different dimensions of curriculum development

8/10/2019 Different Dimensions of Curriculum Development

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Apply the most effective and relevant

teaching and learning methodologies.

Evaluate teaching and learning

processes in our education system.

2. Definition of CurriculumPlan or program of all experiences

which the learner encounters under the

direction of a school (Tanner and

Tanner).

the totality of the experiences of

children for which schools are

responsible. (Gatawa)

3. Designing and planning the

curriculumThe following three questions should

be answered to plan, review, design

and evaluate the curriculum:

what are you trying to achieve?

how can you organise learning to

achieve these aims?

how will you know if you have been

successful?

Adapted from www.qcda.gov.uk


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4. Components of CurriculumCurriculum has the following

components:

Standards

Context

Content

Instruction

Assessment

We can add more components of

curriculum; these are:

Curriculum Design - Creating the

curriculum in schoolsCurriculum Delivery -

Implementation, supervising,

monitoring or using feedback to

improve the curriculum

Curriculum Coordination -Lateral

focus and connectivity

Curriculum Articulation -Vertical

focus and connectivity

Broad analysis of the bases and components of curriculum:


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5. Characteristics of the

Curriculum:Curriculum has the following

characteristics:

It comprises the experiences of childrenfor which the school is responsible.

It has content.It is planned.

It is a series of courses to be taken by

students.The curriculum is viewed as a

composite whole including the learner,

the teacher, teaching and learningmethodologies, anticipated and

unanticipated experiences, outputs and

outcomes possible within a learninginstitution.

6. Curriculum PerspectivesRationalists say:True knowledge is achieved by the mind.

Knowledge is a series of revelations.

Empiricists think:

True knowledge is derived fromevidence.

Authentic knowledge comes through thesenses.

Pragmatists believe that:Knowledge is hypothetical and changing

constantly.

Knowledge is experienced.Knowledge cannot be imposed on the

learner.Knowledge is a personal activity.

Knowledge is socially constructed.

Existentialists or phenomenologistconclude that:

Knowledge is personal and subjective.

Knowledge is ones own uniqueperception of ones world.

Education should be less formal.Curricula should be diverse, not

common for all.

Comparison of different perspectives of curriculum:


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7. Elements of CurriculumThe following diagram clarifies the elements of curriculum:

Elements of CurriculumElements of Curriculum

Purpose

The purpose of a curriculum:

is based on the social aspirations of

society,

outlines the goals and aims of the

program, andis expressed as goals and objectives.

There are three categories of goals

and objectives:

cognitive, referring to intellectual

tasks,

psychomotor, referring to muscular

skills, and

affective, referring to feeling and

emotions.

Content or Subject Matter

The content of the curriculum:

is divided into bodies of knowledge,

for example, mathematics, English and

science;

outlines the desired attitudes and

values;

includes cherished skills;

is determined by prevailing theories of

knowledge; and

caters to ideological, vocational andtechnical considerations.

Methods

The methods outlined in a curriculum:

deal with teaching and learning

experiences, and

involve organizational strategies.

Flexible teaching methods facilitate

learning.

Evaluation

Evaluation is used to:

select appropriate content based on the

aims and objectives of the curriculum;

select appropriate methods to address

the content and purpose;


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check the effectiveness of methods and

learning experiences used;check on the suitability and the

appropriateness of the curriculum in

answering social needs;

give feedback to the planners, learners,

teachers, industry and society; and

provide a rationale for making

changes.

We should note that in conducting

evaluations, judgments must be made

regarding:

inputs,

means,

content,

outputs, and

outcomes of the whole learning

process.

Benefits of curriculum evaluation:

For Planners

improved institution

identification of relevant resources for

content and curriculum

determination of the appropriateness

of the curriculumidentification of needs

improvement of learners and teachers

provision of feedback to society

regarding the level to which goals and

aims were achieved

For Employers

preparation of workers with relevant

skills for the work force

trainable workers who know how to

learn

knowledgeable workers

For Learnersimproved performance, knowledge

and skills

relevant content

access to appropriate learning

experiencesincreased opportunities

For Teachers

improved performance, knowledge

and skills

better understanding of learner

increased confidence

improved material resources

improved working conditions

improved teaching content

8. Types of Curricula

Formal CurriculumIt is the officially selected body of

knowledge which government,

through the Ministry of Education or

any body offering education, wants

students to learn.

Informal Curriculum

Teachers or instructors may not adhere

to the presented formal curriculum but

can include other aspects of

knowledge derived from other sources.This additional material is called the

informal curriculum.

Actual Curriculum

This refers to both written and

unwritten syllabuses from which

students encounter learning

experiences (Tanner and Tanner

1975).

Hidden Curriculum

Hidden Curriculum is the non

academic but educationally significant

component of schooling. It is also

called collateral curriculum.


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Core Curriculum

It refers to the area of study, courses or

subjects that students must understand

in order to be recognized as educated

in the area. In other words, core

refers to the heart of experiences

every learner must go through. The

learner has no option but to study the

prescribed course or subjects.

Extra-Mural Curriculum

Coaching and training in various

aspects of school sports are some of

the extra-curricular learning

experiences available to students. As

you know, these experiences are not

stipulated in the formal curriculum.

9. Factors That Influence

Curriculum Design

influence of politics on curriculuminfluence of society on curriculum

influence of economy on

curriculum

influence of technology on

curriculum

influence of environment on

urriculuminfluence of child psychology on

curriculum.


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Factor Explanation

Political factors - determine and define the goals, content, learning experiences

and evaluation strategies;

- influence the selection and interpretation of curricular

materials;

- influence funding of edudation;

- influence entry into educational institutions and the

examination systems; and

- play a part in the hiring of personnel

Social factors - influence the selection and interpretation of resources

- influence the hiring of personnel

Economic factors -influence goals, content and learning experience

- influence material production

- influence standard of academic attainment

Technological factors - same as economic factors

Environmental factors - influence goals, content and learning experiences

- influence material production

Theories of child

psychology

- influence curriculum content and delivery methods

- influence scheduling and timetabling

10. Models of Curriculum

Design

the objectives model,

the process model,

Tylers model,

Wheelers model, and

Kerrs model.

The Objectives Model

The objectives model of curriculum

design contains content that is based

on specific objectives. These

objectives should specify expected

learning outcomes in terms of specific

measurable behaviors.

This model comprises four main steps:

agreeing on broad aims which are

analyzed into objectives,

constructing a curriculum to achieve

these objectives,

refining the curriculum in practice by

testing its capacity to achieve its

objectives, and

communicating the curriculum to the

teachers through the conceptual

framework of the objectives.


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The Process ModelUnlike th objectives model, this model

does not consider objectives to be

important. Using this model presupposesthat:

Content has its own value. Therefore, it

should not be selected on the basis of theachievement of objectives.

Content involves procedures, concepts

and criteria that can be used to appraisethe curriculum.

Translating content into objectives may

result in knowledge being distorted.Learning activities have their own value

and can be measured in terms of theirown standard. For this reason, learning

activities can stand on their own.


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Ten-step Curriculum Planning Process Model

Ten-Step

Curriculum

Planning

Process Model

Identify

Curricular Need

Develop Goals and

Objectives

Identify Resources

and Restraints

Organize Curriculum

Committees

Establish Roles of

Personnel

Identify New

Curriculum

Select New

Curriculum

Design New

Curriculum

Implement New

Curriculum

Evaluate

Curriculum

Tylers ModelTylers model for curriculum

designing is based on the following

questions:

What educational purposes should the

school seek to attain?

What educational experiences can be

provided that are likely to attain these

purposes?

How can these educational

experiences be effectively organized?

How can we determine whether these

purposes are being attained?


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Wheelers Model

Wheelers model for curriculum

design is an improvement upon Tylers

model. Instead of a linear model,

Wheeler developed a cyclical model.

Evaluation in Wheelers model is not

terminal. Findings from the evaluation

are fed back into the objectives and the

goals, which influence other stages.

Wheeler contends that:

Aims should be discussed as behaviors

referring to the end product of learning

which yields the ultimate goals. One

can think of these ultimate goals as

outcomes.

Aims are formulated from the general

to the specific in curriculum planning.

This results in the formulation of

objectives at both an enabling and a

terminal level.

Content is distinguished from the

learning experiences which determine

that content.

Kerrs Model

Most of the features in Kerrs model

resemble those in Wheelers and

Tylers models. However, Kerr

divided the domains into four areas.

objectives,

knowledge,

evaluation, and

school learning experiences.


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What we should note about the model

is that:

the four domains are interrelated

directly or indirectly, and

objectives are derived from school

learning experiences and knowledge.

In Kerrs model, objectives are divided

into three groups:

affective

cognitive

psychomotor.The model further indicates that

knowledge should be:

organized,

integrated,

sequenced, and

reinforced.

In his model, Kerr asserts that

everything influences everything else

and that it is possible to start an

analysis at any point.

In designing a curriculum, we need

to:

Establish or obtain general goals of

education.

Reduce the general goals to specific

instructional objectives, including

objectives that cover different domains

and levels.

Assess prior student knowledge and/or

abilities.

Break learning into small, sequential

steps.

Identify teacher behavior.

Identify student behavior.

Write a description of the lesson.Evaluate to see if the intended

outcomes have been achieved.

If we complete these eight stages, we

would have conducted what is

generally referred to as the task

analysis process.

11. Patterns of Curriculum Designing

Two patterns of curriculum designing:

centralized curriculum designing

decentralized curriculum designing.

Centralized Pattern ofCurriculum DesigningA centralized curriculum designing

pattern is one in which the content is


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decided upon by a central national

office. The actual work in designingthe curriculum may be completed by a

contracted consulting company, a

parastatal organization or a division of

the Ministry of Education.

Characteristics of a centralized

pattern of curriculum

designingThe subject content is decided upon

centrally. National syllabuses are

produced with national goals and

philosophies as well as suggestedgeneral learning objectives.

Subject content evaluation instruments

are developed centrally and decisions

on when and how to administer these

instruments rest with the Ministry of

Education or the Examination Board

that has been assigned the

responsibility.

Subjects to be offered by schools are

determined centrally. Schools choose

their subjects from a given list.

All learners taking the same subject

write the same examination and are

assessed in the same skills. However,

adjustments in testing are made for

students who may have certain

disabilities.

Certification is centrally controlled.

The certification indicates what has

been learned by the student and how

well the student has performed

compared to others taking the same

course.Generally, textbooks must be approved

by the Ministry of Education before

any school uses these books.

Normally, there are curriculum

development teams at different levels.An inspectorate or standards control

division is put in place to monitor the

learning and teaching activities.

It takes a long time to write and

approve the final curriculum

document.

Decentralized Pattern of

Curriculum DesignThe decentralized pattern of

curriculum design occurs when the

local authorities or individual statesdraft their own curriculum. This type

of designing is common in developed

countries.

This pattern of curriculum designing

has the following characteristics:

Local communities initiate the changes

to suit their local needs.

Teachers work with the parents to

determine the content. The learning

experiences are based on what is

available.

Subjects in schools could be the same,but the content will vary from school

to school, state to state, or district to

district.

Each school, state or district has its

own syllabus that is produced locally.

Generally, the textbooks may not have

been centrally approved.

Each school, state or district has its

own form of evaluation.

Very few people are involved in

curriculum designing.

12. Curriculum Implementation

Curriculum implementation entails

putting into practice the officially


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prescribed courses of study, syllabuses

and subjects. The process involveshelping the learner acquire knowledge

or experience.

It is important to note that curriculum

implementation cannot take place

without the learner. The learner is

therefore the central figure in the

curriculum implementation process.

Implementation takes place as the

learner acquires the planned or

intended experiences, knowledge,

skills, ideas and attitudes that are

aimed at enabling the same learner to

function effectively in a society.

Curriculum implementation refers to

how the planned or officially designed

course of study is translated by the

teacher into syllabuses, schemes of

work and lessons to be delivered to

students.Elements in implementation

course syllabus

the teacher

the teaching and learning materials

and equipment

the teaching and learning environment

the learner.

Factors of Curriculum

Implementation

The Teacher

The Learners

Resource Materials and Facilities

Interest Groups

The School Environment

Culture and Ideology

Instructional Supervision

Assessment

13. Factors Affecting Curriculum Implementation

Temporal

Physical

Political-legalOrganizational

Personal

Economic

Cultural

Time: quantity, frequency, duration, scheduling

Natural and built environment; materials and equipment

State and federal mandates, limits, requirementsAdministrative factors, including size, groupings, policies

Backgrounds, abilities, interests of students, staff, parents

Costs and benefits, broadly conceived

Values and beliefs of school and community

14. Curriculum Evaluation

The process of describing and judging

an educational program or subject.

The process of comparing a students

performance with behaviorally stated

objectives.The process of defining, obtaining and

using relevant information for

decision-making purposes.

Curriculum Evaluation

Approachesbureaucratic evaluation

autocratic evaluation

democratic evaluation

norm-referenced evaluationcriterion-referenced evaluation.


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Functions of Curriculum

Evaluationinforming decision-makers on the state

of affairs of certain curriculum

program or syllabuses, and

enabling teachers to evaluate

themselves.

Focuses of Evaluation1. Curriculum Objectives

Are the objectives worthwhile?

Can they be achieved?

What are the expected outcomes?

2. Curriculum Content andMethodology

3. Curriculum Outcomes

Forms ofEvaluationFormative Evaluation

Formative evaluation answers two

questions:

Is the instruction successful?

If it is not successful, what can be

done to avoid failure?

Summative Evaluation

Evaluation Methods and Tools

observations

interviews

tests

questionnaires.

15. Curriculum Change and

Innovation

Curriculum Change

Change as embracing the concepts of

innovation, development, renewal and

improvement of a curriculum.

Curriculum change is dictated by the

changes in the economic, social andtechnological aspects of a society.

Change has magnitude and direction

and occurs within a definite time frame.

Curriculum Innovation

Curriculum innovation is anyimprovement that is deliberate

measurable, durable and unlikely to

occur frequently. It is the creation,

selection, organization and utilization

of human and material resources in

ways that result in higher achievement

of curriculum goals and objectives.

Sources of Curriculum Change and

Innovation

Types of Change

Hardware Types.

These changes are introduced by

additions to facilities such as new

classrooms, equipment, books and

play grounds.

Software Types.

These affect the content and range of

the curriculum itself. They may be

related to the methods of delivery

recommended by curriculum initiators,

designers and developers.

Forms of Change

Substitution. In this change, oneelement replaces another previously in

use. Examples are new textbooks, new

equipment or the replacement of

teachers and administrators.

Alteration. This involves change in

existing structures rather than a

complete replacement of the whole

curriculum, syllabus or course of

study.

Addition.This is the introduction of a

new component without changing old

elements or patterns. New elementsare added to the existing program

without seriously disturbing the main

structure and content of the prescribed


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curriculum. These could be support

inputs such as audio-visual aids,workshops and equipment.

Restructuring. This involves the

rearrangement of the curriculum in

order to implement desired changes. It

may also involve the sharing of

resources among a group of schools or

institutions.

Basic steps for making significant

change

Identify the problem or concern.

Generate possible solutions.

Select a particular solution.

Try the solution.

Evaluate the solution formatively and

summatively.

Review the outcomes of the trial.

Implement the solution on a wide

scale.

16. Curriculum policy

The need to build social cohesion and

national identity in global society and

to preserve cultural heritage

The need to impart cultural, ethical,and moral values

Concern for future economic well-

being, international competitiveness

Concern for equal opportunity and

equity, (urban/rural, gender, income,

disabilities, etc.)

The desire to raise achievement for all

students

17. Essential principles

underpinning quality provision

for children

In recognition of how our views orimages of children impact on both how

we interact with them and the types of

experiences we provide:

Viewing children positively as capable

and competentAcknowledging children as having

rights

Valuing the richness that cultural

diversity brings to learning situations

Recognizing children as being literate

within the culture of their community

and families

B. In recognition of the special

characteristics of children

Focusing on a sense of well being

and belonging

Acknowledging the importance of

relationships

Recognizing play is central

Enabling Environments: Learning

through exploration, engagement,

inquiry, investigation, hands on

real life experiences, risk taking

and problem solving

C. In recognition of the importance of

collaboration and partnerships in

education

Empowering children, families andthe communities

Viewing teachers as scaffolders

and as co-constructors of learning

Valuing and embracing diversity

Acknowledging the multicultural

nature of society

D. In recognition of quality teaching

and learning approaches

Interweaving teaching, learning,

and assessment

Learning through play

Using teachable moments forfocused teaching and learning

Embedding rich literacy and

numeric experiences into programs


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Acknowledging the environment

as the third teacherRecognizing the quality of

teaching staff as critical to quality

program delivery

18. Basic Principles of Curriculum

Construction

Monroe says;

The curriculum is the childs

introduction to life, as schooling is the

preparation for it.

Spencer-

A rationally conceived curriculum

must be resultant of the two forces -

the nature of the child and the

requirements of the community.

Principles of the Curriculum

childs sense of wonder

immediate environment

integrated learning

developmental learning

existing knowledge and experience

individual difference

transfer of learning

higher-order thinking andproblem solving

child as active agent

activity and guided discovery

collaborative learning

assessment integral

centrality of language

aesthetic dimension

social and emotional dimension

19. Summary

The task of curriculum development

might be redefined as putting together

many resources into a compendium.The goal, then, is not to order up a

specific training program for a

particular audience, but rather to

provide a menu from which eachaudience can choose something

suitable (CSAP). Changes in the world

context, the vertiginous production of

knowledge, cutting-edge technology,

and new functions delegated to schools

undoubtedly create pressure for and

enliven new challenges in curricular

policy(Prelac). Juan Manuel Moreno

(2006) outlines that Education reform

all over the world is increasingly

curriculum-based, as mounting

pressures and demands for change tend

to target and focus on both the

structures and the very content of

school curriculum.

Curriculum is usually defended by

arguing that their learning is necessary

in order to achieve one or several of

the following proposals: (Csar Coll /

Elena Martn)

a) to make possible full exercise of

citizenship within the framework

of the society of reference;b) to be able to construct and develop

a satisfactory life project;

c) to assure balanced personal,

emotional, and affective

development;

d) to be able to access other future

educational processes with a

guarantee of success.

References1. Braslavsky, C. 2002. The New Centurys

Change: New Challenges and Curriculum

Responses. New Delhi: COBSE InternationalConference.

2. Introducing the new primary curriculum:

Qualifications and Curriculum Development

Agency, UK.


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3. Jackson, P.W. (1992). Handbook of Research

on Curriculum. N.Y.: Macmillan.4. Kallen, D. (l996). Curriculum reform in

secondary education: Planning, development,

and implementation. European Journal of

Education5. Kelly, A. V. (1983; 1999) The Curriculum.

Theory and practice 4e, London: Paul

Chapman.

6. Moreno, J. M. 2006..The Dynamics ofCurriculum Design and Development. In

School Knowledge in Comparative and

Historical Perspective. Changing Curricula in

Primary and Secondary Education (edited byAaron Benavot and Cecilia Braslavsky). HongKong: Comparative Education Research

Centre.

7. Oliva, P.F. (2001). Developing theCurriculum. 5th ed. N.Y.: Longman.

8. Ornstein, A.C. & Hunkins, F.P. (1998).

Curriculum: Foundations, Principles andIssues Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

9. Smith, M. K. (1996, 2000) 'Curriculum theory

and practice' the encyclopaedia of informal

education, www.infed.org/biblio/b-curric.htm.10. Tanner, D. & Tanner, L. (l995). Curriculum

development: Theory into practice (3rd

ed.).

Columbus, OH: Prentice Hall Publishers.11. The curriculum in the spotlight , prelac journal

/ No 3,The UNESCO Regional Bureau ofEducation for Latin America and the

Caribbean OREALC/UNESCO Santiago

12. The National Curriculum Primary handbook:

Qualifications and Curriculum13. Development Agency, UK

14. Wraga, W. G. & Hlebowitsh, P. S. (2003).Toward a renaissance in curriculum theory anddevelopment in the USA. Journal of

Curriculum Studies, 35(4), 425-437.

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