid and semi-arid regions.

However it should be realized that the quantity of wastewater available in most countries will

account for only a small fraction of the total irrigation water requirements. Nevertheless,

wastewater use will result in the conservation of higher quality water and its use for purposes

other than irrigation. As the marginal cost of alternative supplies of good quality water will

usually be higher in water-short areas, it makes good sense to incorporate agricultural reuse into

water resources and land use planning.

Many countries have included wastewater reuse as an important dimension of water resources

planning. In the more arid areas of Australia and the USA wastewater is used in agriculture,

releasing high quality water supplies for potable use. Some countries, for example the Hashemite

Kingdom of Jordan and the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, have a national policy to reuse all treated

wastewater effluents and have already made considerable progress towards this end. In China,

sewage use in agriculture has developed rapidly since 1958 and now over 1.33 million hectares

are irrigated with sewage effluent. It is generally accepted that wastewater use in agriculture is

justified on agronomic and economic grounds but care must be taken to minimize adverse health

and environmental impacts. Following table shows the major constituents of domestic waste

water:

Municipal wastewater is mainly comprised of water (99.9%) together with relatively small

concentrations of suspended and dissolved organic and inorganic solids. Among the organic

substances present in sewage are carbohydrates, lignin, fats, soaps, synthetic detergents, proteins

and their decomposition products, as well as various natural and synthetic organic chemicals

from the process industries. Table 1 shows the levels of the major constituents of strong, medium

and weak domestic wastewaters. In arid and semi-arid countries, water use is often fairly low and

sewage tends to be very strong, as indicated in Table 2 for Amman, Jordan, where water

consumption is 90 l/d per person.

Table 1 : MAJOR CONSTITUENTS OF TYPICAL DOMESTIC WASTEWATER

Concentration, mg/l

Strong Medium Weak

Total solids 1200 700 350

Dissolved solids (TDS)1 850 500 250

Suspended solids 350 200 100

Nitrogen (as N) 85 40 20

Phosphorus (as P) 20 10 6

Chloride1 100 50 30

Alkalinity (as CaCO3) 200 100 50

BOD52 300 200 100

1 The amounts of TDS and chloride should be increased by the concentrations of these

constituents in the carriage water.

2 BOD5 is the biochemical oxygen demand at 20°C over 5 days and is a measure of the

biodegradable organic matter in the wastewater.

Municipal wastewater also contains a variety of inorganic substances from domestic and

industrial sources, including a number of potentially toxic elements such as arsenic, cadmium,

chromium, copper, lead, mercury, zinc, etc. Even if toxic materials are not present in

concentrations likely to affect humans, they might well be at phytotoxic levels, which would

limit their agricultural use.

The analytical process involves sampling and sample storage since changes in composition of

water do not stop once the sampling has been taken. Precaution has to be taken to make sure that

the water reaching the laboratory has the same composition as it did when the sampling was

done.

Review of literature

Willium (1973) conducted a study on increased use of chlorine. The study showed that the use

of residual chlorine toxicity in aquatic systems have emphasized the need for close scrutiny of

present disinfection procedures. This review discusses chlorine uses and chlorine chemistry and

emphasizes toxicity studies in the field and in the laboratory. Interim criteria, based on

knowledge to date, for permissible concentrations of total residual chlorine are: (a) in areas

receiving wastes treated continuously with chlorine, not to exceed 0.01 mg/l for the protection of

more resistant organisms only, or not to exceed 0.002 mg/l for the protection of most aquatic

organisms; and (b) in areas receiving intermittently chlorinated wastes, not to exceed 0.2 mg/l for

a period of 2 hr/day for more resistant species of fish, or not to exceed 0.04 mg/l for a period of 2

hr/day for trout and salmon. If free chlorine persists, more restrictive criteria are warranted.

Alternate procedures or substitutes for chlorination should be investigated.

Shuval et al. (1986) carried a study on viral diseases due to waste water exposal. The study

showed that sewage farm workers exposed to raw wastewater in areas where Ancylostoma

(hookworm) and Ascaris (nematode) infections are endemic have significantly excess levels of

infection with these two parasites compared with other agricultural workers in similar

occupations. Furthermore, the studies indicated that the intensity of the Ascaris infections (the

number of worms infesting the intestinal tract of an individual) in the sample of sewage farm

workers was very much greater than in the control sample.

Thomas heberer (2002) carried a study on the occurrence and fate of pharmaceutically active

compounds (PhAcs) in the aquatic environment. PhACs have been recognized as one of the

emerging issues in environmental chemistry. The studies show that some PhACs originating

from human therapy are not eliminated completely in the municipal STPs and are, thus,

discharged as contaminants into the receiving waters. Positive findings of PhACs have, however,

also been reported in groundwater contaminated by landfill leachates or manufacturing residues.

To date, only in a few cases PhACs have also been detected at trace-levels in drinking water

samples.

This research in low-cost alternatives to activated carbon for waste and wastewater treatment

showed that the selection criteria and activation methods for the preparation of active carbon is

followed by a critical assessment of low-cost adsorbents prepared from carbonaceous industrial

wastes, agricultural by-products and mineral-derived sources. Emphasis is given to in situ reuse

applications where stated in the literature and rudimentary economic analyses provided, where

available, for comparative operations with commercial activated carbon. Pollard et al. (1991)

A study on low cost adsorbents for waste water treatment was carried by Pollard et al. (1991).

An examination of the selection criteria and activation from carbonaceous industrial wastes,

agricultural by-products and mineral-derived sources was done. Emphasis is given to in methods

for the preparation of active carbon is followed by a critical assessment of low-cost adsorbents

prepared situ reuse applications where stated in the literature and rudimentary economic analyses

provided, where available, for comparative operations with commercial activated carbon. The

study showed that the low cost alternatives can be used to activate carbon in waste water.

Adam et al. (2001) conducted a study on removal of antibiotics from surface and distilled water

in conventional water treatment processes. Conventional drinking water treatment processes

were evaluated under typical water treatment plant conditions to determine their effectiveness in

the removal of seven common antibiotics: carbadox, sulfachlorpyridazine, sulfadimethoxine,

sulfamerazine, sulfamethazine, sulfathiazole, and trimethoprim. Experiments were conducted

using synthetic solutions prepared by spiking both distilled/deionized water and Missouri River

water with the studied compounds. Conversely, coagulation/flocculation/sedimentation with

alum and iron salts, excess lime/soda ash softening, ultraviolet irradiation at disinfection

dosages, and ion exchange were all relatively ineffective methods of antibiotic removal. The

study showed that the studied antibiotics could be effectively removed using processes already in

use in many water treatment plants. Additional work is needed on by-product formation and the

removal of other classes of antibiotics.

Thomas heberer (2002) carried a study on the occurrence and fate of pharmaceutically active

compounds (PhAcs) in the aquatic environment. PhACs have been recognized as one of the

emerging issues in environmental chemistry. The studies show that some PhACs originating

from human therapy are not eliminated completely in the municipal STPs and are, thus,

discharged as contaminants into the receiving waters. Positive findings of PhACs have, however,

also been reported in groundwater contaminated by landfill leachates or manufacturing residues.

To date, only in a few cases PhACs have also been detected at trace-levels in drinking water

samples.

Parag and Aniruddha (2003) gave a review of imperative technologies for wastewater treatment

I: oxidation technologies at ambient conditions. due to the increasing presence of molecules,

refractory to the microorganisms in the wastewater streams, the conventional biological methods

cannot be used for complete treatment of the effluent and hence, introduction of newer

technologies to degrade these refractory molecules into smaller molecules, which can be further

oxidized by biological methods, has become imperative. The present work aims at highlighting

five different oxidation processes operating at ambient conditions viz. cavitation, photocatalytic

oxidation, Fenton's chemistry (belonging to the class of advanced oxidation processes) and

ozonation, use of hydrogen peroxide (belonging to the class of chemical oxidation technologies).

The work highlights the basics of these individual processes including the optimum operating

parameters and the reactor design aspects with a complete overview of the various applications

to wastewater treatment in the recent years. In the next article of this two article series on

imperative technologies, hybrid methods (basically combination of the oxidation processes) will

be discussed and the current work forms a useful foundation for the work focusing on hybrid

technologies.

Stephen and Frederick (2004) studied recent developments in hydrogen management during

anaerobic biological wastewater treatment. A comprehensive review of the microbial kinetics,

energetics, and substrate specificities of anaerobic waste-water treatment systems is presented

with descriptions of three different state-of-the-art reactor configurations. Each of these reactor

systems is intended to enrich different populations of anaerobic acidogens and methanogens as a

result of design and operational strategies for control of hydrogen and volatile acids. Imposition

of these strategies results in different substrate utilization patterns, conversion kinetics, and

operational stabilities as are currently being demonstrated in laboratory-scale investigations.

Chaplin et al. (2008) conducted a study on the chemistry of water treatment processes involving

ozone, hydrogen peroxide and ultraviolet radiation. Advanced oxidation processes are defined as

those which involve the generation of hydroxyl radicals in sufficient quantity to affect water

purification. The theoretical and (practical yield of OH from O3 at high pH, 03/H202, O3/UV and

H2O2/UV systems is reviewed. New data was presented which illustrates the importance of direct

photolysis in the O3/UV process, the effect of the H202:03 Ratio in the O3/H2O2 process, and the

impact of the low extinction coefficient of H2O2 in the H202/UV process.

Kapagiannidis et al (2011) conducted a study for removal of nutrients from waste water with

emphasis on the denitrifying phosphorus removal. Phosphorus is an essential element for all

living cells. It is also one of the nutrients that can cause serious problems, such as eutrophication

of water bodies if discharged into the environment. The main technologies developed for

phosphorus removal from wastewater streams can be categorized as chemical or biological

processes. The latter are considered more suitable from an economical as well as an

environmental point of view and are more commonly used in practical implementations.

Enhanced biological phosphorus removal (EBPR) has well proved its feasibility as well as

exceptional efficiency in nutrient removal. However, because of its complex biological nature,

EBPR often becomes unreliable in wastewater treatment. Additionally, the conventional EBPR

methods, where phosphorus removal takes place under aerobic conditions, are quite sensitive to

several environmental conditions, often encountered in full-scale plants. This article focuses on

nutrient removal by biological means, which is still of great scientific interest. Emphasis is given

to anoxic phosphorus removal, which is accompanied by important advantages when compared

to the conventional aerobic process, such as reduction in energy demands and improved

performance in the treatment of low-organic-strength wastewater.

Objective:

1. Estimation of acidity of given water sample

2. Estimation of alkinity of given water sample

3. Estimation of carbonate &bi carbonate of given water sample

4. Determine the chloride content in given water sample

5. Determine the pH in given sample

6. Determine the Gram staining in given water sample

7. Estimation of BOD

8. Estimation of DO

9. Estimation of COD

MATERIALS AND METHODS:

ALKATINITY:

REAGENTS :

I. Distilled water :Boil and cool .use this distill water for preparing all the reagents.

II. Standerd hydrochloric acid solution [0.01N] :Standrize this with 0.01N Na2Co3 solution .

III. Standerd solution carbonate solution[0.01N]: dissolve 0.53gm Na2Co3 in water and made

up the solution to 1000ml.

IV. Sodium thiosulphatesolution : dissolve 2.5gm in water and made up the solution to 100ml

.

V. Sodium bicarbonate :NaHco3.

VI. Methyle orange indicator.Phenopthalein indicator.

PROCEDURE:

Flask add a drop of thiosulphate solution

.

Then add two drops of phenolphthalein indicator

Titrate with the standrizedhydrochloric acid in the buret

The end point is the disapperence of pale pink colour keep the content of the conical flask

stoppered for further titration to determine the total alkanity.

TOTAL ALKANITY:

Tothe solution obtained after determining the phenopthaleinalkanity

Add 2 drops of methyl orange indicater.

Check the buret reading

continue the titration with the same hydrochloric acid in the buret the end point is the colour the

end point is the colour change from yellow to red orange [PH4.5].

Total alkanity

ACIDITY:

REAGENTS:

I. Standard sodium hydroxide solution : prepare 0.2M NaOH by dissolving 1gNaoH in

water and making up this solution and it upto250ml standardize with oxalic acid

[COOH]2H2O.

II. Standard potassium hydrogen phthalate solution [0.02M]: dissolve 2.045g KHC8H4O4in

water and make up the solution to 500ml.

III. Sodium thiosulphatesolution : dissolve2.5g in water and make upto 100ml

IV. . Methyl orange indicator.

V. Phenolphthalein indicator.

PROCEDURE:

methyl orange acidity :

50ml water sample into conical flask .

Add a drop of thiosulphate solution add 2 drops methyl orange indicator

and titrate with standardNaoH in the burette the end point is the appearance of faint

orangecolour.repeat the concordanttitrate values.

TOTAL ACIDITY :

pipette 50ml water sample into a conical flask .

Add a drop of phenolphthalein indicator to it and titrate with standardize colour .

CARBONATE ANDBICARBONATE:

REQUIRMENTS

1. Phenopthalein indicator (0.25 solution in 60% ethyl alcohol),

2. methyl orange indicator (0.5% solution in 95% ethyl alcohol),

3. 0.01N,H2SO4,

4. water sample ,

5. conical flask

6. shaking machine ,

7. burate ,

8. pipette etc.

PROCEDURE:40ml. of water sample are taken in a conical flask .

20ml of distilled water is added in each flask

Add 2-3 drops of phenopthalein indicator.

A pink red colour indicator the presence of carbonate

Aliquot is titrated with 0.01N H2SO4 until the pink colour just disappear.

end point corresponds to the neutralisation of carbonate to bicarbonate stage.

CHLORIDE:

REQUIREMENTS:

1. 5% K2CrO4 AgNo3(0.01N),

2. 3.40gm of AgNo3 in 1litre of distilled water,

3.conical flask ,

4.water sample ,

PROCEDURE:

40ml. of water sample are taken in a conical flask

50 ml of water extract are taken and add 5-6 drops of K2CrO4indicator.

The solution is titrated with 0.02N AgNo3 till the first reddish brown ting appear. The titre value is noted.

Water pH

MATERIAL REQUIRED: PH meter,

filter paper

beaker,

distilled water.

REAGENTS: Standard buffer solution of PH 10 and 4.

PROCEDURE:Take the standard buffer solution of pH 4 and 10 into a beaker alternately.

Insert the electrode into the buffer solution one by one

For PH 10 buffer, if a reading comes more then or less than 10 by using calibration solution

For PH 4 buffer, adjust the value by using slope switch

Now take out the electrode and wash them with distilled water and dry it with the help of blotting

paper.

Now take the sample and note down the reading.

Wash the electrode every time with distilled water before taking reading of any sample

GRAM STAINING:MATERIAL REQUIRMENTS:

Water sample,

gram’s iodine

crystal violet

alcohol,

saffranine,

needle,

slide

, cover slip.

Procedure:-Initially clean the slide

Take the water sample with the help of wire loop or brush on the slide

Heat it slightly to make it dry and then deep it in the crystal violet solution for 30- 45

sec.

Add drop of iodine for a minute.

Further deep it in alcohol for 10-20 sec.

Finally counter stain it with saffranine for 30-45 sec. Observe under microscope.

OBSERVATIONS AND RESULTS ALKATINITY:

S.N

OSoil

sample

Volume of titrant with methyl

orang

Volume of titrant with

phenolphthalein

Initial Final Average Initial Final Average

1.

1.

Domestic 0.0

0.0

0.0

15.5

15.5

15.6 15.5

0.0

0.0

0.0

18.7

18.5

18.7

18.7

2.

industrial 0.0

0.0

0.0

13.1

13.2

13.1 13.1

0.0

0.0

0.0

16.8

16.8

16.9 16.8

CALCULATION:

Phenopthaleinalkanity of domestic soil: =50×N×V2×1000/V1

50×0.2×15.5×1000/50=310mg/l

Industrial soil: 50×0.2×13.1×1000/50 =222 mg/l

V1=Volume of water sample in ml

V2=VolumeofHclusedinml

N=Normality of HclTotalalkanity= 50×N×V3×1000/V1

Domestic soil 50×0.2×17.7×1000/50 =354 mg/l

Industrial soil 50×0.2×16.9×1000/50 =338 mg/l

V1 =Volume of water sample in ml

V3=VolumeofHcl used in ml

N=Normality of Hcl

ACIDITY:

S.N

O

Volume of titrant with

methyl orang

Volume of titrant with

phenolphthalein

Initia

l

Fina

l

Averag

e

Initia

l

Fina

l

Averag

e

1.

2.

Domestic 0.0

0.0

0.0

12.9

13.0

13.0 13.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

18.1

18.0

18.0

18.0

2.

industrial 0.0

0.0

0.0

11.0

11.0

11.2 11.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

14.3

14.2

14.2 14.2

Calculation:

methyl orange acidity : 500ml of 1M NaoH

M/2 caco3 25g Caco3therefore,

methyl orange acidity of domestic soilsamle=13×.02×50×1000/50 =250 mg/l

Industrial soil sample =11×.02×50×1000/50 =200 mg/l

V2=volumeofNaOHconsumedin ml.

M =molarity of NaOHsolution .

The amount of dissolved carbon dioxide: Amount of Caco3×44/100.

Phenolphthalein acidity= 50×M×V2×1000/V1

Domestic soil sample =50×.2×18×1000/17 =264 mg/l

Indutrial soil sample =50×.2×13×1000/50 =340 mg/l

V1= Volumeof soil sample in ml

V2 =Volumeof NaoH consumed in the titration in ml.

M=molarity of NaoH solution.

Carbonate bicarbonate

S.N

OSoil

sample

Volume of titrant with

phenolphthalein

Volume of titrant with methyl

orange

Initial Final Average Initial Final Average

1.

1.

Domestic 0.0

0.0

0.0

16.0

16.1

16.0 16.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

20.0

20.0

20.2

20.0

2.

industrial 0.0

0.0

0.0

14.0

14.0

14.2 14.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

18.0

18.0

18.0 18.0

Calculation:

For carbonate

Mg of carbonate per 100gm of domestic soil ={(.01×v1)×(100×V)×(50×20)}×30

={ (0.1×16)×(100×5)×(50×20)×30 }

=.225 gm.

Industrial soil = ={ (0.1×14)×(100×5)×(50×20)×30 }=.200 gm.

For Bicarbonate:

Mg soil of bi carbonate ={(.01×v2)×(100×V)×(50×20)}×61}

Domestic soil =={ (0.1×20)×(100×5)×(50×20)×61 }

=5.90 gm.

Indutrial soil ==={ (0.1×18)×(100×5)×(50×20)×61 }

=.530 gm.

Cl content

S.no Soil

sample

Volume of Agno3 used v1

initial final average

1

2

3

Domestic

water

sample

0.0

0.0

0.0

4.3

4.4

4.3

4.3

1

2

3

Industrial

soil

sample

0.0

0.0

0.0

1.9

1.8

1.9

1.9

Calculation:

Chloride [mg/ml]= (v1×N)Agno3×1000×35.5/volume of sample

Where v1=titre value of Agno3

V = volume of sample

N = Normality of Agno3 (0.02)

Domestic water sample= 4.3×.02×1000×35.5/50

= 61.06 mg/l

Industrial water sample = 1.9×.02×1000×35.5/50

= 26.98 mg/l

pH:

Domestic Industrial

7.4”. 7.6

REFERENCES

1. Thomas Heberer, Institute of Food Chemistry, Technical University of Berlin, Sekr. TIB

4/3-1, Gustav-Meyer-Allee 25, 13355 Berlin, Germany, Received 21 January 2002.

Revised 24 January 2002.

2. Mayer ”removal of antibiotics from surface and distilled water in conventional water

treatment processes”.

3. S.J.T. Pollard, G.D. Fowler, C.J. Sollars, R. Perry; “low cost adsorbents for waste water

treatment “ , Centre for Toxic Waste Management, Imperial College of Science,

Technology and Medicine, London SW 7 2BU,, UK

4. C. Adams, M.ASCE, Y. Wang, K. Loftin, and M. Meyer; “Removal of Antibiotics from

Surface and Distilled Water in Conventional Water Treatment Processes”.

5. A.G. Kapagiannidis, I. Zafiriadis, A. Aivasidis; “removal of nutrients from waste water

with emphasis on the denitrifying phosphorus removal”.

6. Stephen R. Harper, Frederick G. Pohland, “recent developments in hydrogen

management during anaerobic biological wastewater treatment”; Article first published

online: 18 FEB 2004.

7. Parag R Gogate, Aniruddha B Pandit; “A review of imperative technologies for

wastewater treatment I: oxidation technologies at ambient conditions”.

8. William A. Brungs (1973); Effects of Residual Chlorine on Aquatic Life; Journal (Water

Pollution Control Federation) Vol. 45, No. 10 (Oct., 1973), pp. 2180-2193