213 HUSBANDRY

LEOPARD KMR MILK liquid % %

ESBILAC powder liquid Yo /O

O /

Water Fat Protein Ash Carbohydrates

82.0 max. 5’0 4‘5 max. 40.0 7 ’ 5 max. 33’0 1’5 6.0 4‘5 16.0

85.0 6 . 0

4’5 1.0 max. 3‘4

Table 2. The composition of Esbilac and KMR milk replacers compared to that of natural leopard’s Purrtheru pardus milk.

KMR: manufactured by Smith-Douglas Division, 2. CRANDALL, L. s. (1964) : Mattagenient of wild rriun~niuls Borden Chemical Borden Inc., Norfolk, Virginia, USA. in captivify. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ABDEC: amultivitamin manufactured by Parke-Davis, 3. HOFF, w. (1961): Hand raising baby cats at Lincoln Detroit, Michigan. Park Zoo Chicago. Ifif. Zoo Yb. 2: 86-89. Kaopectate: manufactured by W. A. Butler Company, 4. YOUNG, w. A. (1963): Carnivora: h i t . ZLW Yb. 4: Colombus, Ohio. 3 IC-3 I I .

REFERENCES I . BAUDY, R. E. (1971): Notes on breeding felids at the Rare Feline Breeding Center. Int. Zoo Yb. 11: 121-123. Manuscript submitted April 1972

Diet of captive tapirs Tapirus spp.

ROBERT A. WILSON & SHERYL WILSON Tapir Research Institute, P.O. Box 382, Clarenzonf, Cal$ornia 91711, USA

In J d y 1970 we sent a questionnaire to 114 zoos asking for information about captive tapirs; we received 48 replies. This article includes the relevant information provided by 37 zoos and individuals as well as our fmdings and conclusions. By analysing zoos’ husbandry techniques we hope to fmd solutions to a number of diet- related conditions which contribute to the deaths of many tapirs in captivity.

ADULT DIETS

The following is a summary of all foods which participants in our survey have fed to adult tapirs, listed without regard to species.

Cucumber, radishes, celery, pumpkin, potatoes, cabbage, sweet potatoes, lettuce, corn, carrots, apples,

grapes, bananas, melons, spinach, ‘fruits, wgetables, and greens’.

Oak leaves, rubber leaves and branches, twigs, branches with bark and leaves, grass, yucca, ‘weeds, foliage’.

Lucerne hay, alfalfa hay.

Barley meal, sow and weaner meal, calf weaner nuts, monkey chow soaked in milk, D & F Chow, Purina Dog Chow, crushed oat and linseed meal urith skimmed milk, Omolene, omnivorous nut, oats, cooked rice, equine ration, cooked rolled oats, grain, rolled oats with bran, cooked corn, cooked potatoes, bread, milk, ‘zoo ration, cow prepared food, pellets’.

Curds, yoghurt, raw egg, raw fish, ‘occasionally they devour small birds like the Cattle egret’.

P

H U S B A N D R Y 214

Oyster flour, Pervinal, Theralin, CH-I Seaweed Supplement, Minadex, Equivite, Vionate, cod liver oil, salt-and-mineral blocks, other vitaniin, mineral and protein supplements.

Tayirlrs terrestris All zoos listed some fruits and vegetables, a type of grain, hay and a vitamin/mineral supplement. Milk and bread were mentioned in a number of cases; raw egg was listcd twice. Three types of meat were mentioned-dog chow and fish (twice each), small birds (once). We ourselves have found that beef heart and other meats will be taken, although meat has not been introduced as a regular part of the diet. It scems probable that in the wild a tapir would eat some meat in the form of carrion encountered while browsing.

The survey revealed that the adult Brazilian tapir Tapirris terrestris tends to be fed ‘naturally’, and that cooked, mashed and soaked foods are reserved for infants and for the Malayan tapir T. indinrs. It has often been said that an excess of greens in the diet can cause diarrhoea. Several zoos, however, list these foods among the tapir’s fare. Our own experience shows that a certain amount of ‘greens’ (comprising half the bulk on a given day, but not used continuously) will be acceptablc, but when used often or in larger amounts diarrhoea occurs.

Several zoos cut the food into ‘stewing size’ pieces, while others feed fruits and vegetables whole. It has also been mentioned that hay should be free of tough stalks. While thesc precautions facilitate eating, their main objective is to reduce the hazard of a prolapsed rectum, a common cause of death in captive tapirs. The cause may not be dietary in every case, but has often been traced to the passage of bulky items (either food or foreign matter) through the digestive system.

We take die following precautions when preparing our food for tapirs:

I. Dice food 2. Remove tough fibres, stems or rotting parts 3. Give at least 227 kg (or one-half of each feed)

of fruits and vegetables per day per animal 4. Add vegetable oil 5 . Alfalfa hay is always available in its whole

state, although the tapir usually sorts out and leaves behind the tougher stems

6. Fresh leaves are fed from time to time. LiSnrous stems are removed.

7. Horse rations (Omolenc) is fed sparingly to avoid diarrhoea.

The question of whether food should be diced is open to discussion; we feel that thc practice is worth while.

In addition to rectal prolapse, there are a number of diet-related conditions which kill tapirs, but too little information is available at present.

We have noticed that tapirs prefer a variety of foods and so our staple menu changes with the seasons. For instance: I. Certain favourite foods will be taken con-

tinuously, in large amounts and at any time 2. Some foods will always be taken in small

amounts or for short periods 3. Some foods will be taken now and then 4. Some foods will be totally refused 6. Food preference varies with the individual

and no pattern is apparent (e.g. one type of squash is relished while another type, closely related, is refused; a second animal may have entirely different preferences)

7 . If the entire meal is diced and placed in a bucket, the tapir will sort the food, picking out favourites first and letting those unwanted pieces sift to the bottom

8. Most foods which are spiced and flavoured for human consumption are taken greedily

9. Tapirs seem happiest with seasonal variations in diet as well as a wide short-term selection.

The following are two sample diets from thc survey, demonstrating the extremes of simplicity and complexity-:

Example A: Lucerne hay Carrots Apples.

Example B: (daily per animal) Approx. 3 kg hay Approx. 1.36 kg omnivorous nut (protein-mineral-vitamin supple- ment) 1.19 kg crushed oat and linseed meal (mixed in a ratio of z : I with skimmed milk) 40 apples I2 carrots 2 bananas I raw egg

215 H U S B A N D R Y

2 tablespoons cod liver oil I tablespoon Minadex I teaspoon CH-I Seaweed supple- ment a few greens Branches (bark and leaves) occa- sionally (Seasonal fruits sometimes replace apples and carrots) Cattle mineral lick available but seldom used.

Each of these zoos has been successful in keeping tapirs. The majority of zoo diets for the Brazilian tapir fall between these two extremes.

Tapirus bairdii No specific information for feeding adult Baird’s tapir Tapirus bairdii was given. The following diet is from the Parque Zoologico de Tuxtla Gutierrez, Mexico, which is located within T. bairdii’s natural range; the zoo keeps only this species of tapir :

Yellow corn Cow prepared food Fruits Tree leaves.

We fmd no special problems in feeding Baird’s tapir and suggest that the practices given for T. trrrrstris apply to this species also.

Tapirus pinckaque The case of the Woolly mountain tapir Tupirus pinckaque is altogether different. The basic pro- blem in maintaining this species in captivity is finding a diet both compatible with the animal’s nutritional requirements and acceptable to the animal. In the case of newly-caught animals, the internal changes that take place when the animal is switched from its native food to the captive diet can present difficulties. Mr M. Stummer, of Quito, Ecuador, who has collected most of the Woolly tapirs now in captivity, explained that the process of reconditioning involved a careful monitoring of each animal’s state of health and frequent use of antibiotics to curtail fatal infec- tions. Even after successful relocation in a zoo, dietary problems are numerous and a number of animals have not survived the transition. These tapirs, all captured in the highlands of Ecuador, were transported to Quito where they were acclimated and adjusted to a captive diet. This

process took several weeks or longer. Carrots, alfalfa hay and mineral salts were part of the staple diet at Quito.

The following diets have been supplied by zoos having reasonable success in maintaining T. pinckaque. Each animal received daily:

Parc Zoologique de Paris, France 2 kg cooked rice 1-5 cooked rice 1.5 kg carrots and apples (diced) 0.3 kg bread I kg lucerne (dry in winter, green in summer).

Gladys Porter Zoo, Brownsville, USA 1.82 kg Purina Dog Chow 1.82 kg Purina Monkey Chow 1.82 kg Purina Dairy Conditioner I head lettuce 0.45 kg carrots 4 slices bread Good grade alfalfa hay, ad lib.

Los Angeles Zoo, Cal$mia, U S A Hay A variety of fruits and vegetables (including

grapes, apples and sweet potatoes).

Tapirus indicus The adult Malayan tapir Tapirus indicus is generally fed the same diet as T. terrestris. However, the addition of various softer foods is commonplace, including one or more of the following:

Cooked rice, cooked carrots, cooked potatoes, cooked corn, soft fruits, bananas, curds, yoghurt; ‘their whole mash should be made soft’. We know of no particular feeding problems

for T. indims. We feel that, if necessary, or if more practical, a common diet could be estab- lished that would be adequate for all species.

The following note was supplied by Dr W. T. Roth, of the Baltimore Zoo, who c a p tured and imported a number of juvenile and adult T. indims without loss. His suggestions apply not only to T. indicus in transit, but to other species as well, both in transit and in the

‘I attribute this success mainly to prior field work which showed that T. indims in the wild

zoo :

216 H U S B A N D R Y

ingests large quantities of a plant containing a strongliquifying agent permitting easy passage of stools. This agent may be replaced in transport and shipping with fairly large amounts of rhubarb or any plantderived laxative. Hosing the animal daily or twice daily around the anal area with cold water will also help avoid rectal prolapse (which is a source of secondary infection and possible death).’

J U V E N I L E DIETS

Baby tapirs reared by their mothers seem to enjoy mouthmg solid food with the adults after the first few days or weeks. They learn to consume first one food, then another throughout the weaning period. Most zoos answering our survey described their diet for juveniles of all species as ‘beyond the weaning stage, same as for adults’. Occasional modifications, such as chow soaked in milk, Pablum, soft fruits and prepared milk were introduced.

We have reared T. ttrrestris and T. bairdii (both wild-caught) from the age of about one- TWO months. The diets varied as ow experience widened, and according to the individual inclina- tion of each animal. Both specimens gained an average of almost 2.27 kg per week for the first eight weeks, and eventually grew into larger- than-average adults. Initially they were fed on bananas, milk and Pablum, but the latter was discontinued once it was diagnosed as causing diarrhoea. Evaporated milk, with vitamins and bone meal, was substituted with good results until the animals weighed more than 45 kg. New foods were made more palatable with the addi- tion of cod liver oil and the range of foods taken increased rapidly. Fruits were preferred, but some vegetables were eaten. A wet mash of fruits and cereal was consistently refused. When the tapirs reached 45 kg we stopped feeding more than twice daily.

A detailed feeding schedule for the Baird’s tapir is shown below: Day I: Took nothing but bananas and grapes. Day 2 : A diet was suggested by San Diego

Zoo, consisting of: Canned milk (half water) ABDEC vitamins, six drops per day Calcium lactate, one-eighth tea- spoon, three times daily Alfalfa stripped from stalks

Day 3 : Day 5 :

Oatmeal, grain, etc. Fruit

and 2200 hours). (Feed every 24 hours between 0700

Although the 9 tapir showed a desire to nurse by sucking on fmgers, it would not take the milk formula (from either dish or bottle) but only banana, banana skin and papaya. Calcium lactate was taken in the banana. No milk taken. Tangerines eaten. Cod liver oil added to milk. It was taken greedily from the bottle. This ended the feeding problems and the prescribed diet was given with the addition of cod liver oil and one raw egg per 2 litres of milk formula. -I -

Day I I : Dry leaves taken in the yard. Day 26: Alfalfa hay taken.

S U M M A R Y

Wc fcel that thc tapir’s dict and general uiain- tenance should be geared not only towards its nutritional needs and, incidentally, to providing variety and interest, but also towards the smooth functioning of the animal’s simple digestive system. In this way some of the problems it1 the maintenance oftapirs in captivity may be avoided. In order to further our research on the family Tapiridae we are anxious to hear from anyone wishing to offer additional information on any Aspect of these animals.

A C K N O W L E D G E M E N T S

We are grateful to all who participated in the survey and to those who offered information by correspon- dence. In addition to those persons and zoos mentioned in the text, we wish to thank the personnel of the zoos herelisted: Barcelona, Barranquilla, Berlin E, Berlin W, Boston, Budapest, Chester, Colorado Springs, Colum- bus, Denver, Detroit, Dresden, Edinburgh, Fort Worth, Garden City, Guatemala City, Hatiover, Honolulu, Jersey, Medallin, Melbourne, Milwaukee, Oklahoma, Salt Lake City, Sao Leopoldo, Sao Paulo, Stoneham, Stuttgart, Tel-Aviv, Wassenaar, Zurich.

P R O D U C T S MENTIONED I N THE TEXT ABDEC Drops: manufactured by Parke-Davis & Co., Detroit, Michigan 48232, USA. Bone Meal: distributed by Pet Dealers Supply Co., Los Angeles, California, USA. Calcium Lactate: distributed by A.B.C. Stores, Montclair, California 91763, USA. Cod Liver Oil: Manufactured by E. R. Squibb Csi Sons, Inc., N.Y. IOOZZ, USA.

217 H U S B A N D R Y

D & F Chow: Manufactured by Ralston Purina Co., St Louis, Missouri, USA. Equivite: nutritional supplement manufactured by Beecham Veterinary Products, Great West Road, Brentford, Middlesex, GB. Miaadex (vitamins A, D and iron) : manufactured by Glaxo Laboratories Ltd, Greenford, Middlesex, GB. Omolene: manufactured by Ralston Purina Co. Pablum: manufactured by Gerber Products Co., Fremont, Michigan, USA. Pervinal: manufactured by Thayer Laboratories, Inc., Metuchen, NJ 08040, USA.

Purina Dairy Conditioner: manufactured by Ralston Purina Co. Purina Dog Chow: manufactured by Ralston Purina co . Purina Monkey Chow: manufactured by Ralston Purina Co. Therah: manufactured by Lambert-Kay, Division of Carter-Wallace, Inc., Los Angeles, Califomiagoor6, US. Vionate: manufactured by E. R. Squibb & Sons, Inc. NY IOOZZ, USA.

Manuscript submitted 23 April 1972

Behavioural development of hand-reared prong horn Antilocapra americana

DIETLAND & CHRISTINE M~~LLER-SCHWARZE Utah State University, Logan, Utah, USA

Since 1969 we have hand-raised and maintained pronghorn Antilocapra americana in captivity for a study on scent communication (3; 4).

When raising our animals, field observations of maternal behaviour in the wild (Upper Pahsimeroi, Idaho, the National Bison Range, arid North Yellowstone Park in Montana) proved helpful.

Pronghorn fawns can be described as ‘outlying’, i.c. they do not follow their mother for the first few weeks, but remain in one place during her absence. It is difficult to catch them in the wild. When approached, a 24-hour-old fawn ran 400 m in a circle trying to escape; and the older the fawn, the faster it runs. Three-week-old fawns easily outran their human pursuers. The ‘critical period’ occurs very early in a pronghorn fawn’s life. The four-day-old and the day-old (22 were very shy initially; they often panicked when the keeper approached them, jumped against the walls of their enclosure and refused to take their bottle. After several days these 99 calmed down. But when, at the age of 20 days,

was brought into a new, unfamiliar environ- ment she reverted to her earlier panic-stricken behaviour. For five hours she did not seem to recognise her familiar keeper ; she showed the ‘immobility response’ when the keeper appeared, but ran away when the latter came close and presented the bottle. (Pronghorn fawns panic when a person drags his feet through the ground vegetation). When the & was introduced to hs

new environment, he stayed close to the keeper, only gradually venturing afield to a distance of approximately 12 m, but always returning to her or following her around the 30 m pen. After several hours he walked away with his rump patch and mane erected toward a sleeping site. When the keeper later approached with the bottle he was relaxed and suckled immediately. Prong- horn fawns will approach the keeper if he utters a short low, guttural bleat which resembles that of pronghorn 99. This also reassures them during a disturbance.

Space requirements: The pronghorn’s habitat is the vast open sagebrush ‘desert’ of Western North America and accordingly, in captivity, it prefers to remain outdoors. Whether in extreme heat, heavy rain or snow, our pronghorn will stay in the open. Our captive only licks her fawn on the face and rear end after its fur gets soaked by rain. They do not seek the protection of their shed or low-branched trees. Even after years in captivity the animals are reluctant to enter the shed which is enclosed on three sides and where food pellets and hay are provided; they never stay long and often panic there, obviously be- cause of the restricted view.

A pronghorn pen should be large, and have a visible fence, such as burlap, as these animals run fast and untiringly. In the wild we saw adults run for two miles without pause. Our fawns often ran IOOC-1200 m during a play bout