From Cradle to Antipodean Grave: Reconstructing 19th Century Criminal Lives

Prof Hamish Maxwell-StewartUniversity College Dublin

With thanks to the Australian Research Council, the Australian National Data Service, the Institute for a Broadband Enabled Society and the Universities of Melbourne, Flinders, ANU, Oxford (UK) and Guelph (Canada)

1

The Voyage to Australia!

340 voyages from the British Isles to Van Diemen’s Land!

Cape !

Mauritius!

India!

Norfolk Island!

New Zealand!

830 convict voyages from the British Isles to Australia 1787-1868.

Carrying 160,000 prisoners

340 to VDL 1803-1853

67,000 prisoners

A further 5,500 locally convicted or arrived on intercolonial transports

2

1st assessment of the impact of transportation from conviction through to end of sentence

Look at long-run social and epidemiological impact.

1

2 3 and intergenerational

3

Hair Colour

Eye Colour

Weight

Expanded and Unexpanded Chest Measurement

WWI recruits 14,899 Born in Tasmania

Intergenerational height data

+ Year of birth and death + Socio-economic data + Some medical records

Height

HeightHair Colour

Eye Colour

Convicts 59,000 men 13,500 women transported 1803-1853

Civil, marriage, birth and death

records

4

What can we learn about the health transition from transportation?

What can we learn about the long-run effects of various life course events on health (including intergenerational effects)?

What can we learn about the efficacy of various penal policies?

Can we transmit useful information to the descendants of convicts?

Can we supply useful information to the heritage tourism industry?

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Questions

5

0

1.60

3.20

4.80

6.40

8.00

In P

ort *

1st Q

uart

er

2nd

Qua

rter

3rd

Qua

rter

4th

Qua

rter 1st

2nd

3rd

4th

5th

6th

7th

8th

9th

10th

11th

12th

2.1 2.31.8

3.3

5.6

4.4

1.91.3

1.8

0.7 0.90.6

1.00.6

0.90.4

0.80.7

1.4 1.51.9

3.03.5 3.3

2.11.7 1.6 1.6

1.11.4

0.9 0.8

1.6

0.8

MalesFemales No of voyages = 81: Mean length of voyage = 118 days: No of convicts embarked = 12514

No of voyages = 208: Mean length of voyage = 116 days: No of convicts embarked = 48097

Voyage Van Diemen’s Land

Fig. 2 Death rates at sea and during the first year in the colony for male and female convicts arriving on voyages to VDL 1830-1853

Dea

ths

per

1000

per

mon

th

Months after landing

* For 59 male voyages and 36 female voyages the surgeon provides the date when convicts were first embarked and the date of sailing. The mean length of the embarkation process was slightly longer for male ships, 17 days, as opposed to 14 for female vessels. Deaths for the period in port and the four quartiles of the voyage have been weighted to 30 days.

6

Diarrhoea and dysentery

Diseases of the digestive system

Other fever

Diseases of the respiratory system

Respiratory tuberculosis

Diseases of the circulatory system

Sexually transmitted diseases

Nausea

Debility and marasmus

Diseases of the skin and subcutaneous tissue

Mental and behavioral disorders

Pregnancy, childbirth and the puerperium

Diseases of the eye and ear

Diseases of the genitourinary system

Diseases of the nervous system

Diseases of the blood and blood forming organs

Endocrine, deficiency and metabolic disorders

Neoplasm

Other infectious diseases

Unclassifiable

Accident

Convulsions and teething

Old age and decay

Other tuberculosis

Paralysis

Suicide

Unknown

Diseases of the musculoskeletal system

0 22.5 45.0 67.5 90.0

Diarrhoea and dysentery

Diseases of the digestive system

Fever

Diseases of the respiratory system

Respiratory tuberculosis

Diseases of the circulatory system

Sexually transmitted diseases

Nausea

Debility and marasmus

Diseases of the skin

Mental and behavioral disorders

Pregnancy, childbirth and the puerperium

Diseases of the eye and ear

Diseases of the genitourinary system

Diseases of the nervous system

Diseases of the blood

Scurvy

0 1.75 3.50 5.25 7.00

Deaths per 1000 convicts Diagnoses per 1000 convicts

7

0

3.0

6.0

9.0

12.0

In port 0-910 - 1

920 - 2

930 - 3

940 - 4

950 - 5

960 - 6

970 - 7

980 - 8

990 + Voyage Percentile

Dia

gnos

is r

ate

per

1000

con

vict

s Diarrhoea and Dysentery Diagnoses per 1000 Convicts

Males

Females

8

Route of the Isabella Watson taken from the log of Captain J.A.McDonald, Mitchell Library Sydney MSS 1808 /2x Item 3

0

0.4

0.8

1.2

1.6

In Port 0-9

10-19

20-29

30-39

40-49

50-59

60-69

70-79

80-89

90-99

0

0.23

0.45

0.68

0.90Seasickness and Accidents (cases per 1000 convicts)

Accidents Seasickness Percentage of Voyage Elapsed

Roaring 40s

Acc

iden

ts

Nau

sea

9

Indents

Native Place

Occupation

Age on arrival

Height

10

Marital Status

No Children

Religion

Literacy

Statement on family and circumstances

Offence transported for + priors

11

Father and Mother [Father] James native place 2 brothers Richard and William on board; 7 sisters Mary, Sarah, Lydia, Sophia, Eliza, Emma, Phoebe; Sarah London and Lydia

James Douce

? Douce

Sarah Douce

Lydia Douce

Mary Douce

Eliza Douce

Sophia Douce

Emma Douce

Phoebe Douce

James Douce

Richard Douce

William Douce

James Douce

SARAH Douce

Aged 40

Aged 45 Agricultural labourerSophia Douce

Lydia Douce

Richard Douce

Eliza Douce

Phoebe Douce

Flora Douce

17

11

14

8

2

4

Church St, Safron Walden

12

Native Place

Occupation

Age on arrival Height

Physical disabilities

Description Registers

13

14

Confession — marital status, transportable offence, prior offencesreligion and literacy(names of parents and siblings)

Each bench appearanceDateWhere employedChargeSentence (lashes, days irons, cells etc)Magistrate who heard case

Conduct Registers

15

!

!

Assigned or Public Works

Road Parties

Ticket of Leave

Full Pardon

Cond. Pardon

Chain Gangs

Penal Stations

Gallows

Assigned to Private Settlers

Ticket of Leave

Full Pardon

Cond. Pardon

Factory 1st Class

Factory 2nd Class

Factory Crime Class

Gallows

Males

Females

1816-1839

1816-1843

1844-1853

1840-1853

16

Distribution of Male Convicts 1st January 1839

Road Gangs11%

Public Works9%

Constables2%

Artificers on loan to settlers2%

Assigned34%

Port Arthur9%

Confined in Gaols1%

Hospital & Invalid Establishment

2%Missing & absconded

Ticket of Leave25%

Chain Gangs

Distribution of Female Convicts 1st January 1839

Invalid Establishment2%

Female Factories18%

Assigned56%

Ticket of Leave24%

!

Assigned or Public Works

Road Parties

Ticket of Leave

Full Pardon

Cond. Pardon

Chain Gangs

Penal Stations

Gallows

Males

17

18

Transp[orte]d for theft. Goal report ‘Bad character and connections’. Hulk report ‘orderly single’. Stated this offence Housebreaking been 9 or 10 times before the Magistrates but cannot tell what for.

May 16 1832, Murray, Gross insolence, 25 lashes & returned to his master, J. Simpson.

Augt 6 1832, Murray, Disobed[ien]ce of orders, 2 months impris[onmen]t & hard labor & ret[urne]d to his service, J. Simpson.

Octr 6 1832, Murray, Insolence, Rep[rimande]d, J. Leake.

Octr 221832, Murray, Insolence, Ret[urne]d to P[ublic] W[orks], J England.

Feby 18 1833, R[oa]d Party, Absco[ndin]g, 50 lashes, W[illiam] L. [yttleton]

March 7 1833, Road Party, Abscond[in]g, 70 lashes, WL & WK

May 4 1833, R[oa]d P[ar]ty, Having in his possession a quantity of potatoes for which he cannot account, Placed on No. 3 ration one month, W Lyttleton.

Septr 17 1833, R[oa]d P[arty], Abscond[in]g, 3 mo[nth]s imprison[men]t & hard labor, Notman’s gang recomm[ende]d, WL.

Septr 27 1833, Notmans ch[ain] g[ang], Inciting his fellow prisoners to insubord[inatio]n & refusing to work, 50 lashes, WL.

Jan 2 1834, R[oa]d P[ar]ty, Absconding, 6 months imprisonment & hard labor, Notman’s gang recomm[ende]d, RCG.

Octr 29 1834, Brand, Inducing Mr. Warne’s serv[an]t to leave his masters premises, 7 days Bread and Water and Sol[itar]y Conf[inemen]t, WL.

Jany 28 1835, Brand, Neglect of duty and making use of profane language, 3 months hard labor Westbury Road Party recomm[ende]d, RCG — Long meadows R[oa]d P[ar]ty Launceston vide L[ieutenan]t Gov[ernor’]s Decis[io]n 5 Feby 1835

Decr 1835, Newland, Disorderly conduct & violently assaulting Geo[rge] Williams, 6 mo[nth]s hard labour in ch[ain]s, RCG — At Laun[cesto]n vide L[ieutenan]t Gov[ernor’]s Decis[io]n 24 Decr 1835

Septr 30 1837, Newland, Larceny, Disch[arge]d, WF

The Lieutenant Governor has been pleased to grant this man a free pardon and 50 sovereigns for his praiseworthy conduct in apprehending Benjamin Ball, a bushranger of desperate character. Vide Gov[ernment]t. Notice 157.

19

Wicked GoodG

ALL

OW

S

PEN

AL

STA

TIO

N

CHA

ING

AN

G

ROA

DPA

RTY

ASS

IGN

EDA

ND

PU

BLIC

WO

RKS

TICK

ET O

FLE

AV

E

CON

DIT

ION

AL

PARD

ON

ABS

OLU

TEPA

RDO

N

AssignedRoad PartyChain Gang AssignedRoad PartyRoad PartyChain Gang AssignedRoad PartyChain Gang Assigned

Captures Bushranger — Free

David Gow’s Progress through the Convict System

Wicked GoodG

ALL

OW

S

PEN

AL

STA

TIO

N

CHA

ING

AN

G

ROA

DPA

RTY

ASS

IGN

EDA

ND

PU

BLIC

WO

RKS

TICK

ET O

FLE

AV

E

CON

DIT

ION

AL

PARD

ON

ABS

OLU

TEPA

RDO

N

20

December 1832 — Assigned to Mr Thomas Parker

26 July 1833 — Parker — Gross in subordination also assaulting his master and violently beating and assaulting his fellow servant. Original sentence extended two years and recommended to be sent to a penal settlement. MLS and JW. — Con 31/26

December 1833, Public Works

17 February 1834 — Road Party — Absent from the huts at an improper hour — 6 Mos Hard Labour Grass Tree Hill Recommended. WJP. — Con 31/26

19 March 1835 — Mack — Insolence and violent conduct in Mr Muir’s Public House — 36 Lashes and returned to his service. CPM. — Con 31/26

23 Sept 1835 — Transferred from J. D. Mack, Macquarie District to Alexander Downie, <[Norton Mandiville]> — Hobart Town Gazette, 24 Sept 1835.

December 1835, Assigned to Mr A Drought

18 April 1839 — The remaining part of his extended sentence remitted by order of His Excellency, vide memo of P. Supt. — Con 31/26

367 John Andrews1106 William Courtney1338 William Counsel1392 George Cornish274 William Elliot404 John French723 Daniel Groves504 James Leverett595 Charles Lane728 Charles Pizzie1377 Andrew West1379 John Wilson

211 Jane Boulter

347 Thomas FisherREV A. DROUGHTChurch of England Rector Green Ponds

EDWARD KENNEDY per ELIZABETH

MR THOMAS PARKER

J. D. MACKMacquarie District

ALEXANDER DOWNIENorton MandevilleHamilton

GRASS TREE HILL

ROAD PARTY

Employment History Fellow Workers

21

Bench

Property A

Property B

Property C

22

3. Penal policy shiftsa) Premodern - modern. Foucaultian shift punishments that focus on the body to punishments that focus on the mind.

0

2.50

5.00

7.50

10.00

1819

1821

1823

1825

1827

1829

1831

1833

1835

1837

1839

1841

1843

1845

1847

1849

1851

1853

1855

1857

0

0.8

1.5

2.3

3.0

Number of lashes and days cells per man (5 year moving average)

Lashes Cells

Day

s so

litar

y co

nfine

men

t pe

r m

an p

er y

ear

Num

ber

of la

shes

per

man

per

yea

r

Election of Whig Government

Introduction of probation system

23

White collar

Wood

Agricultural

Food and drink

Metal

Construction

land transport

Unskilled

Maritime transport

Domestic service

Clothing

Textile

0 15 30 45 60

Number of lashes received by convict over the course of their sentence

Weavers twice as likely to be flogged as agricultural labourers

24

0

0.225

0.450

0.675

0.900

1818

1820

1822

1824

1826

1828

1830

1832

1834

1836

1838

1840

1842

1844

1846

1848

1850

1852

1854

1856

1858

3.00

5.25

7.50

9.75

12.00

Charges brought against male convicts per man on strength (5 year moving average) and mechanics wages

Cha

rges

per

man

on

stre

ngth

Wag

es o

f mec

hani

cs (

shill

ings

per

day

)

Introduction of probation

25

0

15

30

45

60

18161818

18201822

18241826

18281830

18321834

18361838

18401842

18441846

18481850

18521854

18561858

Road party (days per man) Chain gang (days per man)

4

14

9

7.5

12.5

Male convict deaths per 1000 per year

(a)

(a)

£

(b)

(b) Cost of rationing a convicts for one year

£0

£40

£30

£20

£10

9Days spent in road parties or chain gang per year per man on strength (3 year moving average).D

ays

labo

ur p

er m

an o

n st

reng

th p

er y

ear

26

PANOPTICON

Vs

TRANSPORTATION

27

0

17.5

35.0

52.5

70.0

1 YEAR 2 YEARS 3 YEARS 4/5 YEARS

Assignment System, VDL, 1830-39Probation System, VDL, 1840-53Millbank Penitentiary, LondonEastern Penitentiary, Philadelphia

Dea

ths

per

1000

per

yea

r

Death rates male convicts and prisoners, Van Diemen’s Land, Millbank and Eastern State Penitentiary.

28

Marriage

Departure

Death

Perm

issi

on t

o m

arry

Certificate of FreedomConditional PardonFull Pardon

26.8

yea

rs o

ld

10.5 years (counting life as 30 yrs)

8.7 years

Escape

Rearrested

Pauper

1 in 25 sampleCon 40

Male convicts arriving Probation Era 1840-1853

Sampling Strategy

29

30

31

32

A Machine that Ground Some Rogues Dishonest?

33

34

Can we transmit useful information to the descendants of convicts? 4.

25% Link to marriage 90%

Con

vict

Free

Generation 2

Generation 1

Disproportionate number of descendants from a few fertile couples

50% childless Age at marriage + high rate of STDs amongst women (?)

Short sentenceSkilled

Long sentenceUnskilled

35