Differentiated Instruction

EFRT 459

Jill Ziebell

Schools are like airport hubs; student passengers arrive from many different

backgrounds for widely divergent destinations. Their particular takeoffs into adulthood will

demand different flight plans.

~ Levine, 2002

Differentiated Instruction

Introduction

Differentiated instruction is a method of teaching in which the instructor

offers multiple approaches to meet the diverse needs of each learner in a classroom

in order to unlock the highest potential of the individuals.

Today’s teacher will not have to look far to uncover diversity in his or her

classroom. Tracy Huebner describes today’s classroom as not only culturally and

linguistically diverse, but also diverse in cognitive abilities, learning preferences,

and background knowledge. She states that teachers accommodate these diversities

by modifying what is taught, how it is taught, or how students are assessed. In order

for teachers to accomplish this teachers must understand the needs and

backgrounds of the individual students. Many schools are implementing

differentiated instruction in order to meet these needs. (Huebner, 2010)

Virgil Ward, in Lifetime Education- Propositions toward General Theory of

Education, states his beliefs on education. He states that traditional education does

not encourage higher levels of reasoning, but focuses on factual material, which

creates dependent learners. He believes it is important to create life-long

independent learners in order to discover the students full potential. He believes

this is done by shaping curriculum and instruction techniques to encourage the

development of the individual learner. (Ward, 1967)

According to Susan G. Cox, differentiated instruction creates clear goals and

strong links between instruction and assessment. Individual growth is emphasized

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and encouraged by whole class, group, and individual instruction. “Differentiated

instruction is a way up, not a way out”. (Cox, 2008)

Carol Ann Tomlinson describes differentiated instruction as a way of

thinking and teaching in which the instructor not only recognizes differences in

students, but also understands that students learn best when they can make a

connections to their own knowledge and life and when learning seems natural.

Students are also better able to learn when they feel important in their school and

classroom, which in turn will help to maximize the learning aptitude of each student.

(Tomlinson, 2000)

In a world of high stakes testing, “no-child left behind”, and push for higher

levels of education, it has become increasingly important to reveal each students

fullest capabilities. Differentiated instruction will play an important role in the

success of individual students, classrooms, and schools. It is important for teachers

to understand how it impacts their own instruction and the success of the students.

A teacher, who is better prepared for the diversity of his or her own classroom and

knows how to accommodate this diversity, will inevitably witness greater success.

History of Differentiated Instruction

Differentiation in education has been around since the days of the one room

schoolhouse, where teachers were required to instruct children of multiple ages and

abilities. In the 1930’s-1960’s, students were tracked according to their sex, culture,

or abilities. Higher achieving students took college bound classes while lower

achieving students were tracked into vocational or industrial classes, but students in

individual classes were instructed one way.

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Dr. Virgil Ward coined the phrase “differentiated instruction” in the 1960’s.

He believed that differentiated instruction was necessary for gifted students. In his

journal article entitled, Theory and Practice of Differential Education for the Gifted,”

Dr. Ward claims that it is society’s obligation to provide differentiated instruction to

the gifted. He claims this instruction will benefit society because gifted students

have much offer. He also states that the potential of gifted students remain

unknown without differentiated instruction. (Ward, 1986)

Stephanie Bravmann describes how she first learned of Dr. Ward’s

“differentiated instruction”. She states that Dr. Ward intended that differentiated

instruction be used to meet the needs of gifted students. He suggested adjusting the

curriculum to meet not only the needs of gifted students but also their interests.

Bravmann believes that Dr. Ward’s theories of differentiation can be used to enrich

the learning of students of every level and should not be limited to only the gifted

students. (Bravmann 2004)

In 1975, with the passage of PL 94-142 “Education of all Handicapped

Children Act”, teachers and schools revised their instruction techniques to

accommodate students with special needs. This act mandated that school districts

provide education to all students “in a least restrictive environment”. Students with

special needs were integrated into regular classrooms. Teachers used differentiated

instruction to accommodate students with physical handicaps, mental retardation,

speech, vision and language problems, emotional and behavioral problems, and

other learning disorders. (Office of Special Education Programs, 2000)

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Carol Tomlinson describes how today’s teachers meet the individual needs of

each student in a classroom, not just the gifted or special needs students. These

teachers use small group instruction, reading partners, personalized rubrics,

alternate assignments, alternate tasks with common goals, and many other

strategies. Another goal achieved by this type of instruction is creating students

who form their own identities as learners. They become independent responsible

learners. (Tomlinson, 2008) This instruction is very different from the instruction

students received in a one-room schoolhouse or from the tracking systems that

were once popular.

Functionalist Perspective on Differentiated Instruction

Functionalists believe that society is a set of systems. One element in society

functions according to the function of other elements. They also believe that society

exists independent of the people of that society and social stratifications are part of

society with each level having a function. Functionalist believe all this occurs

naturally and public education is where members of society learn to function in

society. (Feinberg & Soltis, 2009)

The role of one-room schools from a functionalist perspective was to train

students to assimilate in society. Beginning in the 1930’s, students learned their

roles in society by the tracking system set up with-in schools. High achieving

students attended classes that would help them in their quest for higher education.

Lower achieving students, or non-white students took classes with a vocational

background. From a functionalist’s perspective, the higher achieving students

should attend the college bound classes. These students are rewarded for their

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achievements and fulfill their role in society. The lower achieving students role in

society is to work in jobs that do not require higher-level education. From a

functionalist’s viewpoint, differentiation in the classroom is not necessary. The

appropriate member of society is filling his or her prescribed role based on his or

her achievements.

During the 1960’s Dr. Virgil Ward coined the phrase “differentiated

instruction”. Ward intended to stress the importance of finding ways to engage and

challenge gifted students. He believed it was a teacher’s obligation to instruct gifted

students in way that would meet their individual talents and interests. (Ward, 1986)

From a functionalist perspective, this would be called specificity, giving

consideration to an individual based on certain criteria. A functionalist may believe

that a gifted student’s achievements warrant a reward. The role of gifted students in

society is also different than that of other students making differentiated instruction

of these high achieving students appropriate.

Today’s teachers use differentiated instruction to meet the needs of all their

students not just the gifted. Teachers feel the pressure of high stakes testing and

look for ways to ensure the development of every student. The fundamentalist

perspective would suggest that differentiated instruction is not necessary. Students

that work hard are rewarded. Students who do not work hard or are not as talented

will assume a different role based on their achievements. Fundamentalists believe

that the same standards should apply to everyone, universalism. A fundamentalist

believes that “one instruction” does fit all.

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As a side note, some fundamentalist may look at differentiated instruction

differently due to cultural, historical, and intellectual impediments. These are

explanations for inequalities in education due to race, sex, culture, IQ,

discrimination, ECT. . A fundamentalist may say that certain students did not

receive equal education due to one of these impediments and may require

differentiated instruction to assimilate with the group and their role in society will

be determined from there.

Conflict Theory Perspective on Differentiated Instruction

Conflict theorists believe that society is made up of groups that are

constantly struggling to hold power and status. Conflict theorist believe those in

power create the rules of society that ensure their power remains in tact. They also

believe that the school exists as an Ideological State Apparatuses (ISA’s) a tool used

to keep the class system in tact, such as politics, media, and newspapers. When

ISA’s are successful hegemony occurs and the lower class accepts the ideals of a

more dominant class. Unlike fundamentalist, who believe roles are determined by a

natural system, conflict theorists believe classes are determined by political means,

by those in power. (Feinberg & Soltis, 2009)

How would a conflict theorist view the role of the school? The one-room

schoolhouse education in the 1800’s and the tracking systems of the 1900’s were

used to ensure the class systems remained in tact. The role of the school was to

teach children their expected role based on culture, background, sex, race, or social

status. Differentiated instruction was not available to students and students did not

have the opportunities to move up in the class system.

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Today’s conflict theorists would agree that differentiated instruction should

accommodate students with special needs, but should also accommodate lower

achieving students and students of different cultures or backgrounds should also

receive differentiated instruction. These students have not had the same

opportunities as higher-class students and differentiated instruction will level the

playing field.

Because of hidden curriculums, students are forced to conform to the ideals

of the people who hold the power in society, according to conflict theorists.

Differentiated instruction would allow a student to find his or her own way of

learning and possibly determine her or her own ideals. A teacher no longer

instructs by a prescribed set of guidelines set up by society. The teacher instructs

according to the learners needs and interests.

Traditional education, from a conflict theorists’ point of view, is oppressive.

Class-consciousness is necessary to create social change. Differentiated instruction

can aide the oppressed in their plight social change. A conflict theorist believes the

school role includes the equal educational success of all students, not only the

privileged. Differentiated instruction is one means to ensure this equality.

Interpretivists’ Perspective on Differentiated Instruction

Interpretivists believe that society is made up of individuals and these parts

work together and affect one another in multiple ways. Unlike Conflict theorists and

Functionalist, Interpretivists’ perspective has a local rather than global orientation.

They believe that an individual’s interpretation of the world is based on the set of

“rules” that individual has learned. Each individual has a different interpretation of

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any given situation, based on previous experiences, culture, and knowledge. This

individual interpretation changes as the individual gains knowledge and

experiences.

Interpretivists believe that there are many roles that schools play in differing

contexts, but the main role of school is to prepare every student for life in the adult’s

world. Interpretivists use socialization to describe the process by which new

members of a group come to acquire habits, attitudes or beliefs of the other

members. This is done when the new members learn the rules that regulate and

define society. School is where children learn the “rules” of the society and how to

make interpretations. Individuals learn to look at situations and decide between

good and bad interpretations, by determining which information is relevant to the

situation. From an Interpretivists point of view this skill is necessary to assimilate

into society. (Feinberg & Soltis, 2009)

From an Interpretivist point of view, education before differentiated

instruction was inadequate and was most likely a disservice to many students. They

would also believe that the lack of differentiation in a classroom would account for

the lack of success from its’ students. An Interpretivist believes that each individual

enters a classroom with his or her own perception. Each student has a different

context and a different set of “rules” on how to learn and conform in a classroom

setting. Interpretivists believe that using only one instructional strategy may leave

many students in the dark, because each student looks at the situation from a

different context.

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Differentiated instruction would be ideal from an Interpretivists’ point of

view. In order for a student to successfully participate in society, he or she must be

able to link the new “rules” (or new information) to existing “rules” (or known

information). An Interpretivist believes that differentiated instruction is not only

for the “gifted” or special needs students, but also for everyone. This differentiation

will also encourage classroom literacy, knowing roles of a classroom and of being

able to use this knowledge productively in the social and academic settings. From an

Interpretivists perspective a classroom without differentiated instruction is an

inferior classroom and serves a limited number of students.

Conclusions

Before making conclusions on differentiated instructions, one must first

decide the role of school in society. Is the school’s only purpose to provide

information and train its’ students for adult life? Is it the schools responsibility to

create social change? Should the school create independent learners who have

reached their full potential? What function should differentiated instruction play in

schools?

Functionalists believe school is a place to train students for their role in the

adult world. These roles occur naturally and hold significance in society. Conflict

theorists believe that schools are set up to maintain the order of power. Individuals

from the subordinate class have the right and obligation to upset the status quo and

create a social change. Like Functionalists, Interpretivists believe that schools

prepare students for adult life, but in a different way. Students attend school to

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learn the “rules” of society. Students learn by connecting new “rules or knowledge”

to “rules or knowledge” they have already acquired.

To help determine the role of the school in society, one must also consider

the ethical obligation to the student. The NEA Code of Ethics of the Education

Profession, Principle 1, Commitment to Student, states as follows, ”the educator

strives to help each student realize his or her potential as a worthy and effective

member of society. The educator therefore works to stimulate the spirit of inquiry,

the acquisition of knowledge and understanding, and thoughtful formulation of

worthy goals.” (Strike & Soltis, 2009)

According to the code of ethics, it is a teacher’s obligation to stimulate each

student so they develop an appetite for learning that will enable then reach his or

her full potential. Differentiated instruction can be a catalyst for teachers and

schools to meet the obligations stated in the code of ethics. Very similar to the code

of ethics, the goals of differentiated instruction are to create learning environments

that engage students from different perspectives and provide them with

appropriate individualized challenges. The ultimate goal is to uncover each

student’s fullest potential, in turn creating valuable members of society.

One important aspect of revealing a student’s capabilities is to create

independent learners. Independent learning and making connections are at the

foundation of differentiated instruction. Students who can link new information to

their own knowledge and life are in a sense creating their own avenue of discovery.

Learning becomes second nature to them, because they know how to make

connections. This type of learning gives students a sense of responsibility and pride

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and helps reveal the student’s potential. Students are no longer spectators taking in

information, but are explorers and experimenters making sense of new information

from what they already know.

Differentiated instruction does not suggest that a teacher create 25 lesson

plans to accommodate individual students. It does not have to overwhelm a teacher,

who feels limited by standards, curriculums, high-stakes tests, and a seven-hour

school day. Differentiated instruction does however, suggest creating a learning

environment that accommodates the diversity of its’ students. This is accomplished

by getting to know the student’s backgrounds, learning styles, culture, interests, and

abilities. Making accommodations for these diversities will allow students to learn

naturally. When learning is not forced, it becomes far more dynamic and reveals the

aptitudes of the students.

Dr. Ward suggested that by not offering differentiated instruction to gifted

and talented students would be a disservice to society. He believed that these were

the students who had the most to offer the world. I believe that it is a disservice to

society to not pull forth the full potential in every student. It is the role of the school

and teachers to uncover the countless abilities of its’ students to and differentiated

instruction plays an integral role in the education of today’s students.

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Bibliography

Bravmann, S. (2004, December). Two, four, six, eight, let's all differentiate differential education: Yesterday, today, and tomorrow. Retrieved July 12, 2010, from New horizons for learning website: http://www.newhorizons.org/strategies/differentiated/bravmann.htm

Stephanie Bravmann describes how she was first introduced to differential education while attending grad school. She learned of the work of Dr. Virgil Ward, who coined the phrase differential education. Dr. Ward’s intent was to create an alternative curriculum that would challenge gifted children. The instruction became student centered. Although the original intent of differential instruction was aimed toward the gifted students it could also pertain to all students. Bravmann also describe the three beliefs that differentiated instruction is based on: that all student’s learn differently, that quantity is more important than quality, and there is no one-size-fits all type of instruction. She also describes how differentiation is integral to the success of today’s learners.

Cox, S. (2008). Differentiated Instruction in the Elementary Classroom. Education Digest, 73(9), 52-54. Retrieved from Professional Development Collection database

Susan Cox describes today’s diverse classroom and the need for differentiated instruction, especially in the later years of school since students are greatly impact by prior learning. She also gives example of 3 teaching strategies, cube activities, versatile instruction, and anchor activities. She states that because instruction and assessment are closely matched student success is inevitable.

Feinberg, W., & Soltis, J. F. (2009). Thinking About Education Series: School and society (5th ed.). New York, NY: Teachers College Press.

School and Society describes the relationship between school and society. It also describes how this relationship is described from three perspectives, Functionalist, Conflict Theorist, and Interpretivist. The book gives examples of different situations that could occur in a school or social settings and describes how the individual perspectives would perceive the situations. The book also describes how each of the three theories views the roles of school in society through scenarios. It also challenges the reader to decide how different viewpoints perceive scenarios and asks the reader to decide how this affects schools and society.

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Huebner, T. A. (2010, February). Differentiated instruction. Educational Leadership, 79-82.

Tracy Huebner discusses what research says about differentiated instruction. She states that research on the subject is minimal, but what has been found is that differentiated instruction benefits students in numerous ways. Research shows that students with multiple ability levels in one classroom benefit from differentiated instruction. One study suggests that adjusting the contents, the process, or the product is the most common way to differentiate in a classroom. This article explains that there is no one-way to differentiate instruction and is often difficult to implement into school districts. It also helps explain many of the benefits of differentiated instruction to many levels of learning and many areas of the curriculum.

Office of Special Education Programs. (2000). History twenty-five years of progress in educating children with disabilities through IDEA. Retrieved July 21, 2010, from http://www2.ed.gov/ policy/speced/leg/idea/history.pdf

This document highlights the progress that has been mad since the passage of Education for All Handicapped Children Act (Public Law 94-142) and IDEA. The article highlights how students with special needs are now mainstreamed into classrooms. In 1997 IDEA added Amendment PL105-17, which required special needs student to have IEP’s. This would help ensure that special needs students are receiving differentiated instruction.

Strike, K. A., & Soltis, J. F. (2009). Thinking About Education Series: The ethics of teaching (5th ed.). New York, NY: Teachers College Press.

The Ethics of Teaching examines the NEA code of ethics and how it applies to educators. The book describes how consequential and non-consequential points of views determine decisions people make. The book uses scenarios that apply to the individual ethic codes. The reader is given possible arguments to force the look at all possible decisions. The book does not say what the best ethical choices are, but rather instructs the teacher to weigh all possibilities.

Tomlinson, C. A. (2000, September). Reconcilable differences? Standards-based teaching and differentiation . Education leadership, 58(1), 6-11.

Carol Tomlinson describes how standardized testing and differentiated instruction can work together in a classroom. Differentiation is based on a set of beliefs that students have unique learning styles and abilities, students learn best when challenged and the learning environment occurs naturally. Standardized tests have caused teachers to instruct according to a prescribed curriculum. Tomlinson gives examples of school districts that have struggled with instruction and standardized tests. Tomlinson goes on to suggest that

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differentiated instruction and standardize testing can work together. She believes that the curriculum tells teachers what to teach and differentiated instruction tells teachers how to teach it. She goes on to say that any instruction strategy that does not teach the individual student is flawed.

Tomlinson, C. A. (2008, November). The goals of differentiation. Educational Leadership, 26-30.

Carol Tomlinson describes that the goals of differentiated instruction are not only curriculum mastery, but also creating students who are independent, responsible, and confident learners. She say this is done by building the trust of students, this is done by ensuring the students that the teacher is on their side and believes they are capable. The next step is making sure the instruction fits they students. The student’s needs are met with various instructional strategies. The third element describes by Tomlinson is the students voice. The students are aware that they have power over their destinies. The final element in is developing awareness. This means the students understand how they learn and are able to use these skills to further their learning. These four elements help students realize that they are responsible for their own learning.

Ward, V. S. (1967, April). Lifetime education-propositions toward a general theoryof education for these times. Educational Sciences, 5-11.

Dr. Ward describes what he calls the 4 key elements of lifetime education. Included in the key elements are the concept of education through the life span, the concept of all knowledge, the concept of institutional training for personal development, and the concept of education as a function of individual peer group. These elements create individuals who are productive members of society. This type of education cannot be accomplished with traditional education, individualized education is necessary.

Ward, V. (1986, August). Theory in the practice of differential education for gifted. Roeper Review, 263-271.

Dr. Virgil Ward discusses why it is necessary to differentiate instruction to gifted students. His first point is that is an obligation of a democratic society to develop the abilities of gifted students, because these students will contribute to society for the rest of their lives. Some of his other points include the belief to fully expand human potential, there are deficiencies if differentiated gifted education, and gifted differentiated education allows students to use philosophic analysis as scientific methodology. Dr. Ward also describes to explain his reasoning.

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