diamantis-2000-thunderbird international business review

T427

Ecotourism and Sustainability inMediterranean Islands

Dimitrios Diamantis

Executive Summary

Sustainable and ecotourism practices in the Mediterranean islands are still at theirinfancy stage. Over recent years, there has been an increased awareness about these typesof practices, mainly expressed in the form of agreements and declarations. Althoughecotourism practices have been applied in some islands, there are no instances where ithas enjoyed popular demand among consumers. Most of the ecotourists who visit theMediterranean islands tend to be of an occasional nature in that they are engaged inother forms of tourism in addition to ecotourism. The purpose of this paper is to reviewthe current sustainable and ecotourism practices in selected islands in theMediterranean (Balearic Islands, Crete, and Vis), as well as the environmental trendsthat are occurring within tourism in this region. 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

INTRODUCTION

he Mediterranean coastal strip accommodates 140 million permanent inhabi-tants, a figure that increases by almost 200 million as a result of tourists, mainlyfrom Central and Northern Europe, who visit this region each year (Eurostat,1993). This situation has a number of profound negative implications for the sus-tainable and ecotourism practices of this region, which are attributable directlyto mass-tourism practices. These include:

Land speculation, especially along the seafront; Urban concentration in areas of unparalleled natural beauty; Wetlands turned into sports ports; and Dunes that are leveled for construction.

Dimitrios Diamantis is a lecturer in tourism at Les Roches Management School in Switzerland.Prior to this, he worked in the International Center for Tourism and Hospitality Research inBournemouth University, UK, as a researcher for the Millennium Vision Policy for the WorldTravel and Tourism Council (WTTC). Alongside his research activities he teaches graduate andpostgraduate students as well as coordinating a discussion group for the development of tourismin UNESCOs biosphere reserves. He has a degree in Hotel Management from South-BankUniversity, a Masters in Tourism Marketing from Surrey University, a Diploma in Marketing fromthe Chartered Institute of Marketing (CIM), and a Ph.D. from Bournemouth University.

Thunderbird International Business Review, Vol. 42(4) 427443 JulyAugust 2000

2000 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

These kinds of environmental impacts are only an example of the vastarray of impacts found in the Mediterranean, and have created a sit-uation where the current state of ecotourism practices in this regionis subject to a number of constraints and challenges (Buhalis, 1999,in press). From a theoretical perspective, tourism in theMediterranean represents a classical case where its environmental pit-falls were created by a bewildering array of mass-tourism practices.Given such a state, the challenge lies in converting these mass tourismdestinations to more eco-friendly regions, embodied with sustainableand ecotourism principles (Buhalis, 1999, in press; Chiotis &Coccossis, 1992; Godfrey, 1996; Ioannidis, 1995; Richards, 1996).

Against this background, this article initially will assess the sustainableagreements tailored for the Mediterranean region. Then it will exam-ine a number of cases where ecotourism-related practices can befound. It will conclude with the future challenges in the sustainableand ecotourism sector in the Mediterranean.

SUSTAINABILITY IN THE MEDITTERRANEAN: DECLA-RATIONS AND INITIATIVES

Apart from the sustainable legislative frameworks instigated by indi-vidual governments, the European Community, as well as non-gov-ernment organizations, is primarily responsible for the developmentand articulation of the sustainability initiatives and declarations with-in this region.

Firstly, at the European Community level, the Fifth Action Program,Towards Sustainability, targets five main sectors, one of which istourism (Bromley, 1997; McGregor, 1996). Very briefly, the under-lying concept of the Communitys program is that of shared respon-sibility based on three strategies (European Commission, 1995):

a) the reporting of the pressures and effects on the environmentfrom tourism practices;

b) an emphasis on environmental-awareness-led campaigns; andc) the promotion of the implementation of innovative good prac-

tices in the field of sustainable tourism development.

The latter principles also have been recognized in the Green Paperon Tourism (European Commission, 1995). This paper focusedexplicitly on the creation of a positive relationship between economyand ecology through: tourism well-being; protection of resources;

Dimitrios Diamantis

428 Thunderbird International Business Review JulyAugust 2000

higher growth and more competitive organizations; and assessmentof the costs surrounding the use of tourism resources.

The European Community also initiated a number of other programstailored for the Mediterranean islands, examples of which can be seenin Table 1.

Secondly, several non-government institutions articulated a numberof declarations for the Mediterranean region (see Table 2)(Colombo, Marin, & Ballesteros, 1997). Based on specific objectives,the declarations aimed to enhance the concept of sustainability, aswell as underline the regional cooperation of practitioners towardssustainability.

For instance, a network of Mediterranean Non-GovernmentOrganizations (NGOs) for Ecology and Sustainable Developmentwas created in 1994. This forum was made up of national and localNGOs from various Mediterranean countries, and they developed theProgram of the Mediterranean NGOs for Sustainable Development, theso-called MED Forums Agenda 2000. Although there is a high

Ecotourism and Sustainability in Mediterranean Islands

429Thunderbird International Business Review JulyAugust 2000

Table 1. European Community Programs

Programs and Subprograms Areas Integrated Mediterranean Programs Related to the improvement of infrastructure

Construction of biological waste plantsRestoration of monuments

Regional Operational Programs Improvement of the quality of lifeDevelopment of research and technologyEstablishment of data bank on tourism economic performance

ENVIREG Protection of the environmentConstruction of biological waste plantsCoastal areas studies

LEADER I Enhancement of cultural heritageSeminars on agrotourismPromotion of agrotourism

Natura 2000 Protection of the turtle populationProtection of the wildlifeEnhancement of the biodiversity and biotopes

Integrated Program for Promotion of new forms of tourismTourism and Culture Interregional cooperation between islands on

tourism and cultural projectsStudies on management of small islands

Source: Anagnostopoulou et al., (1996).

degree of awareness amongst the NGOs to formulate policies on sus-tainability, there also is a growing rate of criticism that these calls forsustainability have come too late. Ironically, the practitioners whodeveloped the mass-tourism industry in the Basin raised these criti-cisms. Sustainable development in the Mediterranean Basin is linkedinextricably to the adoption and performance of the measures neces-sary to confront existing tourism problems, as well as problems thatmay arise from agreements concerning other economic areas such astrade integration. In particular, the most urgent of the current eco-nomic priorities in the examined region are the elimination of pover-ty and reducing the profound economic and commercial differencesbetween the regions north of the Mediterranean and in the south andsoutheast.

From this perspective, the sustainable policies should take into accountthe imbalances between the two coasts. This imbalance is not limitedto the large and frequently paralyzing difference in per-capita incomeand living standards, but extends to the unequal capacities of the dif-ferent countries of the Mediterranean Basin. For example, the Euro-Mediterranean Conference of November 1995 adopted the followingresolutions with the aim of increasing cooperation in the region:

Establish a free trade zone in services and other economic sec-tors by the year 2010;

Increase EU financial assistance to Mediterranean countries;and

Reinforce and expand cooperation in the economic, social, andenvironmental sectors.

Next, the creation of a large Mediterranean free-trade zone formspart of a strategy for sustainable development in the Mediterraneanthat sees cooperation (in the strict sense detailed above) as a strate-gic element.

Dimitrios Diamantis


Table 2. Sustainable Conventions in the Mediterranean

Declarations Place Charter for Sustainable Development Lanzarote, 1995

Protocol Concerning Specially Protected Areas and Barcelona, 1996Biological Diversity in the Mediterranean

European Island Agenda Minorca, 1997

Calvia Declaration of Tourism Development in the Majorca, 1997Mediterranean

Sustainabledevelopment inthe Mediterran-ean Basin islinked inextrica-bly to the adop-tion and perfor-mance of themeasures neces-sary to confrontexisting tourismproblems

For instance, the Barcelona Declaration calls for the creation of afree-trade area and recognizes that the nations of the MediterraneanBasin share a geographic space, which is highly interrelated and inter-active (Colombo et al., 1997). It then suggests that the proper man-agement of environmental problems in the Mediterranean must beundertaken on a regional scale. Nevertheless, the BarcelonaDeclaration makes no mention of the effects, both positive and neg-ative, that the creation of this free-trade zone may have.

Given that tourism is a major economic sector for these societies,the situation becomes more complex. This initially affects the eco-nomic structure that the tourism industry operates in, and subse-quently the type of tourism products that are trade related andoffered to visitors. Looking at the structure of the tourism industryfrom the sustainability and ecotourism perspective, the next sec-tions will examine certain cases where destinations have takenadvantage of these types of products. The first case is that of theBalearic Islands of Spain, followed by the island of Vis in Yugoslaviaand the island of Crete in Greece. For every case examined, therewill be a review of the tourism-demand-and-supply structures of theislands, followed by their current sustainable and ecotourism prac-tices. All the islands have different tourism priorities and sustainablepractices, but they share a common notion in their intention tochannel their environmental consciousness and awareness into thedevelopment of tourism.

THE BALEARIC ISLANDS: SPAIN

There are four islands (Majorca, Minorca, Ibiza, and Formentera)that make up the Balearic complex, situated in the western part of theMediterranean Basin. The islands had a surface area of 5.014 km2 anda population of 760,000 inhabitants in 1991 (Balearic Government,1997, 1998). The first island to develop its tourism industry wasMajorca (in the 1950s), followed by Ibiza (in the 1970s), Minorca(in the 1980s), and Formentera (in the 1990s).

The tourism demand of the four islands experienced a dramaticgrowth from 100,000 tourist arrivals in the 1950s, to 9.2 millionarrivals in 1997. Around 88% of the arrivals came from Europe, withthe remaining 12% from mainland Spain, and their length of stay was11.2 days. In 1997, the majority of the arrivals went to Majorca(75%), followed by Ibiza and Formentera (15%), and Minorca (10%)(Balearic Government, 1998).



The tourism supply in the islands includes 470,000 registered andnon-registered beds. Due to the high summer-seasonal nature of theaccommodation, the average occupancy rate is less than 55%.Approximately two-thirds of the total employed population areengaged in tourism-related activities (220,000 people), contributingto the generation of 60% of Balearic Gross Domestic Product(Balearic Government, 1998).

Since 1983, the Balearic Islands have had full autonomy from theSpanish government to devise and manage their own tourism policy(Bardolet, 1998). In this respect, the regional government of theBalearics, together with its private sector, have developed and prac-ticed a number of policies that have enhanced the environmentalprotection and sustainability on these islands. In practicing sustain-ability, as well as limiting the impact of mass tourism, the Balearicgovernment engaged in a three-tier strategy: the protection of theenvironment; the quality aspects of tourism; and territorial planning.Several legislations were formulated to promote overall environ-mental protection of these islands (Bardolet, 1998; BalearicGovernment, 1997, 1998):

Law on protecting natural areas of special interests (1984); Law on territorial planning (1987); and Law on conservation of natural areas and landscape (1991).

Since the most recent legislation was passed, the Balearic govern-ment initiated the protection of 33% of its territory, which servedas the natural-based component of ecotourism-related practices(Bardolet, 1998; Balearic Government, 1997, 1998). However,although favored by tourism practitioners, ecotourism as a prima-ry tourism product of the Balearic Islands has not had a highdemand from the clientele. The only exception is the SAlbuferaNational Park, which stretches across the coast of the island ofMajorca. The park, with a capacity of 2,500 hectares, accommo-dates 1,250 species of animals and plants, of which eight birdspecies are considered threatened by the loss of habitat. In addi-tion, it is a home for around 75 vagrant species, as well as theMoustached Warbler (Acrocephalus melanopogon) densities(Balearic Government, 1998).

It accommodates around 100,000 visitors per year, half of which areprimary-purpose or frequent ecotourists, mainly birdwatchers. Apartfrom this national park, ecotourism is practiced on an occasional basisin the following areas (Balearic Government, 1998):

Dimitrios Diamantis


Cala Mondrago Beach in Majorca; Albufera del Grau in Minorca; the island of Dragonera; and the archipelago of Cabrera; and the island of Formentera.

Whereas these initiatives can create the products of ecotourism andsustainable practices, the Balearic practitioners have initiated a num-ber of other measures. For instance, in 1997, the regional govern-ment created a program for the eco-management and eco-auditing oftourism enterprises (ECOTUR). This program, which is of a volun-tary nature, is aimed to stimulate environmental awareness by allow-ing tourism enterprises to undertake an environmental audit and setup an environmental management system based on the requirementsof ISO 14000. In turn, an eco-label is awarded to participating enter-prises, enabling them to exhibit their environmentally orientatednature (Balearic Government, 1998). Regarding the quality aspectsand planning agendas, the regional government initiated a number ofdifferent programs (see Table 3).

An innovative project concerning the planning agenda was carriedout in 1994 by the International Federation of Tour Operators, that



Table 3. Programs to Improve the Planning and the Quality Aspects ofTourism in Balearic Islands

Programs Description I Cladera Decree, 1984 Planning Initiative: allowing 30 sqm of land per bed

II Cladera Decree, 1987 Planning Initiative: allowing 60 sqm of land per bed

Global Sanitation Plan, 1989 Quality Initiative: to build sewage plants and monitor the water quality

Plan to Embellish Tourism Quality Initiative: to build the tourism Resorts, 1990 infrastructure along the coastal zone

Hotel Accommodation Quality Initiative: the modernization plan of Modernization Plan, 1990 around 1,200 hotel units

Modernization of the Quality Initiative: the modernization plan of the Complementary Tourism catering establishmentsSupply, 1996

Off-Peak Tourism Plan, Planning Initiative: the assessment of minimizing 1997 seasonality

Plan Mirall, 1997 Quality Initiative: restore the historic monuments and cultural attractions

Source: Balearic Government, (1997, 1998).

of the European Community Models of Sustainable Tourism (ECO-MOST) (International Federation of Tour Operators, 1995). Thisinitiative compared two islands of the Mediterranean, the islands ofMajorca (Balearics) and Rhodes (Greece), in order to set certain lim-its on the growth of mass tourism, as well as to integrate aspects ofregional planning in these areas. The ECOMOST study investigatedcertain indicators in four different areas (population, tourism, ecolo-gy, and politics) in an attempt to identify their critical values with theend motive of restraining the pattern of mass-tourism development inthese destinations. The report identified critical limits of carryingcapacities for all the four indicators, recommending that Majorcashould focus on improving the quality and environmental aspects ofits tourism industry. In turn, practitioners seemed to respond to thesedemands by initiating a number of projects to enhance the qualityaspects of the destination (see Table 2).

Clearly, there is a heightened awareness amongst the tourism practi-tioners to enhance the quality, environment, and the regional-plan-ning agendas of the islands. Although at this stage it is difficult toforetell if these islands will become well-established ecotourism desti-nations, it can be seen that the tourism industry in the Balearics isshowing commendable preparedness to stimulate sustainability aware-ness and to apply environmental and quality-management principles.

ISLAND OF VIS: CROATIA

The island of Vis in Croatia has a small surface area of 90.3 km2. Thepopluation in 1991 was 5,338. It is the eleventh largest island in theAdriatic Sea. Tourism activities on the island are not the primary eco-nomic source of income for its inhabitants, as the majority of them areinvolved in agriculture and fishing (Priority Actions Programme, 1997).

The demand structure of the island indicated that there are about5,500 tourists per year, with a trip duration of approximately sevendays. The supply structure of its industry shows that around 1,000people are employed in tourism, of which the majority of them areemployed during the summer season. Most of the tourism activitiesin the island take place in the following five zones (Priority ActionsProgramme, 1997):

a) Urban area: towns of Vis and Komiza;b) Rural area: agricultural plain with 6 villages;c) Fishing-maritime areas: 2 villages;

Dimitrios Diamantis


d) Mountainous areas: 300700 m above sea level; e) Ecological reserves: areas by the sea.

Here, ecotourism activities occur infrequently and usually take placein the last two zone areas. It had been estimated that ecotourismaccommodates around 100 visitors per year, most of which are inde-pendent travelers. There are no nature guides or specific conservationobjectives, and there is no training for nature guides or interpretationprograms. The majority of the ecotourism clientele are occasional innature, in that they likely are to be involved in a number of othertourist activities, and the tourism plan for the island reflects this per-spective. For instance a carrying capacity study indicated three differ-ent scenarios (Priority Actions Programme, 1997):

Intensive development scenario (16,00020,000 tourists per year);

Alternative tourism scenario (2,500 tourists per year); Sustainable development scenario (4,900 tourists per year).

The specific features of the island of Vis, with its wealth of naturalresources, indicated that the alternative tourism scenario would beappropriate in this locality. As a result, the development plan concen-trated on the following (Priority Actions Programme, 1997):

a) No future building construction for accommodation andtourism purposes;

b) a number of abandoned houses and apartments will be re-usedfor tourism purposes;

c) nautical facilities will be built in the port of Vis;d) rural and ecotourism areas will be assessed;e) the seasonal labor force will be reduced to a minimum; andf) agricultural production will remain the primary economic sector.

However, the current turmoil in the region, centering around thesituation in Kosovo, means that growth in tourism along theAdriatic coast will be limited. This also will affect the demand forecotourism holidays, as well as the efforts of the local community torevitalize its resources.

THE ISLAND OF CRETE: GREECE

Crete is the largest island of Greece and the fifth largest island in theMediterranean Basin. It has a surface area of 8,335 km2 and a popu-



It had been estimated that

ecotourismaccommodates

around 100 visi-tors per year,

most of whichare independent

travelers.

lation of over 540,000 people (in 1991). The island has four prefec-tures, named Lassithi, Heraklio, Rethymno, and Chania.

The tourism demand on the island experienced a dramatic growthfrom around 8,500 visitors in the 1950s, to 1.9 million arrivals in1997 (Greek National Tourism Organisation, 1998). Around 95%of the arrivals come from Europe, with the remaining 5% fromGreece and other parts of the world. Their overall length of stay is9.1 days. In 1997, the majority of the arrivals went to Heraklio(50.3%), followed by Rethymno and Chania (16.9% each), andLassithi (15.9%).

The tourism supply of Crete indicated a dramatic growth in hotelenterprises (Greek National Tourism Organisation, 1998). In 1986,Crete had 736 hotel units with 50,544 beds, whereas in 1997 it had1,229 units with 108,000 beds. In 1997, the prefecture of Herakliohad the largest share of hotel units (36%), followed by Chania (26%),Lassithi (20%), and Rethymno (18%). Between 1994 and 1997,Crete generated occupancy rates between 64.682.5%, contributingto 21.5% of the total bed nights of Greece in 1997, an increase of 8%since 1981 (see Table 4). Approximately 50% of the total employedpopulation are engaged in tourism-related activities (100,000 peo-ple), contributing to the generation of 59% of Cretes GrossDomestic Product (Andriotis, 1999; Greek National TourismOrganisation, 1998).

From an institutional perspective, most of the sustainable practices inCrete come under the Greek national policies, as well as from certainEuropean Community projects (see Table 1). Here, ecotourism andnatural-based tourism are central to the Greek national and regionaltourism policy and are addressed through (Region of Crete, 1995):

conservation, regeneration and expansion of mountain areasand forests;

enhancement of biotopes; tourism and culture programs; extension of the tourism season and tourism infrastructure

programs; and sustainable education and improvement of the quality.

Most of the development budget in Crete, however, is tailored toinfrastructural development and human-resources development(Ypexode, 1997). Environmental projects absorbed only 17.8% of thetotal budget, and tourism programs absorbed only 2% of the devel-

Dimitrios Diamantis




Tab

le 4

. Tot

al B

ed-N

ight

s in

Cre

te f

rom

For

eign

and

Dom

esti

c T

ouri

sts

(198

019

97)

1980

1990

1995

1996

1997

Cha

nge

Cha

nge

80/

9080

/97

(%)

(%)

Her

aklio

3,14

0,76

25,

166,

944

4,69

0,85

74,

782,

659

5,77

5,96

264

84L

assi

thi

1,31

9,96

81,

863,

911

1,66

8,54

41,

646,

071

1,83

9,53

141

39R

ethy

mno

647,

816

1,55

8,09

92,

033,

199

1,85

0,04

01,

941,

273

140

200

Cha

nia

395,

239

1,12

0,98

31,

856,

978

1,79

1,13

11,

939,

102

184

391

Tot

al C

rete

5,45

3,78

59,

709,

937

10,2

49,5

7810

,069

,901

11,4

95,8

6878

111

Tot

al F

orei

gn4,

952,

960

9,10

6,76

39,

508,

808

9,24

1,54

610

,618

,662

8411

4T

otal

Dom

esti

c50

0,82

560

3,17

474

0,77

082

8,35

587

7,20

620

75T

otal

Gre

ece

40,3

54,1

5448

,887

,583

51,3

24,1

9648

,312

,404

53,3

69,5

0721

32C

rete

/G

reec

e13

.5%

19.9

%20

.0%

20.8

%21

.5%

6.4

8So

urce

: Gre

ek N

atio

nal T

ouri

sm O

rgan

isat

ion

(199

8).

opment budget (see Table 5). Although infrastructural and human-resources programs will benefit from the development of tourism onthe island, there is a considerable degree of negligence to the gener-ation of more funds for the protection of the environment(Anagnostopoulou, Arapis, & Micha, 1996; Andriotis, 1999).

From an executable perspective, sustainable and ecotourism practicestake place in certain locations and from certain tourism enterprises(Anagnostopoulou et al., 1996). Ecotourism practices in Crete main-ly occur in four main areas (OANAK, 1995). The first area is the eastcoast of the prefecture of Rethymno, which is an important breedingsite for the protected Loggerhead turtle (known as Caretta caretta),as it hosts 15.5% of the Loggerhead nests out of the total knownnesting sites in Greece. The second area is on the island of Spinaloga,which is not significant from a wildlife perspective but rather for itscultural attractions. The third area is the natural attraction of theSamaria Gorge, which is visited by around a quarter of the touristsvisiting Greece. The fourth area is the mountainous region of Crete(i.e., Lefka Ori and the forest of Vai), where tourists trek over thesemountains using a number of mountain paths, especially the so-calledmarked paths known as E4 routes. In addition, several womens agri-cultural tourist co-operatives were established, which aim to provideauthentic agricultural accommodation, contributing to the preserva-tion of the cultural and natural lifestyles and to the enhancement ofthe employment of many rural regions of Crete (Andriotis, 1999;Castelberg-Koulma, 1991).

Dimitrios Diamantis


Table 5. Development Plans and Programs as a Percentage of the TotalBudget in Crete, 19862000

Areas Heraklion Lasssithi Rethymno Chania Total(%) (%) (%) (%) (%)

Local development 63.37 10.25 4.08 22.30 3.01Infrastructure 37.55 12.70 15.74 34 31.56Agriculture 21.94 39.53 13.1 24.44 11.53Environment 22.55 15.14 28.74 33.57 17.85Human resources 50.36 7.20 5.55 36.88 20.32Tourism 14.13 37.62 33.84 14.41 2.08Industrial infrastructure 100 1.73Urban development 31.57 10.06 23.03 35.34 3.81Productive investments 44.52 13.18 19.02 23.29 7.27Small- and medium-sized enterprises 0.70Technical support 0.14Total 35.27 15.16 15.82 32.89 100

Source: Ypexode (1997).

Furthermore, an increasing number of tourist enterprises now useenvironmental-management techniques such as environmentalaudits. Perhaps the most notable example is that of the hotel groupof Grecotel. In 1992, Grecotel was the first Mediterranean hotelgroup to create an environmental and cultural department, partak-ing in environmental audits and programs that enhanced communi-ty involvement and the preservation of local species (turtlebreeding). Grecotel contracts Greek suppliers who produce eco-friendly and organic products. In addition, other hotels on the islandregularly participate in a number of environmental programs, suchas the biological treatment of water and the Reduce/Reuse/Recyclepractices (Hellenic Travelling, 1996). Although these initiatives con-tribute to the enhancement of the green image of Cretes largerenterprises, there are a number of pitfalls with respect to theenhancement of the environmental protection on the island of Crete(Papaioannou, 1987). In particular, Anagnostopoulou et al. (1996)claim the following:

inadequate coordination between regional and nationaltourism programs;

inadequate safeguards so that conservation programs onCrete are not threatened by tourism development, i.e.,European programs of Life and Natura 2000;

insufficient funds from the Crete Regional OperationalProgram dedicated to the management of sites for eco-tourism practices; and

confusion about the meaning of ecotourism and the imple-mentation of ecotourism initiatives.

According to these views, Crete has a long way to go to practice andfulfill sustainable and ecotourism practices. However, although thesechallenges still remain intact, there has been an increased awarenessto implement certain sustainable policies on the island. The questionof quality versus quantity of tourism should remain at the forefrontof their regional tourism strategies. The question of ecotourism ver-sus mass tourism products in Crete should remain in their researchand planning agendas.

AN ASSESSMENT OF ECOTOURISM AND SUSTAINABLEPRACTICES IN THE MEDITERRANEAN ISLANDS

The sustainable and ecotourism practices on the examinedMediterranean islands have been demonstrated by a plethora of



Crete has along way to goto practice and

fulfill sustainableand ecotourism

practices.

actions. As such, these initiatives are different from island to island,all reflecting a variety of perspectives and paradigms. Theoreticallyspeaking, ecotourism has been claimed to be practiced in a continu-um ranging from an active pole (actions of protecting the environ-ment) to a passive pole (ecotourism-development actions that do notcreate negative impacts) (Orams, 1995). In addition, it has beenclaimed that ecotourism contains three common components(Diamantis, 1998a): the natural-based component; the sustainabilitycomponent; and the educational component. By using the latterthree elements as indicators to assess ecotourism practices on theexamined islands, the Balearic Islands are in a prominent position,taking an active stance towards ecotourism. In turn, the Balearicsproduct portfolio of ecotourism contains all three elements (seeTable 6). As for the other two islands, they appear to be only prac-ticing the natural-based element of ecotourism holidays, and, in addi-tion, they have different stances towards ecotourism.

In a similar vein, and in adopting some other indicators to assess theperformance of the islands, the Balearic complex demonstrated amore effective performance, thereby embracing ecotourism and sus-tainable practices in their territorial activities.

Dimitrios Diamantis


Table 6. Sustainable and Ecotourism Performance Matrix of SelectedIslands in the Mediterranean

Indicators Balleric Islands, Vis, Crete,Spain Yugoslavia Greece

Active/Passive Application of Ecotourism Active Active Passive

Natural-Based Element of Ecotourism Yes Yes Yes

Sustainability Element of Ecotourism Yes No No

Educational Element of Ecotourism Yes No No

Regional Environmental Policy Yes No No

Green Assessment Study Yes Yes No

Reduce/Reuse/Recycle Program Yes No Yes

Ecolabelling Program Yes No No

Indicator Program Yes No No

Although Vis initiated an ecotourism-assessment study and put intoplace the foundations of ecotourism practices, it is difficult to foreseehow these ecotourism practices will manifest, bearing in mind thecurrent adversity in the Adriatic region. An absence of these externalevents probably would have enabled Vis to develop its ecotourismpractices. For Crete, the development of ecotourism and sustainablepractices are of a sporadic nature, and its performance in most of theindicators is quite negative (see Table 6). Therefore, the challenge forCrete still lies ahead in that their understanding of the nature of eco-tourism and sustainable practices should be re-addressed.

In all the three cases, however, the practitioners in the examinedislands have illustrated attempts to redefine aspects of their productportfolio by incorporating more sustainable and ecotourism prac-tices. This has resulted in the formulation of certain green prac-tices, a situation that was unimaginable during the dominion of themass-tourism era.

CONCLUSION

Implicit in the evolution of sustainability in the Mediterranean Basinare the efforts made to transform its mass-tourism practices to poli-cies embodied with sustainable principles through declarations of co-operation and the development of ecotourism products. Althoughsustainable tourism and ecotourism are emerging as important prod-ucts, there still remain a number of key challenges for the islands inthe region. It is evident from the case studies that the islands have dif-ferent priorities in terms of their individual sustainability and eco-tourism agendas. A similarity shared by all the islands is that theyapproach sustainability from a solid tourism perspective. It followsthat the sustainable and ecotourism practices are applied to enhancethe tourism industrys needs and wants, creating the so-calledtourism-centric situation. As a result, the challenge of achievingsustainability could be enhanced in the absence of the tourism-cen-tric syndrome, and by utilizing methods where trade-off scenarios ofdifferent types of sustainability and environmental-management tech-niques are developed and implemented (Diamantis, 1998a, 1998b, inpress; Westlake & Diamantis, 1998). In addition, the entireMediterranean region needs to change its image from a mass-tourismdestination to a more green or sustainable region. In doing so, coop-erative efforts amongst Mediterranean countries need to be advancedin conjunction with the practice of cooperative marketing efforts inattracting ecotourists to this region. Recently, a protected marine



A similarityshared by allthe islands is

that theyapproach sus-tainability froma solid tourism

perspective.

park was created between Italy and France that aims to conserve thedolphins and other marine species. These kinds of cross-borderefforts not only contribute to the sustainability efforts of these coun-tries, but also stress that conservation and awareness can be achievedonly when countries are willing to collaborate between themselves.

Even then, the economic inequalities that exist in the Mediterraneanbasin require the adoption of a very carefully planned strategy and anoverall policy for sustainable development. The process of harmo-nization of environmental regulations and agendas is a priority task.In addition, it must be accompanied by mechanisms that guaranteeopenness, adequate information and public participation, anticipato-ry planning, community and administrative support, and control pro-cedures for its enforcement and application.

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