Differences in Differences in CultureCulture

Chapter 3Chapter 3

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What is Culture?What is Culture?

““Culture is that complex whole which includes Culture is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and other knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and other capabilities acquired by man as a member of society.”capabilities acquired by man as a member of society.”

- Edward Tylor- Edward Tylor

What is Culture?What is Culture?

““A system of values and norms that are shared A system of values and norms that are shared among a group of people and that when taken among a group of people and that when taken

together constitute a design for living.”together constitute a design for living.”- Hofstede, Namenwirth, and Weber- Hofstede, Namenwirth, and Weber

Culture, Society, and the Culture, Society, and the Nation StateNation State

A society is a group of people bound A society is a group of people bound together by a common culturetogether by a common culture

There is not a strict one-to-one There is not a strict one-to-one correspondence between a society and correspondence between a society and a nation statea nation state

Nation State:Nation State: Is a political creation Is a political creation May contain a single culture or several culturesMay contain a single culture or several cultures

The Determinants of The Determinants of CultureCulture

LanguageLanguage

SpokenSpoken Verbal cuesVerbal cues Language structures perception of Language structures perception of

world world

UnspokenUnspoken Body languageBody language Personal spacePersonal space

Formal EducationFormal Education Medium through which many of society’s language, Medium through which many of society’s language,

conceptual, and mathematical skills are taughtconceptual, and mathematical skills are taught Supplements the family’s role in socializing the Supplements the family’s role in socializing the

young into the values and norms of a society young into the values and norms of a society

Schools teach social and political values and the Schools teach social and political values and the fundamental obligations of citizenship fundamental obligations of citizenship

Cultural norms are also taught indirectly at schoolCultural norms are also taught indirectly at school respect for othersrespect for others obedience to authorityobedience to authority honestyhonesty neatnessneatness being on timebeing on time competition and personal acheivement (grading system)competition and personal acheivement (grading system)

Dimensions of Culture in Dimensions of Culture in the Workplacethe Workplace

Power distancePower distance – extent of power differential – extent of power differential across societal groups across societal groups

Individualism versus collectivismIndividualism versus collectivism - the - the relationship between the individual and others relationship between the individual and others within a culturewithin a culture

Uncertainty avoidanceUncertainty avoidance - extent to which - extent to which individuals are comfortable with uncertain or individuals are comfortable with uncertain or ambiguous situations ambiguous situations

Masculinity versus femininityMasculinity versus femininity - the relationship - the relationship between gender and work rolesbetween gender and work roles

Time orientationTime orientation – acceptable time for fruits of – acceptable time for fruits of labor (drawn from Confucianism)labor (drawn from Confucianism)

Work-Related Values forWork-Related Values for20 Selected Countries20 Selected Countries

Long-Term Orientation Long-Term Orientation Across CountriesAcross Countries

National Cultural National Cultural ClusteringClustering

Ronen and Shenkar’s culture clustering

Problems with HofstedeProblems with Hofstede

Assumes one-to-one relationship Assumes one-to-one relationship between culture and the nation statebetween culture and the nation state

Research may have been culturally Research may have been culturally boundbound

Survey respondents were from a Survey respondents were from a single industry (computer) and a single industry (computer) and a single company (IBM)single company (IBM)

Cultural ChangeCultural Change

Culture is not a constant; it evolves Culture is not a constant; it evolves over timeover time Since 1960s American values toward the role Since 1960s American values toward the role

of women have changedof women have changed Japan moved toward greater individualism in Japan moved toward greater individualism in

the workplacethe workplace

Globalization will continue to have Globalization will continue to have impacts on cultures around the impacts on cultures around the worldworld

Religious and Ethical Religious and Ethical SystemsSystems

Religion: Religion: a system of shared beliefs and rituals a system of shared beliefs and rituals that are concerned with the realm of the sacred that are concerned with the realm of the sacred

Ethical systems:Ethical systems: a set of moral principles, or a set of moral principles, or values, that are used to guide and shape behaviorvalues, that are used to guide and shape behavior Most of the world’s ethical systems are the product of religionsMost of the world’s ethical systems are the product of religions

Among the thousands of religions in the world Among the thousands of religions in the world today, four dominate in terms of numbers of today, four dominate in terms of numbers of adherents:adherents: Christianity Christianity with 1.7 billion adherentswith 1.7 billion adherents IslamIslam with 1 billion adherents with 1 billion adherents Hinduism with 800 million adherentsHinduism with 800 million adherents Buddhism with 350 million adherentsBuddhism with 350 million adherents

ReligionReligion

ReligionReligion

HinduismHinduism Began in at least 4000 BC, possibly earlierBegan in at least 4000 BC, possibly earlier Believed to be polytheistic, but the central belief is that Believed to be polytheistic, but the central belief is that

everything is one with God (Brahma)everything is one with God (Brahma) Purpose of life is to realize that we are part of God, and Purpose of life is to realize that we are part of God, and

this process of self-improvement is achieved by going this process of self-improvement is achieved by going through cycles of birth, life and death (reincarnation)through cycles of birth, life and death (reincarnation)

Moksha or oneness with God is the goal, cycle of Moksha or oneness with God is the goal, cycle of rebirth stopsrebirth stops

Multiple deities, however, these are reincarnations of Multiple deities, however, these are reincarnations of Brahma. When mankind is in trouble, God comes down Brahma. When mankind is in trouble, God comes down in the form of man (or sometimes beast) to help.in the form of man (or sometimes beast) to help.

Holy Book: GitaHoly Book: Gita Place of Worship: TemplePlace of Worship: Temple

BuddhismBuddhism Began in 537 BC by Gautam Buddha; third Began in 537 BC by Gautam Buddha; third

oldest religion of the world.oldest religion of the world. The Middle Path: extremes of behavior are The Middle Path: extremes of behavior are

not good. One must figure out for oneself not good. One must figure out for oneself what the appropriate approach is.what the appropriate approach is.

Thinking man’s religion: people are not told Thinking man’s religion: people are not told what to do. To gain knowledge is critical in what to do. To gain knowledge is critical in this process, leading to enlightenmentthis process, leading to enlightenment

Belief in reincarnation; goal is nirvanaBelief in reincarnation; goal is nirvana No god in this religion, or need for a savior. No god in this religion, or need for a savior.

Only teachers and spiritual leaders thought to Only teachers and spiritual leaders thought to be reincarnated from Buddha.be reincarnated from Buddha.

ConfucianismConfucianism Confucius born in 551 BC. Confucius born in 551 BC. Teachings and writings on morality Teachings and writings on morality

and ethics, etiquette, relationships, and ethics, etiquette, relationships, honesty and trustworthiness, love, honesty and trustworthiness, love, loyalty, and the proper exercise of loyalty, and the proper exercise of political power.political power.

Primarily an ethical system rather than Primarily an ethical system rather than a religion that revolves around a God.a religion that revolves around a God.

Notions of Confucianism exist side by Notions of Confucianism exist side by side with other religions.side with other religions.

Orientation Towards Orientation Towards Other CulturesOther Cultures

EthnocentrismEthnocentrism Belief that home country ideas and values Belief that home country ideas and values

are superior to those of other countriesare superior to those of other countries PolycentrismPolycentrism

Belief that local customs and values Belief that local customs and values should prevail over that of home countryshould prevail over that of home country

GeocentrismGeocentrism The best practices and ideas can be found The best practices and ideas can be found

in and adopted from any part of the worldin and adopted from any part of the world