diffusion - courses.washington.educourses.washington.edu/.../luscombe/week3andweek4.pdf ·...
TRANSCRIPT
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Diffusion
Diffusion - Mass transport by atomic motion
Mechanisms•Gases & Liquids – random (Brownian) motion•Solids – vacancy diffusion or interstitial diffusion
Interdiffusion: In an alloy, atoms tend to migrate from regions of high conc. toregions of low conc.
Self-diffusion: In an elemental solid, atoms also migrate.
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Interdiffusion
Initially
Adapted fromFigs. 5.1 and5.2, Callister7e.
After some time
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Self-diffusion
Label some atoms After some time
A
B
C
DA
B
C
D
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Diffusion mechanisms
Vacancy Diffusion:• atoms exchange with vacancies• applies to substitutional impurities atoms• rate depends on: --number of vacancies --activation energy to exchange.
increasing elapsed time
Conditions:
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Diffusion simulation
• Simulation of interdiffusion across aninterface:
• Rate of substitutional diffusion depends on: --vacancy concentration --frequency of jumping.
(Courtesy P.M. Anderson)
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Diffusion flux
How do we quantify the amount or rate of diffusion?
Measured empirically• Make thin film (membrane) of known surface area• Impose concentration gradient• Measure how fast atoms or molecules diffuse through the membrane
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Steady-state diffusion
C1
C2
x
C1
C2
x1 x2
Flux proportional to concentration gradient =dx
dC
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Diffusion and temperature
• Diffusion coefficient increases with increasing T.
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Diffusion paths
Diffusion FASTER for...
• open crystal structures
• materials w/secondary bonding
• smaller diffusing atoms
• lower density materials
Diffusion SLOWER for...
• close-packed structures
• materials w/covalent bonding
• larger diffusing atoms
• higher density materials
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Elastic properties of materials
• Poisson's ratio, ν:
–ν > 0.50 density increases
–ν < 0.50 density decreases (voids form)
εL
ε
- ν
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Plastic deformation
• Simple tension test:
engineering stress, σ
engineering strain, ε
Elastic+Plastic at larger stress
permanent (plastic) after load is removed
εp
plastic strain
Elastic
initially
Adapted from Fig. 6.10 (a), Callister 7e.
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Yield strength, σy
Adapted from Fig. 6.10 (a), Callister 7e.
tensile stress, σ
engineering strain, ε
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Tensile strength, TS
• Metals: occurs when noticeable necking starts.• Polymers: occurs when polymer backbone chains are aligned and about to break.
σy
strain
Typical response of a metal
eng
inee
ring
stre
ss
engineering strain
• Maximum stress on engineering stress-strain curve.
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Ductility
• Plastic tensile strain at failure:
Adapted from Fig. 6.13,Callister 7e.
Engineering tensile strain, ε
Engineering tensile stress, σ
smaller %EL
larger %ELLf
AoAf
Lo
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Toughness
• Energy to break a unit volume of material• Approximate by the area under the stress-strain curve.
Adapted from Fig. 6.13,Callister 7e.
Engineering tensile strain, ε
Engineering tensile stress, σ
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Dislocation and plastic deformation
• Cubic & hexagonal metals - plastic deformation by plastic shear or slip whereone plane of atoms slides over adjacent plane by defect motion (dislocations).
Adapted from Fig. 7.1,Callister 7e.
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Dislocation motion
Edge dislocation
Screw dislocation
Adapted from Fig. 7.2,Callister 7e.
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Deformation mechanisms
Adapted from Fig.7.6, Callister 7e.
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Slip in single crystals
• Crystals slip due to a resolved shear stress, τR.
• Applied tension can produce such a stress.
slip planenormal, ns
Resolved shear stress:
slipdire
ction
AS
τR
τR
FS
slipdire
ction
Relation between σ and τR
λF
FS
φnS
AS
A
Applied tensile stress:
slipdire
ction
FA
F
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Critical resolved shear stress
• Condition for dislocation motion:
• Crystal orientation can make it easy or hard to move dislocation
σ σ σ
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Slip motion in polycrystals
• Stronger - grain boundaries pindeformations
• Slip planes & directions (λ, φ) changefrom one crystal to another.
• τR will vary from one crystal to another.
• The crystal with the largest τR yieldsfirst.
• Other (less favorably oriented) crystalsyield later.
Adapted from Fig.7.10, Callister 7e.(Fig. 7.10 iscourtesy of C.Brady, NationalBureau ofStandards [now theNational Institute ofStandards andTechnology,Gaithersburg, MD].)
σ
300 µm
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Strategies for strengthening: grain size reduction
• Grain boundaries are barriers toslip.
• Barrier "strength” increases withincreasing angle of misorientation.
• Smaller grain size: more barriersto slip.
• Hall-Petch Equation:
Adapted from Fig. 7.14, Callister 7e.(Fig. 7.14 is from A Textbook of MaterialsTechnology, by Van Vlack, PearsonEducation, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ.)
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Strategies for strengthening: solid solutions
Adapted from Fig. 7.4,Callister 7e.
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Effects of stress at dislocations
Adapted from Fig.7.5, Callister 7e.
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Strengthening by alloying
Adapted from Fig.7.17, Callister 7e.
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Strengthening by alloying
Adapted from Fig.7.18, Callister 7e.
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Strategies for strengthening: Cold work (%CW)
• Room temperature deformation.
• Common forming operations change the cross sectional area:
Adapted from Fig.11.8, Callister 7e.
-Forging
Ao Ad
force
dieblank
force-Drawing
tensile force
AoAddie
die
-Extrusion
ram billet
container
containerforce die holder
die
Ao
Adextrusion
-Rolling
roll
AoAd
roll
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Impact of cold work
Adapted from Fig. 7.20,Callister 7e.
As cold work is increased