dhirendra kumar thesis.pdf

GEOMORPHOLOGY OF GHAGHARA-GANGA

INTERFLUVE BETWEEN FAIZABAD

AND KANPUR REGION

By

M.Sc.

Dhirendra Kumar

SUBMITTED TO THE

UNIVERSITY OF LUCKNOW

FOR THE DEGREE OF

Doctor of PhilosophyIN

GEOLOGY

CENTRE OF ADVANCED STUDY IN GEOLOGY

UNIVERSITY OF LUCKNOW

LUCKNOW 2260 007, INDIA

2014

Thesis

Dedicated to

My Grand Father

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the thesis entitled “Geomorphology of Ghaghara-Ganga

interfluve between Faizabad and Kanpur region” being submitted by Mr. Dhirendra

Kumar to the University of Lucknow, for the award of the degree of Doctor of

Philosophy in Geology, is a record of bonafide research work carried out by him. He

has worked under my guidance for the submission of this thesis, which is to best of

my knowledge, has the requisite standard.

This research work has not been submitted to any other institution for the award of

any degree or diploma.

(Prof. N.L. Chhabra)

Supervisor

Centre of Advanced Study in Geology

University of Lucknow

Lucknow

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the thesis entitled “Geomorphology of Ghaghara-Ganga

interfluve between Faizabad and Kanpur region” being submitted by Mr. Dhirendra

Kumar to the University of Lucknow, for the award of the degree of Doctor of

Philosophy in Geology, is a record of bonafide research work carried out by him. He

has worked under my guidance for the submission of this thesis, which is to best of

my knowledge, has the requisite standard.

This research work has not been submitted to any other institution for the award of

any degree or diploma.

(Dr. Dhruv Sen Singh)

Co-Supervisor

Centre of Advanced Study in Geology

University of Lucknow

Lucknow-226 007

i

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I feel an honest urge to express my gratitude to the people who have been helpful in

my taking up, pursuance and completion of this research work.

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to Prof. K. K. Agarwal, Head, Centre of

Advanced Study in Geology, University of Lucknow for providing working facilities in the

department.

I am highly indebted to my supervisor Prof. N. L. Chhabra for his help, co-operation

and providing a pleasing atmosphere for pursuing my research activity. I am highly obliged

to my co-supervisor Dr. Dhruv Sen Singh for his support, expert comments, guidance and

providing highly equipped lab for research work. I want to express my deep sense of

gratitude for his constant thought, provoking discussions, which has helped me to organize

and furnish my research findings. His ideas and guidance has always upgraded my views to

solve various problems related to my research work.

I owe special thanks to Prof. I. B. Singh, his research papers made the research work

easy and his ideas helped me to interpreting the data for my research work.

I offer my thanks to Prof. S. Kumar, Prof. M. P. Singh, Prof. A. K. Jauhri, Prof. A. R.

Bhattacharya, Prof. V. Rai, Dr. S. Sensarma, Dr. A. Mishra, Dr. R. Bali, Dr. Munendra Singh

and Dr. P. Bali, Centre of Advanced Study in Geology, University of Lucknow for their

constant support.

I offer my sincere thanks to Prof. D. D. Awasthi, Dr. Ajai Arya, Centre of Advanced

Study in Geology, University of Lucknow for their constant motivation and support.

I would like to express my particular appreciation to Mr. Shailendra Kumar

Prajapati for his useful suggestions and constant motivation towards completion of this

work. His critical remarks on findings of research work have helped me to improve my

work. I offer my sincere thanks to Mr. Shamim Ahmad, Mr. Ritesh Kumar, Geologist, Dr.

Amit Kumar Awasthi, Geologist, Geological Survey of India for his constant help and co-

operation.

I owe special thanks to Dr. Biswajeet Thakur, Scientist-‘SC’, Birbal Sahni Institute of

Palaeobotany, Lucknow for giving initial impulse of remote sensing and GIS techniques

ii

incorporated in my work. He has always shared his views and helped me in the finalization

of my research work. I would like to thank my seniors and associates Dr. Amit Singh, Dr.

Santosh Kumar Sharma, Dr. Yogesh Ray Scientist-‘SC’, NCAOR, Goa and Dr. Vikram

Bhardwaj for their help and co-operation.

I want to express my thanks to my friends, Mr. Chandra Prakash, Mr. Amit Kumar

Verma and Mr. Dharmendra Kumar Jigyasu for their concern and moral support. Special

thanks are expressed to Ms. Manisha Mishra for their help and constant support.

I take this opportunity to express my sincere thanks for my juniors Mr.Hemant

Verma, Mr. Gaurav Joshi, Mr. Parijat Mishra, Mr. Vinit Kumar, Mr. Shakti Kumar Yadav, Mr.

Chetan Anand Dubey, Mr. Amit Kumar Mishra, Mr. Ankit Gupta, Mr. Byomesh Yadav and

other research students of the department, who always extended their help whenever

needed and created a pleasurable environment during the tenure of my research work. I

express my thanks to Mr. Neeraj Yadav for preparation of cover page, figures and text

editing. Thanks are due to non-teaching staff, Centre of Advanced Study in Geology,

University of Lucknow for help provided by them, whenever required.

I would like to express my sincere thanks to my parents Mr. Virendra Kumar and

Mrs. Chandrawati Devi and my sibling Mrs. Kusum, Mrs. Parul, Mr. Harish Chandra and Mr.

Mukesh for their constant motivation and unconditional support. I am very thankful to my

in-laws Mr. J. P. Arya, Mrs. Shyama Devi, Mrs. Vandana Arya, Ms. Pooja Arya, Ms. Srishti

Verma, Mr. Prateek Verma, Mr. Naveen Kumar and Mr. Ravi Kumar for their help and

support.

I would like to express my special thanks to my life partner Mrs. Vineeta Arya and

my daughter Vidhi for their help and constant support.

I would like special thanks to University Grant Commission, New Delhi for financial

help under the Rajiv Gandhi National Fellowship (RGNF) in the form of Junior Research

Fellowship and Senior Research Fellowship.

(Dhirendra Kumar)

CONTENTS Page No.

Acknowledgements i-ii

List of Figures iii-vii

List of Tables viii

Chapter 1 Introduction 1-11

1.1 General

1.1.1 Introduction

1.1.2 Geomorphology

1.1.3 Subsurface Geology

1.1.4 Neotectonic

1.1.5 River system

1.2 Objectives

Chapter 2 Study Area 12-21

2.1 General

2.2 Climate

2.3 Hydrology

2.4 Geology

2.5 Tectonics

2.6 Lithology

Chapter 3 Methodology 22-33

3.1 General

3.2 Preparation of thematic maps

3.3 Preparation of geomorphological maps

3.4 Morphometric Parameters

3.4.1 Basic Parameters

3.4.2 Derived Parameters

3.4.3 Shape Parameters

3.5 Geomorphic Indices

3.6 Digital Elevation Model (DEM)

3.7 Drainage map of the study area

3.8 Slope analysis

3.9 Land use map

Chapter 4 Geomorphology 34-58

4.1 General

4.2 Ganga-Sai Interfluve

4.2.1 Geomorphology

4.3 Sai-Gomati Interfluve

4.3.1 Geomorphology

4.4 Gomati-Ghaghara Interfluve

4.4.1 Geomorphology

4.5 Contour Map


4.7 Slope analysis

Chapter 5 Geomorphic indices 59-105

5.1 General

5.2 Escarpment analysis

5.3 Profile analysis

5.3.1 Longitudinal profile

5.3.2 Transverse profile

5.3.3 Longitudinal profile of the rivers

5.4 Anatomy of valley width and channel width

5.5 Sinuosity indices

Chapter 6 Morphometric analysis 106-126

6.1 General

6.2 Morphometry of Kalyani nadi basin

6.3 Morphometry of Loni nadi basin

6.4 Morphometry of Reth nadi basin

6.5 Morphometry of Behta nadi basin

6.6 Morphometry of Kukrail nala basin

Chapter 7 Land use classification 127-131

7.1 General

7.2 Land use map

7.3 Natural hazards of the area

7.4 Anthropogenic hazards of the area

Chapter 8 Conclusions 132-134

References 135-144

iii

List of Figures

Serial Description Page No.

Figure 1.1: Geographical distribution of Indo-Gangetic foreland basin (1)

Figure 1.2: Map of Ganga Plain showing various regional geomorphic units (5)

Figure 1.3: Map showing broad subdivision of Ganga Plain (7)

Figure 1.4: Map showing subsurface geology, fault and ridges Ganga plain (8)

Figure 1.5: Map showing rivers of Indo-Ganga Plain (11)

Figure 2.1: Study area (12)

Figure 2.2: District map of the study area (13)

Figure 2.3: River Basin map of the study area (14)

Figure 2.4: Map showing Koppen’s climate classification regarding the Indian

sub-continent

(15)

Figure 2.5: Map showing the alluvium or soil of the study area (19)

Figure 2.6: Map showing the major geomorphic units of the study area (21)

Figure 2.7: Pie diagram showing the percentage of T2, T1 and T0 (21)

Figure 3.1: Survey of India toposheets of the study area (23)

Figure 3.2: LANDSAT MSS Imageries 1975 with 60 meter resolution (24)

Figure 3.3: LANDSAT TM+ Imageries 1989-90 with 30 meter resolution (24)

Figure 3.4: LANDSAT ETM+ Imageries 1999-2000 with 30 meter resolution (25)

Figure 3.5: PAN data of LANDSAT ETM+ Imageries with 15 meter resolution (25)

Figure 3.6: The scheme of stream ordering (Strahler, 1952) and measurement of

basin length and other parameters used in morphometric analysis

(26)

Figure 3.7 Drainage map of the study area (33)

Figure 3.8 AWIFS imageries of LISS III (33)

Figure 4.1: Geomorphological map of Ganga-Sai interfluves (36)

Figure 4.2: Satellite imagery (Raster data), showing various geomorphic features (37)

Figure 4.3: Pie diagram showing percentage of T1, T2 and T0 (37)

Figure 4.4: Map showing the abandoned palaeo-channel belt (38)

Figure 4.5: Map showing geomorphology of active channel (T0) of Ganga River (40)

Figure 4.6: Map showing geomorphology of active channel (T0) of Sai nadi (40)

iv

Figure 4.7: Satellite imagery showing Yazoo Type River (41)

Figure 4.8: Field photograph showing geomorphic surfaces of Sai nadi (41)

Figure 4.9: Field photograph showing geomorphic surfaces of Ganga River (42)

Figure 4.10: Field photograph showing geomorphic surfaces of Loni nadi (42)

Figure 4.11: Geomorphological map of Sai-Gomati Interfluve (43)

Figure 4.12: Satellite imagery showing various geomorphic features (44)


Figure 4.14: Geomorphic map of active channel T0 of Gomati River (46)

Figure 4.15: Geomorphic map of active channel T0 of Gomati River (46)

Figure 4.16: Field photograph showing geomorphic surfaces of Gomati River (47)

Figure 4.17: Field photograph showing geomorphic surfaces of Sai nadi (47)

Figure 4.18: Geomorphological map of Gomati-Ghaghara interfluves (48)

Figure 4.19: Satellite imagery showing various geomorphic features (49)


Figure 4.21: Geomorphic map of active channel T0 of Ghaghara River (51)

Figure 4.22: Geomorphic map of active channel T0 of Kalyani Nadi (52)

Figure 4.23: Geomorphic map of active channel T0 of Marha Nadi (52)

Figure 4.24: Satellite imagery showing Yazoo Type River (53)

Figure 4.25: Field photograph showing geomorphic surfaces of Ghaghara River (53)

Figure 4.26: Field photograph showing geomorphic surfaces of Samli nadi (54)

Figure 4.27: Field photograph showing geomorphic surfaces of Kalyani nadi (54)

Figure 4.28: Field photograph showing geomorphic surfaces of Reth nadi (55)

Figure 4.29: Field photograph showing geomorphic surfaces of Samli nadi (55)

Figure 4.30: Contour map of the area (56)

Figure 4.31: Digital Elevation of the area (57)

Figure 4.32: Slope map of the area (58)

Figure 5.1: Escarpment profile of both bank of Behta nadi (60)

Figure 5.2: Escarpment profile of both bank of Gomati River (60)

Figure 5.3: Escarpment profile of both bank of Kalyani nadi (61)

Figure 5.4: Escarpment profile of both bank of Reth nadi (62)

Figure 5.5: Escarpment profile of both bank of Sai nadi (63)

v

Figure 5.6: Escarpment profile of both bank of Loni nadi (64)

Figure 5.7: Index map of longitudinal profile of Ganga-Sai interfluves (65)

Figure 5.7: A and B showing longitudinal profile of L1 and L2 respectively (67)

Figure 5.7: C and D showing longitudinal profile of L3 and L4 respectively (67)

Figure 5.7: E showing longitudinal profile of L5 (68)

Figure 5.8: Index map of longitudinal profile of Sai-Gomati interfluves (69)

Figure 5.8 A and B showing longitudinal profile of L1 and L2 respectively (71)


Figure 5.8: E and F showing longitudinal profile of L5 and L6 respectively (72)

Figure 5.9: Index map of longitudinal profile of Gomati-Ghaghara interfluves (73)

Figure 5.9: A and B showing longitudinal profile of L1 and L2 respectively (75)


Figure 5.9: E and F showing longitudinal profile of L5 and L6 respectively (76)

Figure 5.10: Index map of transverse profile of Ganga-Sai interfluves (77)

Figure 5.10: A and B showing transverse profile of T1 and T2 respectively (79)

Figure 5.10: C and D showing transverse profile of T3 and T4 respectively (80)

Figure 5.10: E and F showing transverse profile of T5 and T6 respectively (80)

Figure 5.10: G and H showing transverse profile of T7 and T8 respectively (81)

Figure 5.10: I and J showing transverse profile of T9 and T10 respectively (81)

Figure 5.11: Index map of transverse profile of Sai-Gomati interfluves (82)




Figure 5.11: G showing transverse profile of T7 (85)

Figure 5.12: Index map of transverse profile of Gomati-Ghaghara interfluves (86)




Figure 5.12: G showing transverse profile of T7 (89)

Figure 5.13: showing longitudinal profile of Ganga and Ghaghara River

respectively

(92)

vi

Figure 5.14: showing longitudinal profile of left and right bank of Gomati River

respectively

(92)

Figure 5.15: showing longitudinal profile of left and right bank of Kalyani nadi

respectively

(94)

Figure 5.16: showing longitudinal profile of left and right bank of Reth nadi

respectively

(94)

Figure 5.17: showing longitudinal profile of left and right bank of Sai nadi

respectively

96

Figure 5.18: showing longitudinal profile of left and right bank of Loni nadi

respectively

(96)

Figure 5.19: showing longitudinal profile of left and right bank of Behta nadi

respectively

(97)

Figure 5.20: Bar diagram showing relationship between valley width and channel

width of Ghaghara River

(98)


width of Ganga River

(99)

Figure 5.22: Bar diagram showing the relationship between valley width and

channel width of Gomati River

(100)


width of Sai nadi

(100)

Figure 5.24: Bar diagram showing sinuosity index of Gomati River (101)

Figure 5.25: Bar diagram showing sinuosity index of Sai nadi (102)

Figure 5.26: Bar diagram showing sinuosity index of Behta nadi (103)

Figure 5.27: Bar diagram showing sinuosity index of Reth nadi (103)

Figure 5.28: Bar diagram showing sinuosity index of Kalyani nadi (104)

Figure 5.29: Bar diagram showing sinuosity index of Loni nadi (105)

Figure 6.1: River basins of the area (106)

Figure 6.2: Drainage map of Kalyani nadi basin (107)

Figure 6.3: Graph between stream number (Log Nu), stream length (Log Lu) and

Stream order

(109)

Figure 6.4: View of Kalyani nadi near Masuali area of Barabanki district (110)

vii

Figure 6.5: Drainage map of Loni nadi basin (111)


Stream order

(113)

Figure 6.7: View of Loni nadi near Manghat kera area of Unnao district (114)

Figure 6.8: Drainage map of Reth nadi basin (115)


Stream order

(117)

Figure 6.10: View of Reth nadi near Sharifabad area of Barabanki district (118)

Figure 6.11: Drainage map of Behta nadi basin (119)


Stream order

(121)

Figure 6.13: View of Behta nadi near Rahimabad area (122)

Figure 6.14: Drainage map of Kukrail nala basin (123)

Figure 6.15: Graph between stream numbers (Log Nu), stream length (Log Lu)

and Stream order

(125)

Figure 6.16: View of Kukrail nala near Khurram Nagar area (126)

Figure 7.1: Showing land use classes of the area (129)

Figure 7.2: Pie chart showing percentage vise distribution of land use classes (129)

Figure 7.3: Buffer zone map of the study area related to Natural hazard (130)

viii

List of Tables

Serial No. Description Page No.

Table 6.1 Morphometric parameters of Kalyani Nadi Basin (110)

Table 6.2 Morphometric parameters of Loni Nadi Basin (114)

Table 6.3 Morphometric parameters of Reth Nadi Basin (118)

Table 6.4 Morphometric parameters of Behta Nadi Basin (122)

Table 6.5 Morphometric parameters of Kukrail Nala Basin (126)

1

1.1 General

Ganga Plain (popularly known as Ganga ka maidan) is one of the main physiographic

sub-division of Indian peninsula and lies within Indo-Gangetic foreland basin. This plain has

always been a subject of interest, because of its fertile soil and agricultural values. Ganga Plain is

the food capital of India because it directly affects the life of over forty millions people. This

plain is drained by the three major rivers of Indian sub-continent viz. the Ganga, the Indus, and

the Brahmaputra. The sediments of these three rivers give the birth of world‟s most fertile and

vast land. Out of these three rivers only Ganga alone drains about 1.6 billon ton sediments every

year and makes the most fertile land (According the documentary of Animal Planet on Ganga

Plain, River, 2013).

Figure 1.1 Map showing the geographical distribution of Indo-Gangetic foreland basin

2

1.1.1 Introduction

Ganga Plain occupies central position in Indo-Gangetic foreland basin; it occupies an

area about 250,000 Km2 and lies between 77°E to 88°E longitude to 24°N to 30°N latitude. It

extends from Aravalli-Delhi ridge in the west to the Raj Mahal in the east; Himalayan foothills

(Siwalik Hills) in the north to the Bundelkhand -Vindhyan Hill – Hazaribagh plateau in the

South. The length of the Ganga Plain is about 1000 km and width is ranging from 200-450 km, it

is wider in the western part and narrower in the eastern part.

The Indo-Gangetic foreland basin is an active peripheral foreland basin (Dickinson,

1974) formed after the continental-continental collision of Indian plate and Asian plate (Dewey

and Bird, 1970). A foreland basin is a structural basin that develops adjacent and parallel to a

mountain belt. It forms because the immense mass created by crustal thickening associated with

the evolution of a mountain belt causes the lithosphere to bend, by a process known as

lithospheric flexure. The width and depth of the foreland basin is determined by the flexure

rigidity of the underlying lithosphere, and the characteristics of the mountain belt. It receives

sediment eroded by the adjacent mountain belt, filling with thick sedimentary successions that

thin away from the mountain belt.

The Indo-Gangetic foreland basin shows all the major components of a foreland basin

system (DeCelles and Giles, 1996), namely an orogen (the Himalaya), deformed foreland basin

deposits adjacent to the orogen (Siwalik Hills),a depositional basin (Ganga Plain) and peripheral

cratonic bulge (Bundelkhand Plateau) (Singh, 1996). The initiation of this foreland basin started

in the Early Miocene. In the early phase of the foreland basin had small dimensions, with

comparatively minor subsidence (France-Lanord et al., 1983). The foreland basin was more

completely established in the Middle Miocene, after considerable lithosphere flexure and

subsidence of the basin. During the Middle Miocene to Middle Pleistocene (deposition of Lower

to Upper Siwalik Group), the northern part of the Ganga plain was uplifted and thrust

basinwards, and the Ganga basin shifted southward (cratonwards) in response to thrust loading in

the orogen (Singh, 1996). Covey, 1986 applied the term “under-filled basin” to the Ganga

foreland basin at this time, which represents a topographic low between the thrust belt

(Himalaya) and the peripheral bulge. The under-filled condition developed due to an efficient

transport system for the sediment supplied, which removed the bulk of the sediment to the Ganga

delta and Bengal fan.

3

Burbank, 1992 suggested that the Ganga foreland basin has been dominated by transverse river

systems since the Pliocene due to erosionally-driven uplift (symmetric subsidence of the

foreland), whereas the Indus foreland basin is dominated by longitudinal river systems due to

tectonically driven uplift (asymmetric subsidence of the foreland). Large Plio-Pleistocene

sediment fluxes combined with less asymmetric subsidence and uplift of the proximal foreland

led to the progradation of the transverse drainage systems that displaced the Ganga River to the

edge of the foreland basin. The present day river position is consistent with erosion driven uplift

in the adjacent Himalaya. Further, the sediment accumulation rates generally exceeded the

subsidence rates of the foreland throughout the history of the Ganga basin.

1.1.2 Geomorphology

Geomorphological studies of the Ganga Plain had started since the beginning of the nineteen

century. The earlier geomorphological studies were totally based on the field work and the map

provided by the British government. The survey of India finally made the geomorphological

study very authentic and easier by providing the topographical map in 1970-75. The beginning of

satellite era at mid sixties made the study of geomorphic feature very easy and authentic. At

present the topographical map, satellite imageries, aerial photography along with field work are

the main tools for the analysis of the geomorphology of the particular region. The numbers of

workers have given the overview about the geomorphology of Ganga Plain. These are as

follows:

The earlier workers Oldham, (1917), Pascoe, (1917), Pilgrim (1919), Geddes, (1960)

Mukherji, (1963) and Das Gupta, (1975) have identified two major morphostratigraphic

units namely, the newer alluvium (Khadar) and the older alluvium (Bangar). The older

alluvium makes the higher inter-channel areas, while the newer alluvium forms deposits

of the minor river channels and their valleys.

Geddes, (1960) identified the cone and inter-cone (fan and inter-fan areas) in the Bangar

surface of the northern part of Ganga Plain. He also discussed the sea-level changes

might have affected the river channels.

4

Mukherji, (1963) said that the Banger surface contains depositional terraces. Mukherji,

(1963) discussed the role of sea level changes and climate for the origin of depositional

terraces on Banger surface.

Pathak, (1966) identified four distinctive regions in the Ganga Plain from north to south

namely, Bhabar belt, Terai belt, Central Alluvial Plain and Marginal Alluvial Plain.

Das Gupta, (1975) identified river valley terraces in Upper Gangetic Flood Plain.

Kumar and Singh, (1978) have given detailed account of the role of Late Quaternary sea

level changes for the generation of different level of terraces of Gomati River system.

Pal and Bhattacharya, (1979); Saxena et al., (1983); Khan et al., (1988); Philip et al.,

(1991) used the remote sensing techniques for the identification of various geomorphic

feature in Ganga Plain.

Geological Survey of India mapped the geomorphic features of Ganga plain under the

Quaternary mapping programme.

Gopendra Kumar, (1992); Joshi and Bhartiya, (1991); Khan et al., (1987) named the

regional upland surface of the Ganga Plain as a Varanasi older alluvium and Banda older

alluvium, and piedmont fan deposits as a Bhat alluvium.

Sinha et al., (1989); Om Prakash et al., (1989) did the work on the height differences of

mappable unit of North Bihar region.

Singh and Ghosh, (1992, 1994) classified Ganga Plain geographically into two, the

Western Ganga Plain (Uttar Pradesh) and Eastern Ganga Plain (Bihar).

Singh, (1996) divided the Ganga Plain in to six geomorphic units on regional scale

(fig.1.2)

5

Figure 1.2 Map of the Ganga Plain showing various regional geomorphic units

(modified after Singh, 1996).

1-Upland Terrace Surface (T2) - The major part of the Ganga Plain north of the axial river,

shows inter-channel areas highland areas (older alluvium) making the Upland Terrace Surface

with a southern to southeastern regional slope. It is also referred as Bhangar or Older Alluvium.

The Upland Terrace Surface (T2) exhibits the linear narrow sand ridges (bhur), various river

channels, abandoned channel belt, micro-geomorphologic features such as ponds, lakes and

gentle regional ridges. The river channels are mostly incised in this surface. This surface is

beyond the reach of floods by overtopping of the river channels. However, flooding and water

stagnation takes place by rainwater controlled by local relief.

2-Marginal Plain Upland Surface (MP) -These are north and northeasterly sloping surfaces

occurring south of the axial river. This surface is mostly classified with Older Alluvium or

Bhangar. This is considered as a separate geomorphic surface, because it is made up of slightly

coarser sediments derive from the cratonic source. This surface is considered slightly equivalent

6

to T2 surface. Locally this surface has given various names such as: Bundelkhand-Vindhyan (V

surface), Gaya-Mungher (GM surface) and Bhagalpur surface (B surface) by Singh and Ghosh,

(1992, 1994).

3-Megafan Surface (F) -Singh and Ghosh, (1992) identified a number of Megafan surfaces in

northern and central part of the Ganga Plain with the help of remotely sensed data. These

surfaces are relict features, now being modified by various fluvial processes. Major rivers of the

Ganga Plain coming out from the Himalaya make Megafans, namely Kosi Megafan, Gandak

Megafan, Sarda Megafan and Yamuna-Ganga Megafan. They show evidences of several

superimposed events. In their distal part they merge with the T2 surface where it is difficult to

differentiate between the two.

4-River Valley Terrace Surface (T1) -The major rivers of Ganga Plain show development of

broad river valleys in which the present day active river channels, along with their flood plains

are entrenched. The T1 surface located several meters higher than the active flood plain, and is

normally not flooded by the bank overtopping of the river channel. It can be flooded by rain

water and backflow phenomena during flood in the main river. The River Valley Terrace (T1) is

made up of newer alluvium khadar. All the major rivers of the Ganga Plain show development of

broad river valleys in which active river channel and incised flood plain.

5-Piedmont Fan Surface (PF) -This surface is 10-30 km wide belt of coalescing fans,

developed along the foothills of Himalayas and has developed with of 3°- 4° slopes showing

both diverging and converging drainages. The piedmont fan surface includes both Bhabar and

Terai belts. Mostly, two levels are identified on the PF-surface. The lower level is rather flat with

muddy deposits on the top. The upper level is steeper and exhibits rugged topography often

exposing gravels in the gullies. Rivers of PF are mostly gravelly and ephemeral in nature. In low-

lying areas, sluggish and meandering rivers are also present.

6-Active Flood Plain Surface (T0) -It is a youngest geomorphic surface, and present within the

older surface. Active flood plains of most of the rivers of Ganga Plain are rather narrow and

entrenched in the river valleys. These flood plains are poorly developed, narrow and active. This

surface shows a variety of fluvial land forms, including channels, channel bars, levees, meander

cutoffs, ox-bow lakes, swamps, crevasse channels, and a wide range of sediment types are

deposited in different parts. This surface is subjected to annual flooding and after each flood;

many changes in the landforms take place.

7

In general (Singh et al., 1996, Singh, 2001) broadly divide the Ganga Plain in to three major

units: The Piedmont Plain, The Central Plain and The Marginal Alluvial Plain (figure 1.3).

Figure 1.3 Map showing broad subdivision of Ganga Plain

(modified after Singh et al., 1996, Singh, 2001)

1.1.3 Subsurface Geology

Logging techniques are one of the best tools for understanding the subsurface geology of

particular region. In Ganga Plain most of the information is available on the basis of geological

mapping, gravity anomalies and information from aeromagnetic, seismic, magnetic survey and

borehole data of ONGC and CGWB. This subsurface information is utilized by various workers

to interpret the basement configuration and nature of sedimentary fill (Rao, 1973; Sastri et al.,

1971; Agarwal, 1977; Qureshy et al., 1989; Qureshy and Kumar, 1992; Karunakaran and Rao,

1979; Raiverman, et al., 1983; Lyon-Caen & Molnar, 1985).

8

The thickness of the alluvium is approximately 6 km near the foothill zone and decreases

gradually towards the south (Rao, 1973).Geophysical surveys show that the Ganga basin is

resting over metamorphic basement, exhibits a number of ridges and basins (Figure 1.4). Ganga

basin is characterized by three subsurface ridges, i.e. Delhi-Haridwar ridge in the west, Faizabad

ridge in the middle, and Monghyr-Saharsa ridge in the east (Rao, 1973, Parkash and Kumar,

1991). There are two important depressions in this area, namely the Gandak and the Sarda deep.

There are also a number of basement fault namely, Moradabad fault, Bareilly fault, Lucknow

fault, Patna fault, Malda fault (Sastri et al., 1971; Rao, 1973). In the area between the Delhi-

Hardwar ridge and the Faizabad ridge, the sediments rest on Late Proterozoic unmetamorphosed

sediments, which are the part of Vindhyan basin in the south and the Krol basin in the north. East

of the Monhgyr-Saharsa ridge, the foreland sediments lie on a thick succession of Gondwana

rocks.

Figure 1.4 Map showing subsurface geology, fault and ridges of the Ganga plain

(modified after sastri et al.1971, Rao 1973, GSI 2000).

9

The Ganga basin is traversed by several transverse and oblique subsurface faults (Agarwal, 1977,

Dasgupta et al., 1987, Valdiya, 1976) and the seismic data have shown that many of these faults

are neotectonically active as evidenced by recent seismic activities (major earthquakes in 1833,

1906, 1934 and1987), with the possibility of large earthquakes in the near future (Bilham, 1995).

These longitudinal and transverse faults along with the basement configuration of the Ganga

Plain have long been considered to influence the fluvial processes and sedimentation (Raiverman

et al., 1983, Parkash and Kumar, 1991, Agrawal and Bhoj, 1992, Pant and Sharma, 1993, Ghosh

1994, Parkash et al., 2000).

1.1.4 Neotectonics in the Ganga Plain

The neotectonic activities of the Ganga Plain have been identified by a number of

workers namely, Singh and Rastogi, (1973), Singh and Bajpai, (1989), Mohindra et al., (1992),

Mohindra and Parkash, (1994), Singh and Ghosh, (1994), Srivastava et al., (1994), Misra et al.,

(1994), Kumar et al., (1996), Singh, (1996, 1999, 2001), Singh et al., (1996), Parkash et al.,

(2000) and Agarwal et al., (2002), Singh et al., (2009) and Awasthi and Singh, (2011).

Evidences of neotectonic activity recorded in the Ganga Plain are: displacement of the Siwalik

hills, skewness of fan surfaces, preferential alignment of river channels, deflections in river

courses, distorted meanders, escarpments, asymmetrical terraces and warping on kilometer to

tens of kilometer scale (Singh, 2001; Agarwal et al., 2002). Singh, (2004) have identified three

regional belts in the Ganga Plain, parallel to Himalayan orogen on the basis of previous studies.

The northern belt is under compressional regime, showing thrust sheet movements, blind thrust

buried under the alluvium and conjugate system of strike slip faults (NNE-SSW and SW-SE

direction). The Central Alluvial Plain, between the piedmont zone and axial river characterized

by NW-SE and WNW-ESE and WE trending lineaments, which have controlled the river

channels and acted as normal faults, evidence stands of lithospheric extension. In the southern

part of this belt, main tectonic trend is SW-NE, which has controlled the alignment of river

channel. The zones of extensional tectonics trending in EW direction are reported in the southern

Ganga Plain (Agarwal et al., 2002). Pitambar Pati, B. Parkash, A.K. Awasthi, R.P. Jakhmola,

(2012) give the significant contribution on the neotectonic activity of Ganga Plain with detailed

study of shifting of Kosi River.

10

1.1.5 River system

Ganga Plain is hub of rivers of various dimensions (figure 1.5) into which Ganga River is

the master consequence or trunk river and all the major river of the Ganga Plain fallowed the

flowing trend of master consequence „Ganga‟. The confluence point of Bhagirathi and

Alkahnanda near Devprayag gives the birth of Ganga River and after travelling 2,500 km

distance, it is finally confluence in Bay of Bengal. Singh, 1992 has been classified the rivers of

Ganga Plain in to three categories such as glacier fed rivers of Himalaya, ground water fed rivers

of the Alluvium and rain fed rivers of Peninsular region, on the basis of origin, direction of flow,

dimensions, channel characteristics and hydraulic parameters rivers. Sinha & Friend 1994

proposed another classification scheme for the rivers of Ganga Plain of north Bihar region such

as mountain-fed, foothills-fed and plains-fed.

Ganga, Ghaghara, Grate Gandak, Kosi, Yamuna Sarda, etc. are the major mountain fed

rivers of the Ganga Plain. These rivers make the mega-fan surfaces such as Yamuna-Ganga

mega-fan, Ghaghara mega-fan, Gandak mega-fan, Kosi mega-fan, Sarda mega-fan at the foot hill

of Himalaya (figure 1.2). These rivers exhibits braided and anastomosing river pattern. Migration

of active channel (lateral shifting), migration of braid bars, diversion of river channel, etc are the

some peculiar properties of the mountain-fed river. Most of the workers such as Kapoor, (2003),

Chandra, (1993), Tangri, (1992), Geddes, (1960), Gole and Chitale, (1966), Agarwal and Bhoj,

(1992), Mohindra and Parkash, (1994), Phillip et al., (1989), Jain and Sinha, (2004), Singh and

Awasthi, (2010), etc have been done considerable work on the lateral erosion and the migration

of river channel of the mountain-fed river on the different part of the Ganga Plain. The process of

migration and lateral erosion of river channels is continues throughout the year but monsoon

season influences the process of migration and lateral erosion of river channels at very much

level. Ghaghara, Kosi, and Grate Gandak are some rivers which are notorious for their valley

incision. The textural immaturity of the soil is a main causative factor behind the lateral incision.

The mountain gadi or the sediments of these mountains fed rivers give the birth of one of the

most fertile land in the world.

Gomati, Chhoti Gandak, Sai, Kalyani, etc. are the major ground water fed river of the

Ganga Plain. All the ground water rivers are highly sinuous and exhibit the meandering nature.

The entire ground water fed river has sluggish flow throughout the year except the monsoon

season. Most of the ground water fed rivers have very narrow channel as well as valley width

11

ratio; due to this, the most of the ground water fed river brings the situation of catastrophic flood

in the low lying areas of Ganga Plain during the monsoon season. The Ami and Kuwana river of

Gorakhpur district are the best example of this situation. The ground water fed rivers do not

receive any fresh material from the primary source; they just erode and redistribute the older

alluvium. In other words, they only recycle the sediments. Keller and Printer, (1996)

acknowledged that the resisting forces of the alluvial rivers are greater than driving force, and

therefore river cannot transport all of the available sediments and it flows in a bed of its own

detritus.

Figure 1.5 Map showing rivers of Indo-Ganga Plain

1.2 Objectives

To study the geomorphology of the area

To study the geomorphic indices such as longitudinal profile, transverse profile,

Sinuosity indices, valley width - channel width and escarpment analysis of the study area.

Morphometric analysis of the investigated river basins,

Slope analysis

Land use classification and natural hazards,

12

2.1 General

An “Interfluves are the region of higher land between the two rivers that are in the same

drainage system”. In Indian contest commonly interfluve is known as Doab. Study area;

„Ghaghara-Ganga interfluve between Faizabad and Kanpur region‟ is a part of Central Ganga

Plain (after Singh et al., 1996, Singh, 2001, figure 1.4) and it falls under the geomorphic unit of

Ghaghara mega fan (Singh, 1996). Geographically the study area is broadly divided into Older

Alluvium or Bangar and Younger Alluvium or Khadar (figure 2.4). It is situated between

80°14‟E to 82°15‟ E longitudes and 26°40‟N to 26°47‟N latitudes (figure 2.1) and covers an area

of about 22,701.35 km2. The entire part of the study area has generally very gentle slope towards

NW-SE.

Figure 2.1 Study area map

RAIBAREIL

13

Study area includes six districts of Uttar Pradesh namely as Unnao, Lucknow, Barabanki, Rai

bareilly, Sultanpur and Faizabad (figure 2.2). The most of the study area is drained by the ground

water fed rivers, small streams and nalas. Gomati, Sai, Kalyani, Loni, Reth, and Behta are the

main ground water fed rivers. In study area Ganga River makes the district boundary with

Unnao-Kanpur and Raibareilly-Fatehpur, while Ghaghara makes the boundary with Barabanki-

Bahraich, Gonda and Faizabad-Gonda, Basti. The Sai nadi makes the district boundary with

Unnao-Lucknow while Gomati River makes the boundary between Lucknow-Barabanki districts.

Study area has been broadly categorized into three basins such as the Ganga basin, the

Gomati basin and the Ghaghara basin out of which Gomati basin contributes more than other

basins (figure 2.3). The Gomati River basin includes the four sub basin such as Kalyani nadi

basin, Reth nadi basin, Behta nadi basin, Kukrail nala basin while Ganga River includes the Loni

nadi basin in the investigated area.

Figure 2.2 District map of the study area

14

Figure 2.3 Map showing river basin of the area

2.2 Climate

Koppen‟s classified the whole Indo-Gangetic Plain into the humid subtropical climate

(Cwa system) (figure 2.4). The Cwa system is a unique classification and it is applicable for

Indo-Gangetic Plain only. Study area experienced the three major seasons annually viz. winter,

summer, and monsoon. All the weather related changes on the study area have been done by the

westerlies wind. The winter season starts from November to February and it downs the mercury

to near about 2°-22°C. Winter season experienced the cold wind of Siberian origin and received

very low rain fall, most of the rainfall of this season is a result of cyclonic disturbances or the

retrieving the monsoon only. Winter season slowdowns the process of weathering (either

chemical or mechanical) and erosion. Summer season started with the beginning of March and

continued up to the mid June. In summer season mercury fluctuated in between 28°-44°C and

15

most part of the Ganga Plain is in the grip of hot local wind famously known as the loo . The

cyclonic rainfall gives some relief to human being in summer season. During this time

weathering and erosional processes is governed mainly by the wind action.

Figure 2.4 Map showing Koppen‟s climate classification regarding the Indian sub-continent

Monsoon season starts from June, when the south-west monsoon comes from Kerala to towards

the Ganga Plain region. Both south-west monsoon and Bay of Bengal monsoon play a

considerable role during the monsoon season in Ganga Plain. The monsoon season is continues

up to the mid September. During this time the humidity is very high and most part of the Ganga

Plain experiences the heavy rain. Heavy rain advances the velocity and sediment supply of the

rivers of Ganga Plain; either it may be ground water fed rivers of the alluvium or the snow fed

rivers of the Himalaya. Heavy rain in the monsoon brings the situation of flood hazard in all

most all of part of the Ganga Plain. Monsoon season may also influence the process of

16

weathering and erosion; this process develops and modifies the most of the geomorphic features

of Ganga Plain.

2.3 River Hydrology

The hydrology of the study area is governed by the two glaciers fed rivers of Himalaya

such as Ghaghara and Ganga along with the ground water fed rivers such Loni, Sai, Gomati and

its tributaries (figure 2.6).

Ghaghara River

Ghaghara river is also known as the Manchu, Kauriala, or Karnali in Nepal and has its

source in Nepal Himalaya .The name Ghaghara is derived from Sanskrit word „Ghaghara‟

meaning “rattling or laughter”. Kauriala river pierces the Himalaya at Shishsa pani and shortly

throws off a branch to the east called Girwa River, which brings down the main discharge.

Kauriala and the Girwa rivers join to form Ghaghara which enters the Ganga plain in the vicinity

of Bichha town. Its total catchment area is 127,950 sq km of which 45% is lying in India.

Ghaghara River valley is exceptionally wide in the middle part of its length and is wider than the

valley formed by Ganga River. The reason for enormous width of Ghaghara river valley is that it

is formed by the merging of independent valley of three important rivers namely the Ghaghara

the axial river and the Sarda and the Sarju River. Emergence of the Ghaghara and the Sarju rivers

on the plains up to the distance where they make their separate valleys on emerging from the

hills Ghaghara, Sarda and Sarju rivers show a low sinuosity braided channel pattern, they are

incised into the piedmont zone and possesses independent valleys. Initially Ghaghara, Sarda and

Sarju rivers follow a north-south channel orientation followed by a right angled east west turn by

all the three rivers along a line indicating lineament control then all the rivers start flowing in a

northwest-southeast direction. The width of Ghaghara River valley varies between 5-20 km .The

width of Sarju River valley is less as compared to the width of Sarda and Ghaghara River valley.

Apart from Sarju and Sarda rivers, Suheli and Jauraha rivers are also minor tributaries of

Ghaghara River which meet on its right side (western side). Suheli River has its catchment in the

Siwalik Hills and Jauraha River exhibits low sinuosity, meandering channel pattern with straight

reaches in between and abrupt changes in the stream orientation. At Banswana Sarda, Ghaghara

and Sarju river valleys merge to form an exceptionally wide valley. The width of Ghaghara River

17

valley varies between 30- 65 km. The right and the left valley margins of Ghaghara River are

highly irregular. The Ghaghara River shows NW-SE orientation for greater part of its channel

length in this part followed by an east west orientation a few kilometres upstream of Faizabad.

Sarda River shows, NW-SE trend initially in this part followed by an E-W orientation. In this

part of the Ghaghara valley the terraces are uniformly developed on either side of the Ghaghara

River. From Faizabad town upto the confluence of Ghaghara and Rapti rivers at Madhubani

about 7 km upstream of Barhaj, Ghaghara river shows low sinuosity, braided channel pattern

with straight reaches in between. The Ghaghara River debouches into Ganga River at Doriganj in

Chhapra town of Bihar.

Under the study area Ghaghara River covers around 128 km length and Barabanki,

Faizabad districts come under this area. The Ghaghara is notorious for their valley widening

through lateral erosion, shifting of their course and flooding of this region. The valley width of

the Ghaghara River ranges between 16 km (near upper part of the Barabanki) to 1.5 km (near

upper part of the Faizabad). The left bank of the Ghaghara River exhibits a number of palaeo-

channel. These channels show the close affinity with the flowing direction of active channel of

Ghaghara River. The river valley of Ghaghara exhibits a number of braid bar under the interfluve

area. Samli nadi, Bahoriya nala, Jyori nala, Marha nadi influence the hydrology of the area.

Ganga River

Ganga River is a national river of India and making trans-boundary with India and

Bangladesh. The Ganga begins at the confluence of the Bhagirathi and Alaknanda rivers near

Dev Prayag and after travelling the 2525 km long path, empties itself in to Bay of Bengal. In

Ganga Plain the hydrology of Ganga River is influenced by its major or minor tributaries. The

hydrology of the tributaries are as follows: Ghaghara is the major tributary of Ganga contributing

2,990 m3/s (106,000 cu ft/s) water annually, Yamuna contributes about 2,950 m

3/s (104,000 cu

ft/s), Kosi River contributes about 2,166 m3/s (76,500 cu ft/s), Tamsa River contributes 190 m

3/s

(6,700 cu ft/s), Son River contributes about 1,000 m3/s (35,000 cu ft/s), Gandak River

Contributes about 1,654 m3/s (58,400 cu ft/s), Gomati River contributing about 234 m

3/s (8,300

cu ft/s).

Under the study area Ganga covers an around 128 km length and includes Kanpur, Unnao, and

Raebareli district of Uttar Pradesh. The hydrology of the Ganga is mainly governed by Loni

18

Nadi, Morahi Nadi, Ganda Nala and many small streams. The Ganga River exhibit the wider

valley under the study region.

Gomati River

Gomati is a ground water fed river of the alluvium. It originates from the Gomat tal near

Madho Tanda town of Pilibhit district and confluence in to Ganga near Said Pur in Ghazipur

district. The length of Gomati from its origin to confluence is around 900 km. Length of about

228 km comes under the study area. Kalyani nadi, Reth nadi, Kukrail nala, Betwa nala are the

major left tributaries while Sai nadi, Behta nadi and Loni nala are the right tributary of Gomati

River under the study area. Gomati along with its tributaries follows the meandering path under

the study area. Gomati River has very, sluggish water flow, low runoff and water budget through

out the year, except monsoon season when heavy rain fall increases the discharge of the Gomati

River. The annual discharge of Gomati River is about 7390 x 106 m

3 (Rao, 1975). The heavy rain

increases the velocity and capacity of the Gomati River. Since there is a not much difference

between the valley width and channel ratio of the Gomati River; therefore at the time of heavy

rain, water easily over topes the bank of the river and brings situation of catastrophic flood in the

low lying area of the Gomati River. The highest flood was recorded on 13 September 1894,

when river water rose to a height of 1.4 m above normal high flood level and maximum

discharge was 234,000 cubic feet per second (Chandra,2000). At present about 25 km distance of

the Gomati River from its origin has dried and the experts of the various countries have visited to

save the origin of Gomati. The experts suggest that the heavy silt deposit is the main cause

behind this situation.

Sai nadi

Sai is another important ground water fed river of the study area. It originates from a

pond in village, Bijgwan near Pihani in district Hardoi and confluence in to Gomati River at

Rajepur in Jaunpur district. In mythology, Sai nadi has been pronounced as an Adi Ganga. The

course of the Sai is highly sinuous and covers about 198.898 km length under the study area. The

most part of the Sai is almost dry throughout the year except the monsoon season. At present Sai

nadi also struggling for its existence.

19

2.4 Geology

Since the study area is part of Central Ganga Plain, therefore it contains the Quaternary

alluvium. It is broadly divided in to two geomorphic units or two type of alluvium: (1) Upland

Terrace Surface (T2) or Older Alluvium (Bangar), (2) River Valley Terrace (T1) or Newer

Alluvium (Khadar) (figure 2.5).

Upland Terrace Surface (T2)

The most part of the area are under come in to Upland Terrace Surface (T2) and it

includes about 20,325.61 km2 or 90 percent of total area (figure 2.7)

. This surface exhibits the

linear narrow sand ridges (bhur), various river channels, abandoned channel belt, gullies and

ravine, micro-geomorphologic features such as ponds, lakes and gentle regional ridges. The

rivers of T2 surface are either ground water fed or monsoon fed and the active channels of these

river are either highly sinuous or tortoise. Point bars are one of the most common depositional

features along these channels. Upland Terrace Surface (T2) is the oldest geomorphic surface of

the Ganga Plain and it is made up of fine-grained sediments showing inter-layering of fine sand,

silt, mud with calcrete horizons (Singh, 1996).

Figure 2.5 Map showing the alluvium or soil of the study area

20

River Valley Terrace surface (T1)

The River Valley Terrace (T1) is made up of Newer Alluvium (Khadar). Total area of T1

and T0 is about 1,856.96 km2 (about 8%) and 334.08km

2(about 2%) respectively (figure 2.7).

The upper part of T1 surface of Ghaghara and Ganga River shows the broad river valley. It

shows the number of meander cut off, abandoned channels, linear water bodies etc. The T1

surface of Ganga shows 16 km broad meander cut off under the study area. This surface is made

up of coarse grained sand.

The active channel of Ghaghara and Ganga River exhibits braided nature and braid bar is one of

the most common feature along the channel of these two rivers.

2.5 Tectonics

Tectonically the study area is mainly affected by Faizabad ridge and the Lucknow fault/

Malihabad fault (figure 1.4). These faults influence the geomorphology of the area at some parts.

The Lucknow fault affect the course of Gomati River and Behta nadi while the Faizabad ridge

affects the lower part of the study area.

2.6 Lithology

Study area is composed of loose and unconsolidated material of sand, silt and clay and

most of the sedimentary succession of the study area is intercalation of these materials. The most

of the materials are derived either from primary source or from secondary source. In primary

source weathering and transported material is a part of Himalayan rocks while in secondary

source river erodes and redistribute the older channel or alluvium itself. Some part of the study

area contains the calcrete horizons identified by Singh, 1996.

21

Figure 2.6 Map showing the major geomorphic units of the study area

Figure 2.7 Pie diagram showing the percentage of T2, T1 and T0

22

3.1 General

Methodology deals with the implication of logical method to obtain the result of any

problem. It includes the collection and the preparation of various tools and data sets. Under the

thesis methodology has broadly been divided in two parts. Field verification involves the

collection of photographs of various geomorphic features and Laboratory work involves the

preparation of various maps and calculations with the help of various software.

3.2 Preparation of thematic maps

The first part is a vital part or backbone of any thesis because it deals with the basic

information of the study area. The Survey of India topographical maps from 1973 to 1976 is one

of the best tools for obtaining the basic information of any region. After obtaining the relevant

information of the study area, we can easily prepare the various thematic maps. A Thematic

maps are those which are based on any particular theme of the specific area. Here 48 topotsheets

on 1:50,000 have been used for the study of the desired area (figure 3.1). All the thematic maps

have been prepared with ARC GIS 10 software.

3.3 Preparation of Geomorphological maps

Geomorphological study of the area has been carried out with Survey of India toposheets

on 1:50,000 scales and easily available various satellite imageries. In present work the 48

toposheets and various satellite imageries of different age such as: MSS DATA (1975-76),

LANDSAT TM+ (1989), LANDSAT ETM

+ (2000-2006), PAN DATA of LANDSAT (2000-

2006) and LISS III AWIFS (2011) have been used. The LANDSAT imageries are totally free

and it is easily available on the GLCF (Global Land Cover Facility) website. The LISS III data of

AWIFS is easly available on the site of NRSC (National Remote Sensing Center). For preparing

the geomorphic map, all the raster data (geographically referenced data) were digitized in to

vector data (point, line, and polygon) with the help of ARC GIS 10 software.

The MSS (Multi Spectral Scanning) imageries of 1975 have been used with all four

bands for composing FCC (False Colour Composite) of the study area. The FCC is useful for the

delineation of different geomorphic features. We used Band 3, 2, 1 as a Red, Green, Blue for

making the FCC (figure 3.2).

23

The resolution of MSS imageries is 60 m. The details of the path-row used are p155r42,

p155r41, p154r42 and p154r41 for the preparation of MSS data.

The LANDSAT TM+ (Thematic Mapper) is as an advanced version with resolution of 30

meter with seven bands. The FCC has been prepared with using Band 4, 3, 2 as a Red, Green,

and Blue. The tone and texture of FCC is very useful for the identification of various geomorphic

surface of the study area (figure 3.3).

The LANDSAT ETM+ (Enhanced Thematic Mapper) is an advanced version of

LANDSAT TM+. The resolution of LANDSAT ETM

+ is 30 meter with 8 bands. The FCC was

prepared with help of band 4, 3, and 2 as Red, Green, and Blue (figure 3.4). The PAN data of

LANDSAT ETM+ (band 8) is a black and white with 15 meters resolution and most suitable for

the delineation of geomorphic features related to water bodies such as river, water saturated tal,

jheel and small bodies (figure 3.5). The PAN data may also very helpful for the differentiation of

major geomorphic surfaces such as T1, T2 and T0.

Figure 3.1 Survey of India toposheets of the study area

24

Figure 3.2 LANDSAT MSS Imageries 1975 with 60 meter resolution

Figure 3.3 LANDSAT TM+ Imageries 1989-90 with 30 meter resolution

25

Figure 3.4 LANDSAT ETM+ Imageries 1999-2000 with 30 meter resolution

Figure 3.5 PAN data of LANDSAT ETM+ Imageries with 15 meter resolution

26

3.4 Morphometric analysis

Morphometric analysis has been broadly categorized into three parameters such as Basic

parameters, Derived parameters and Shape parameters (Mesa, 2006). Topographical maps

(1:50,000) are most authenticated for the study of morphometric analysis.

Figure 3.6 Showing the scheme of stream ordering (Strahler, 1952) and measurement of basin length and other

parameters used in morphometric analysis

27

MORPHOMETRIC PARAMETERS

Basic Parameters Derived Parameters Shape Parameters

Basin area Bifurcation ratio Elongation ratio

Basin length Stream length ratio Circularity index

Perimeter Stream frequency Form Factor

Stream length Drainage density Elipticity index

Stream order Drainage texture

Basin relief ratio

RHO Coefficient

3.4.1 Basic Parameters

Basin area: It is the entire area considered between the divide line and the outfall with all sub-

and inter-basin area. In fact, since almost every watershed characteristic is correlated with area.

The basin area is the most important parameter in the description of form and processes of the

drainage basin (Garde, 2006).

Basin Length: Basin length is obtained by measuring the longest basin diameter between the

mouth of the basin and most distinct point on the perimeter (Gregory and Walling, 1973).

Perimeter: It is the total length of the drainage basin boundary.

Stream Length (Lu): It is the total length of streams of a particular order.

Stream Order (Nu): Stream ordering refers to the determination of the hierarchical position of

stream within a drainage basin. According to Strahler (1952), ordering of stream begins from the

fingertip tributaries, which do not have their own feeders. Such fingertip streams are designated

as first order streams, two streams when join together from second order stream just below

junction. Similarly two second order streams meet to make stream of third order and process

continues till the trunk stream is given the highest order. The order does not increase if a lower

order stream segment meets a stream segment of higher order. This scheme is popularly known

28

as „stream segment method‟. Stream order is a useful indicator of stream size, discharge and

drainage area (Strahler, 1957).

Slope: The slope angle of a basin is a morphometrical factor of hydrological relevance. Steep

slopes generally have high surface run-off values and low infiltration rates. The basin slope was

calculated by applying the following formula:

Sb = Hmax - Hmin/L

Where, Hmax and Hmin are the maximum and minimum basin heights, respectively; L is the

horizontal length of the basin (figure 3.6).

3.4.2 Derived Parameters

Bifurcation Ratio (Rb): It is the ratio of the numbers of streams of any given order (Nu) to the

number in the next lower order (Nu+1). The bifurcation ratio is related to the branching pattern

of drainage network. It is a dimensionless parameter of the drainage basin and controlled by

drainage density, stream entrance angles (junction angle), litological characteristics, basin shape

and basin area. It is defined as:

Rb = Nu / Nu+1

This is a very important parameter that expresses the degree of ramification of drainage network.

Stream Length Ratio (Rl): It is calculated by following formula:

Rl = Lu / Lu-1

Where, Rl = stream length ratio, Lu = stream length of order „u‟ and Lu-1 = stream segment

length of the next lower order. It has an important relationship with the surface flow discharge

and erosional stage of the basin (Sreedevi et al., 2004).

Stream Frequency (Fs): It was defined by Horton (1945) as the ratio between the total number

of stream segments of all orders in basin and the basin area. It is expressed as:

Fs = Ʃ Nu / A

Where, Ʃ Nu is the total number of stream segments of all orders and A is the basin area. The

general categories of stream frequency are very poor, poor, moderate, high and very high.

Drainage Density (Dd): Horton (1945) defined the drainage density (Dd) as the total length of

streams per unit area of drainage basin. Drainage density is measures the degree of fluvial

29

dissection and it is influenced by numerous factors, among which resistance to erosion of rocks,

infiltration capacity of the land and climatic conditions rank high (Verstappen, 1983).

Dd = Ʃ Lt / A

Where, Ʃ Lt = total length of all the ordered streams, and A = area of the basin

Drainage Texture (T): The drainage texture (T) is an expression of the relative channel spacing

in a fluvial dissected terrain. It depends upon a number of natural factors such as climate,

rainfall, vegetation, rock and soil type, infiltration capacity, relief and stage of development of a

basin (Smith, 1950).

T = Dd x Fs

Where, Dd is drainage density and Fs is stream frequency.

Basin Relief (R): It is the difference in elevation between the highest and lowest point of the

basin.

R = Hmax – Hmin

Where, Hmax and Hmin are the maximum and minimum basin heights, respectively.

Relief Ratio (Rr): It is the ratio between the basin relief (R) and basin length (L). It is a

dimensionless parameter given by Schumm (1963).

Rr = R / L

RHO coefficient (RHO)

This parameter defined as the ratio between stream length ratio (Rl) and the bifurcation ratio

(Rb). It expresses the relationship between the drainage density and the physiographic

development of the basin, allows the evaluation of the storage capacity of the drainage network

(Horton, 1945). It is influenced by natural as well as the anthropogenic influences. The RHO

expresses water storage capacity during flood and the erosion.

RHO = Rl / Rb

3.4.3 Shape Parameters

Elongation Ratio (Re): Elongation ratio (Re) was defined as the ratio between the diameter of a

circle of the same area as the basin (D) and basin length (L) Schumm (1956).

Re = D / L = 1.128 √ A / L

30

Where, A is area of the basin, L is basin length, and 1.128 is a constant. The values of elongation

ratio varies from zero (highly elongated shape) to unity i.e. one (circular shape). Thus, the more

circular shape of the basin gives the higher values of Re and vice versa.

Circularity Index (Rc): The circularity ratio (Miller, 1953; Strahler, 1964) of the basin, is ratio

of the basin area (A) and the area of a circle with same parameter as that of the basin (P).

Rc = 4 Λ Α / P2

Where, Rc is basin circularity, P is basin perimeter, A is area of the basin and 4 is a constant. The

values of circularity index varies from zero (a line) to unity i.e. one (a circle). The higher values

of Rc, the more circular shape of the basin and vice versa.

Form Factor (Ff): Horton (1945) proposed this parameter to predict the flow intensity of a basin

of defined area. The Ff of a drainage basin is expressed as the ratio between the area of the basin

(A) and the squared of the basin length (L2).

Ff = A / L2

The index of Ff shows the inverse relationship with the square of the axial length and as a direct

relationship with peak discharge (Gregory and Walling, 1973).

Elitipcity Index (E): The elipticity Index is an important shape parameter indicating general

shape of the drainage basin.

E = Λ L2 / 4 A

Where, A is the basin area and L is the basin length. The value of elipticity index varies from one

to infinity.

All the morphometric calculation has been made with the help of ARC GIS 10, GOBAL

MAPPER and ERDAS software.

3.5 Geomorphic Indices

Geomorphic indices provide basic reconnaissance tools to identify areas experiencing

rapid tectonic deformation (Keller, 1986). Longitudinal profile, transverse profile, sinuosity

indices, valley width - channel width calculation of rivers and escarpment analysis has been used

to investigate the effects of tectonic activity on the interfluve region. Escarpment Analysis is an

attempt to generate an empirical parameter, which is an important indicator of active tectonics in

the Ganga Plain.

31

The longitudinal and transverse profile of the interfluve area is drawn by plotting elevation

against their respective downward distance. Contour lines and different spot heights on 1:50,000

topographic maps give the whole information about the elevation of the study area.

The sinuosity indices can be calculated by the following formula: OL/EL (Schumm,

1963) where OL means observed (actual) path of a stream and EL expected straight path of a

stream. Sinuosity may help considerably in studying the effect of terrain characteristics on the

river course and vice versa. It also gives the vivid picture of the stage of basin development as

well as landform evolution.

Valley width and channel width calculation has been carried out with the help of Google

earth map. The ratio of valley and channel width helps for the reconstruction of palaeo-

environment of the area.

Escarpment is an excellent example of Neotectonic activity of any area. The analysis of

escarpment has been carried out with the help of toposheets (1:50,000) provided by Survey of

India. The value of „r‟ on both bank of the river against their corresponding downstream

distances, separately for the both banks of the river was plotted for escarpment analysis.


Terrain information is very essential in geomorphic studies. Digital Elevation Model

(DEM) is a term coined to describe methods and processes pertaining to digital terrain data. A

Digital Elevation Model is a type of Digital Terrain Model, recording a topographical

(geomorphometric) representation of the terrain of the earth or another surface in digital format.

The word elevation in Digital Elevation Model is the measurement of height above a datum. It

implies the altitude or elevation of the points contained in the data. Digital Elevation Model

records altitude in a raster format. That is, the map will normally divide the area into rectangular

pixels and store the elevation of each pixel. In that sense, Digital Elevation Model data are

sampled arrays of surface elevations in raster form. Spot heights and contour lines can also be

used to produce Digital Elevation Model. Digital Elevation Model of the study area has been

prepared with the help of SRTM (Shuttle Remote Topographic Mission) data with 90 m

resolution.

32

3.7 Drainage map of the study area

Drainage map have been prepared with the help of Survey of India toposheets (1:50,000)

along with ARC GIS 10 software. Drainage map (figure 3.7) gives the precise idea about the

drainage network, drainage pattern and basin characters of different rivers of any area. Drainage

maps also help in morphometric analysis of the drainage basin or river basin of any particular

area.

3.8 Slope analysis

Slope analysis gives the detail idea about the gradient of any particular region. The slope

analysis of the study area has made with the help of SRTM (Shuttle Remote Topographic

Mission) data easily available on GLCF (Global Land Cover Facility) site. The resolution of the

data is 90 meters. All the process for making the slope map has been done on ARC GIS 10

software. Since the Ganga Plain is a low lying area therefore the slope variation is not very

prominent.

3.9 Land use map

Land use planning is a technique that requires the interpretation of image mainly on the

basis of image classification using Digital Image Processing (DIP). This have been achieved

using image processing software i.e. ERDAS IMAGINE software along with a False Colour

Composite (FCC). The FCC was made on the basis of the image downloaded from the NRSC

(National Remote Sensing Center) official website using the AWIFS of LISS III on the bands 3,

2, 1 as Red, Green, and Blue (figure 3.8). The image classification technique was applied for

supervised classification using ERDAS IMAGINE 8.5 on the aforesaid satellite data. The

Polynomial technique and different signatures on varying pixel levels were used for classifying

different land use categories. The pixels here represent the reflectance values of different objects

on the ground. According to the requirement, six classes were categorized on the basis of their

reflectance values using signature editor. The maximum likelihood algorithm was applied to map

different categories of land use/land cover. The classes are as follows: Agricultural Land, Forest

cover, River/water bodies, waste land, and Habitation mask/settlements.

33

Figure 3.7 Map showing the drainage net work of the area

Figure 3.8 AWIFS imageries of LISS III

34

4.1 General

Geomorphology is a significant branch of geology. This branch deals with the logical study

of land forms and processes that shape them. Geomorphology is a combination of three Greek

words geo means “earth", morfé means "form" and logos mean "knowledge". The

Geomorphological features are the natural scenery on the surface of the earth crust that has been

crafted by his denudating agent such as wind, water and glaciers. Geomorphology of any region

totally depends upon the climate, lithology and tectonics of that region. A number of workers

have given the various concepts and thought for development of the various land form on the

surface of earth. James Hutton, W. M. Davis, W. D. Thornbury are some of the renowned

geomorphologists and have given the various concepts. The some universally accepted concepts

are as follows:

James Hutton gave the concept “the present is key to the past” well known as the

concept of uniformitarianism. This is most fundamental concept in Geology.

W.M. Davis known as the patron of Geomorphology, gave the three major concepts viz.

geographical cycle (known as cycle of erosion), complete cycle of river life (youth

stage, mature stage, old stage) and slope evolution. Davis also identified three basic

factors which control the evolution of landforms. He stated that the „landscape is a

function of structure, process and time‟, which are termed as „trio of Davis‟.

W.D.Thornbury presented the summary of fundamental concepts in geomorphology;

these concepts are:

1. “The same physical processes and laws that operate today, operated throughout

geological time although not necessarily always with the same intensity as now.”

2. “Geologic structure is a dominant control factor in the evolution of land forms and

is reflected in them.”

3. “Geomorphic processes leave their distinctive imprints upon landforms and each

geomorphic process leave its own characteristic assemblage of landforms.”

4. “As the different erosional agencies act on the earth‟s surface, they produce a

sequence of landforms having distinctive characteristics at the successive stages of

their development.”

35

5. “Geomorphic scale is a significant parameter in the interpretation of landform

development and landform characteristics of geomorphic systems and landscape is a

function of time and space.”

6. “Complexity of geomorphic evolution is more common than simplicity.”

7. “Little of the earth‟s topography is older than Tertiary and most of it no older than

Pleistocene.”

8. “Proper interpretation of present day landscapes is impossible without a full

appreciation of manifold influences of the geologic and climatic changes during the

Pleistocene.”

9. “An appreciation of world climates is necessary to a proper under-standing of the

varying importance of the different geomorphic processes.”

10. “Geomorphology, although concerned primarily with present day landscapes,

attains its maximum usefulness by historical extension.”

Since we all know tha the Ganga Plain is a hub of various types of rivers and all the

geomorphological features of this plain have been crafted mostly by the fluvial processes and

river‟s water is one of the most effective denudating agents of this plain. The geomorphology of

the area is modified by the mountain fed river such as Ghaghara and Ganga along with ground

water fed river Gomati, Sai etc. The Ghaghara and Ganga River reveals the mature stage

topography of entire region and exhibits either as single channel pattern (Braided channel) or

multiple channel patterns (anastomosing channel). According to Leopold and Wolman, 1957 and

Schumm, 1963, 1968 discharge (amount and variability), sediment load (amount and grain size),

width, depth, velocity, slope, bed roughness and bank vegetation density are control the behavior

of these channels. Each of these is affected by climatic and geological variables such as rainfall,

seasonal temperature variation and regional slope. For geomorphological study we divided the

Interfluve area into three:

1 Ganga-Sai interfluve

2 Sai-Gomati interfluve

3 Gomati-Ghaghara interfluve

36

Ganga-Sai Interfluve

Figure 4.1 Geomorphological map of Ganga-Sai interfluve

4.2 General

Ganga-Sai interfluve is a part of Central Ganga Plain. It covers an area of 5,641.23 km2

and includes almost entire part of Unnao and approximately 50 percent part of Raibareilly

district. The interfluve surface includes three regional geomorphic surfaces such as: River Valley

Terrace (T1), Upland Terrace Surface (T2) and Active Flood Plain (T0) (figure 4.1). Figure 4.1

is a vector representation (Point, Line and Polygon) of spatial data (raster data), while figure 4.2

is a satellite imagery of CARTOSET DEM or RASTER DATA only. Each geomorphic surface

of this area contains various micro-geomorphic structures such as ponds, lakes, meander scars,

37

palaeo-channels, ox-bow lakes etc. Upland Terrace Surface (T2) is made up of Older alluvium

(Bangar) and River Valley Terrace (T1) is made up of Newer alluvium (Khadar).

Figure 4.2 Satellite imagery (Raster data), showing various geomorphic features

Figure 4.3 Pie diagram showing percentage of T1, T2 and T0

38

4.2.1 Geomorphology


The Upland Terrace Surface (T2) is an oldest geomorphic unit and its cover 5,275.51 km2

area (78 Percent of the total area). This surface contains one of the most prominent abandoned

channels belt in the form of ponds (tals) and lakes (jheels) either water saturated or dried (figure

4.4). The area of these ponds (tals) and lakes (jheels) ranges from .0035km2 to 7.15 km

2. This

belt runs approximately parallel to the active river channel and covers 1,975.74 km2 areas. The

length of the abandoned channel belt is 150 km and trending towards NW-SE. This belt indicates

the trace of past active river channel. Most of the abandoned channels are dried throughout the

year except the monsoon season. Nowadays the depositional sediments of these abandoned

channels have become an important tool for the palaeohydrologic reconstructions of Ganga Plain

(Singh et al 2003).

Figure 4.4 Map showing the abandoned palaeo-channel belt

39

Since each T2 surface has its own T1 and T0 surface, Loni nadi exhibit the T1 and T0 surface on

the T2 surface of Ganga-Sai interfluve. Loni nadi is a ground water fed river of local origin and

exhibits the meandering behavior with the sinuosity index of 1.92. The Loni has very narrow

channel and it is very difficult to mark T1 surface (figure 4.10). The T1 and T2 surface of Loni

nadi does not make any remarkable geomorphic structure.

River Valley Terrace (T1)

The River Valley Terrace (T1) is made up of Newer alluvium (khadar) and covers

1,464.90 km2 and about 22 percent of the total area. The T1 surface exhibits the Active Flood

Plain Surface (T0) along with the older flood plain. The Ganga-Sai interfluve has following

River Valley Terrace (T1).

1: River Valley Terrace (T1), left bank of Ganga River,

2: River Valley Terrace (T1) of Sai Nadi

1: River Valley Terrace (T1), left bank of Ganga River

The T1 surface of Ganga River exhibit very broad river valley or flood plain ranging

from 1.9 km to 22 km. The SW corner of T1 surface of Ganga River near Unnao exhibit ~16 km

broad meander scar (figure 4.1). This huge meander scar is a representative of the flowing

history of Ganga River. The T1 surface of Ganga River contains some abandoned linear water

bodies and channels, channel bar deposits, sand ridges, some micro geomorphic features such as

small lakes and ponds out of which some are dried and some are water fed.

The Active Flood Plain Surface (T0) of Ganga River exhibits braided (sinuosity

index1.10) and anastomosing behavior (figure 4.5). The active channel contains the huge

deposits of sands in the form of braid bar, these braid bars behave as a semi permanent island.

2: River Valley Terrace (T1) of Sai Nadi

Sai is a ground water fed river of the alluvium. Sai has very narrow T1 surface ranges 10

m to 1.5 km. The T1 surface of Sai exhibits meander scars, ox-bow lakes, abandoned channels,

sand ridges etc. The geomorphic features of this surface are totally influenced by the monsoon

season and heavy rain crafted most the features.

The Active Flood Plain Surface (T0) of Sai nadi exhibits meandering behaviour with

sinuosity index of 2.01. The active channel contains crescent shape point bar deposits with

variable size and meander scars etc. (figure 4.6). The point bar deposits more frequently present

40

in the lower segment of the river. Under this region Sai exhibit the excellent example of Yazoo

Type River and flow almost parallel to the Ganga River (figure 4.7).

Figure 4.5 Map showing geomorphology of active channel (T0) of Ganga River

Figure 4.6 Map showing geomorphology of active channel (T0) of Sai nadi

41

Figure 4.7 Satellite imagery showing Yazoo Type River

Figure 4.8 Field photograph showing geomorphic surfaces of Sai nadi

42

Figure 4.9 Field photograph showing geomorphic surfaces of Ganga River

Figure 4.10 Field photograph showing geomorphic surfaces of Loni nadi

43

Sai-Gomati Interfluve

Figure 4.11 Geomorphological map of Sai-Gomati Interfluve

4.3 General

The Sai–Gomati interfluve contains the most part of Older alluvium (Bangar) of Ganga

Plain. It includes 5,774.51 km2 area and contains major part of Lucknow, Raibareilly and some

part of Unnao, Barabanki districts. Broadly it contains the three regional geomorphic surfaces;

Upland Terrace Surface (T2), River Valley Terrace (T1) and Active Flood Plain Surface (T0)

(figure 4.11). Most of the geomorphic features of this area have been crafted either by the ground

water fed rivers or the rain water fed rivers and it is totally depended upon the monsoon season.

These two regional geomorphic surfaces may also contain the Active Flood Plain Surface (T0)

having very narrow channel width.

44

Figure 4.12 Satellite imagery showing various geomorphic features


45

4.3.1 Geomorphology


This surface includes 5,732.86 km2

or 99 percent of the area (figure 4.13). It exhibits

mainly the micro-geomorphic structure such as lakes and ponds, palaeo-channels, ox-bow lakes,

small ephemeral streams, etc. (figure 4.11 and 4.12). Most of the lakes and ponds of T2 surface

are dried throughout the year except the monsoon season. This surface contains the Active Flood

Plain Surface (T0) of Behta nadi, Loni nala, Naiya nala and Nagwa nala. The channel width of

the Behta nadi is ranging between 20 to 30 m and it exhibits the highly meandering behavior

with the sinuosity index of 3.15. The active channel of Behta nadi does not contain any notable

geomorphic features.


This surface includes 41.66 km2

or 01percent of the area (figure 4.13). It includes the T1

surface of Sai and Gomati rives along with Active Flood Plain Surface (T0) of Gomati River.

The width of T1 surface of Gomati is between 10 m to 3.5 km and width of Sai is less than 1 km.

This surface exhibits abundant channels in the form of lakes and ponds, meander scars, ox-bow

lakes etc.

Active Flood Plain Surface (T0) of Gomati River exhibits meandering behavior with

sinuosity index of 2.21. This channel contains 87 point bar deposits and dimension of these point

bars ranges from 0.005 km2 to 0.23 km

2. These point bars cover total 4.78 km

2 area and exhibits

crescent in shape (figure 4.14 and 4.15). The amount of bar deposit increases in the lower

segment of the river.

The Sai nadi has very narrow T1 surface. This surface contains various micro-

geomorphic features such as ox- bow lakes, sand ridges, ponds and lakes, etc.

46

Figure 4.14 Geomorphic map of active channel T0 of Gomati River

Figure 4.15 Geomorphic map of active channel T0 of Gomati River

47

Figure 4.16 Field photograph showing geomorphic surfaces of Gomati River

Figure 4.17 Field photograph showing geomorphic surfaces of Sai nadi

48

Gomati-Ghaghara interfluve

Figure 4.18 Geomorphological map of Gomati-Ghaghara interfluve

4.4 General

The Gomati-Ghaghara interfluve includes both older and younger alluvium with

appreciable amount. This region includes the most part of Barabanki, Faizabad along with some

part of Lucknow, Sultanpur and covers 6,391.68 km2 areas. It includes broadly three mega-

geomorphic units or surfaces such as: Upland Terrace Surface (T2) or oldest flood plain, River

Valley Terrace (T1) or older flood plain and Active Flood Plain Surface (T0) (figure 4.18). Each

mega-geomorphic unit has its own micro-geomorphic units in the form of lakes, ponds, ox-bow

lakes, meander scars, Palaeo-channels, sand ridges and ephemeral streams, etc.

49

Figure 4.19 Satellite imagery showing various geomorphic features


50

4.4.1 Geomorphology


Upland Terrace Surface (T2) is made up of older alluvium. It covers 5,396.72 km2 or

almost 84 percent of the area (figure 4.20). The surface of T2 contains various dried or water fed

ponds and lakes, sand ridges, meander scars, palaeo-channels, ox-bow lakes, cutoff meanders,

etc. (figure 4.18 and 4.19). This surface includes the T1and T0 surface of Kalyani nadi, Reth

nadi, Marha nadi, Kukrail nala, and Betwa nala. In T2 surface, the path of Reth nadi and Kalyani

nadi is almost parallel with each other and it exhibits the example of Yazoo Type River (figure

4.24).

Kalyani nadi is a ground water fed river and exhibits highly meander or tortoise behavior

with sinuosity index of 2.45. The T1 surface of Kalyani nadi cannot be clearly differentiated with

T2 surface in most part of the region, because the channel of Kalyani nadi has very narrow T1

surface. In some part, the T1 surface of Kalyani exhibits meander scars, ox-bow lakes, linear

sand ridges and channel ridges, etc. The Active Flood Plain Surface (T0) of Kalyani nadi

exhibits meander scars (figure 4.22). T0 of Kalyani nadi does not exhibit any point bar deposit

from their entire journey.

Reth Nadi is a ground water fed river and it exhibits the meandering behavior with

sinuosity index of 2.13. The T1 and T0 surface of Reth Nadi does not contain any remarkable

geomorphic feature.

Marha nadi is ground water fed river and most part of this river became dry throughout

the year. The course of the river is highly sinuous and exhibits tortoise pattern. T0 surface of this

river exhibits meander scars and sand ridges (figure 4.23).


River Valley Terrace (T1) contains the younger alluvium deposits or Khadar and it

includes the T1 surface of Ghaghara and Gomati River. T1 includes 994.96 km2 areas, out of

which 800.69km2 (13%) is covered by T1 surface and 194.27 (3%) is covered by the T0 surface

(figure 4.20).

The T1 surface of Ghaghara is very wide and it ranges from 416 m (lower segment of the

river) to 18.22 km (Upper segments of the river).

51

The T1 surface of the Ghaghara contains various geomorphic features such as Ponds, lakes,

linear sand ridges and water bodies, ox-bow lakes, cutoff meanders, small ephemeral streams,

palaeo-channels etc. Most of the geomorphic features show the close affinity with flowing

direction of active channel of Ghaghara River.

Active Flood Plain Surface (T0) of Ghaghara river exhibits mostly braided behavior

throughout the journey and braid bars are most common deposits along T0 surface. These braid

bars are very huge in dimension and treated as temporary island. At one place the active channel

of Ghaghara River behaves like an anastomosing pattern (figure 4.21).

The River Valley Terrace (T1) of Ghaghara River also exhibits T0 and T1 surface of

Samli nadi, Sote nala, Jyori nala. Samli nadi is one of the minor tributary of the Ghaghara River

and the Active Flood Plain Surface (T0) of Samli nadi exhibits the point bar deposits in the lower

segment. These point bars deposits exhibit crescent shape and the dimension of point bar

increases in downward direction of T0. Active channel of Samli nadi exhibits meandering

behavior. Figure 4.26 and 4.29 shows the various geomorphic features of Samli nadi.

The T1 of Gomati River has river narrow width ranges from 10 m to 4.88 km. This

surface contains mainly meander scars, ox-bow lakes, cut off meander etc.

Figure 4.21 Geomorphic map of active channel T0 of Ghaghara River

52

Figure 4.22 Geomorphic map of active channel T0 of Kalyani Nadi

Figure 4.23 Geomorphic map of active channel T0 of Marha Nadi

53

Figure 4.24 Satellite imagery showing Yazoo Type River

Figure 4.25 Field photograph showing geomorphic surfaces of Ghaghara River

54

Figure 4.26 Field photograph showing geomorphic surfaces of Samli nadi

Figure 4.27 Field photograph showing geomorphic surfaces of Kalyani nadi

55

Figure 4.28 Field photograph showing geomorphic surfaces of Reth nadi

Figure 4.29 Field photograph showing geomorphic surfaces of Samli nadi

56

4.5 Contour map

Contours are the line, joins the point of equal height of any region. The contour map

gives the idea about the height variation of any region/area from the mean sea level. Contour

height makes the platform for the preparation of Digital Elevation Model (DEM) and both

contour map and DEM are simultaneously related with each other. Under the study area contour

map has been prepared with the help of Survey of India Toposheet along with SRTM data and

ARC GIS 10 soft ware. Here we prepared contour map with 10 m contour interval which starts

from 80 m (dark red colour) at the lower most part of the region and maximum goes up to 140 m

at the upper most part of the region (black colour) (figure 4.30) . The most part of the area comes

under 100 m to130 m contour height.

Figure 4.30 Contour map of the area

57


Digital Elevation Model (DEM) is a digital representation of ground surface topography

or terrain. It is also known as Digital Terrain Model (DTM). It involves the height (Z) factor and

gives the clear idea about the sloping trend of any region. In interfluve area the maximum

elevation goes upto 148 m on upper part and minimum is 71 m on lower part (figure 4.31) and it

indicates that the sloping trend of the study area is towards NW-SE. The elevation of upper part

is ranging from 122.93 m to 148 m and it is frequently found in the older alluvium or T2 surface

of the region. It includes almost more than 70% part of Unnao, 35- 40% part of Lucknow and

20% part of Barabanki districts. The elevation of middle part is ranging from 106.93 m to 122.93

m and it includes both younger and older alluvium of the region. The entire part of Raibareilly,

70-72% part of Barabanki, 55-60% part of Lucknow and 15-20% part of both Sultanpur and

Faizabad districts come within this range. The elevation of the lower part ranges from 71 m to

106.93 m and also includes both younger and older alluvium of the region. It includes almost 2/3

part of Faizabad and Sultanpur districts.

Figure 4.31 Digital Elevation Model of the area

58

4.5 Slope analysis

Slope analysis represents the gradient scenario of any particular area and it is measure

either in percent or in degree. Slope analysis of the study area has been carried out with the help

of SRTM data and ARC GIS 10 software. Since study area is a part of Ganga Plain, therefore it

has very gentle slope which ranges from 0° to 4° (figure 4.32). Most part of the area comes

within 0 to 2 degree slope.

Figure 4.32 Slope map of the area

59

5.1 General

Geomorphic indices are one of the most effective tools for the study of tectonics of any

particular area/region. According to Keller, 1986 „Geomorphic indices provides basic

reconnaissance tools to identify areas experiencing rapid tectonic deformation‟. Geomorphic

indices includes the analysis of escarpment (river bank height „r‟), longitudinal and transverse

profile of the area, longitudinal profile, valley width and channel width ratio and sinuosity of the

rivers.

5.2 Escarpment analysis

Escarpment analysis deals with the study of river bank height „r‟ and it gives the detail

knowledge about the neotectonic activity of any area/region. For escarpment analysis we plot

river bank height „r‟ (provided by the Survey of India toposheet) against its corresponding

downstream direction. There are six rivers, whose escarpment analysis has been done.

Escarpment analysis of Behta nadi

Behta nadi is a fourth order tributary of Gomati River. The river bank height „r‟ of both

banks of the Behta nadi gives the considerable variation from one point to another point (figure

5.1). The left bank has lowest 2 m height and maximum goes up to 12 m, while right bank has 2

m and maximum goes up to 8 m near the railway over bridge. The left bank of Behta nadi starts

its journey with 4 m height and travels with 2 m to 6 m height variation almost entire segment.

There are three locations on the left bank of Behta nadi where the value of „r‟ is considerably

high; this is because the first and second order tributaries meet with left of Behta nadi. The

average escarpment heights of right and left banks are 3.8 to 4.9 m respectively; this indicating

that the magnitude of the river incision is low.

Escarpment analysis of Gomati River

The length of Gomati from its origin (Gomat tal near Madho Tanda town of Pilibhit) to

confluence (near Said Pur in Ghazipur) is around 900 km. Under the study area, it covers around

230 km distance. The escarpment height of both banks of Gomati River shows spontaneous high

and lows and profile behaves as a cardiograph (figure 5.2). The river bank height r of right bank

of Gomati River is ranges from 2 m to 22 m while for left bank it is from 2 m to 17 m. The high

60

escarpment value along both bank of Gomati River is due to confluence of 1st, 2

nd, 3

rd, 4

th and 5

th

order tributaries in to Gomati River on various locations with different heights.

Figure 5.1 Escarpment profile of both bank of Behta nadi

Figure 5.2 Escarpment profile of both bank of Gomati River

61

Escarpment analysis of Kalyani nadi

Escarpment analysis of both banks of Kalyani nadi clearly indicates various highs and

lows throughout the entire journey. These highs and lows produce wave like characteristics of

escarpments on both sides of the river (figure 5.3). The escarpment height of the right bank of

Kalyani nadi is fluctuated between 2 m to 10 m while for left bank it is 2 m to 13 m. Right bank

starts their journey with 2 m height and after travelling the 194 km distance, it is finally

confluence into Gomati River with 6 m height. The overall value of the escarpment of right bank

is in between 2 m to 6 m but there are three locations on right bank where the value of r goes up

to 10 m height; this is because tributaries meet with the right bank of Kalyani nadi. The left bank

of Kalyani nadi starts with 2 m height and ends their journey with 3 m height. The maximum

escarpment heights of left bank (13 m and 10 m) are found near Safdarganj area of Barabanki

along the railway over bridge and Kotwa area where the first order stream meets with Kalyani

nadi. The average escarpment heights of right and left banks ranges between 5.3 to 5.7 m ;

indicating that the magnitude of river incision is low.

Figure 5.3 Escarpment profile of both bank of Kalyani nadi

Escarpment analysis of Reth nadi

Escarpment analysis of both banks of Reth nadi shows various ups and downs. These

spontaneous ups and downs produce a cyclic wave like characteristics of escarpments on both

62

sides of the river (figure 5.4). The escarpment height of the right bank is between 2 m to 10 m

while for left bank, it is from 2 m to 7 m. The right bank of Reth nadi starts their journey with 3

m height and after travelling 87 km distance; it is finally confluence into Gomati River and end

their Journey with 4 m height. The overall value of escarpment of right bank is fluctuating

between 2 m to 6 m but at one location, 60 km away from the origin (1km away from the

Sharifabad tehsil of Barabanki district) the value of escarpment is 10 m. This is because the 1st

order stream meets with in the left bank of Reth nadi. The left bank of the Reth nadi starts with 2

m height and goes up to the maximum 7 m near Sharifabad tehsil, where 2nd

order stream meet

with Reth nadi. The left bank end their journey with 6 m height near Sekhpur village of

Barabanki district. The average escarpment height of right and left bank is 3.8 and 3.5 m

respectively; indicating that the magnitude of the incision is low for Reth nadi.

Figure 5.4 Escarpment profile of both bank of Reth nadi

Escarpment analysis of Sai nadi

Sai nadi is one of the major tributary of Gomati River. The escarpment profile of both

bank of Sai nadi shows undulation and behaves as a wave motion (figure 5.5). The escarpment

height of right bank of Sai nadi starts its course with 2 m height and maximum goes up to 12 m.

63

In most of the area the escarpment height of right bank is varying between 2 m to 6 m but there

are six locations where the escarpment height is more; this is because the 1st and 2

nd tributaries of

right bank meet Sai nadi with high r values. Left bank starts with 2 and maximum goes up to 10

m along the railway over bridge.

Figure 5.5 Escarpment profile of both bank of Sai nadi

Escarpment analysis of Loni nadi

Escarpment analysis of both banks of Loni nadi shows various ups and downs (figure

5.6). These spontaneous ups and downs produce a wave like characteristics of escarpments on

both sides of the river. The escarpment height of the right bank lies between 2 m to 9 m while for

left bank it ranges from 2 m to 7 m. The right bank of Loni nadi starts with 5 m escarpment

height at origin and after travelling the 87.19 km distance it finally confluence into Ganga River

and ends journey with 7 m height. The left bank of the Loni nadi starts with 3 m height at origin

and ends with the same height into Ganga River. The high value of escarpment is due to the

confluence of tributary on the both bank of Loni nadi. The average escarpment height of right

and left bank is 3.8 and 3.9 m respectively; this indicates that the magnitude of the incision of

Loni nadi is low.

64

Figure 5.6 Escarpment profile of both bank of Loni nadi

Remarkable features regarding the escarpment of investigated rivers

The lowest value of escarpment of all investigated rivers is 2 m.

High escarpment values are found either at confluence point of the tributaries or along the

railway over bridge.

65

5.3 Profile analysis

5.3.1 Longitudinal Profile

Longitudinal Profile of Ganga-Sai interfluve

Longitudinal profile of Ganga-Sai interfluve includes five segments, designated as L1,

L2, L3, L4 and L5 (figure 5.7). Each segment of the profile is running parallel and equidistance

with each other.

Figure 5.7 Index map of longitudinal profile of Ganga-Sai interfluve

Longitudinal Profile L1

L1 is drawn along NW-SE (figure 5.7 A) and AA´ denotes the proximal and distal part of

this profile respectively in a fluvially dominated system. The point height of L1 is ranges from

100 m to 116 m and it includes both younger alluvium and older alluvium of the area. L1 profile

shows the gradual increase and decrease throughout the journey. But at the end of the profile, it

shows sudden decrease in height from 111 m to 100 m. L1 cuts the Morahi nadi at 109 m altitude

66

and Bairajpur nala at 111 m altitude. Total length of the L1 is ~ 40 km and it exhibits SE sloping

trends.


L2 is drawn along BB´ where B represents upper segment and lower segment of the

profile respectively. The point height of L2 is fluctuated in between 100 m to 125.4 m and it

includes the older alluvium of the area only (figure 5.7 B). The upper segment of L2 cuts the

Kalyani nadi, Madni nadi, and Khar nala at high altitude while middle and lower segment of L2

cuts Khanti nala, Samrai nala and Loni nadi on various heights. Total length of L2 is 88.52 km

and exhibits SE sloping trends.


L3 is also drawn parallel to L1 and L2 and it cuts the interfluve in to almost two equal

halves. The point CC´ denotes the proximal and distal part of the L3 respectively. L3 shows the

various ups and downs troughout the journey and fluctuates between 110 m to 126 m. The upper

segments of L3 cuts Madni nadi and Loni nadi at different point height (figure 5.7 C). Middle

segment cuts Loni nadi at some locations on different heights while the lower segment cuts most

of the palaeo-channels. Total length of L3 is 126.20 km with SE sloping trend.


L4 is drawn along DD´ where D denotes proximal and D´ denotes distal part of the profile

respectively. L4 shows the gradual decrease in height at various locations and the height of L4

rangers from 110 m to 129 m (figure 5.7 D). The entire segment of L4 cuts mostly the

geomorphic features such as ponds and lakes at some locations with different point heights. The

total length of L4 is 146.40 km and it also exhibit SE sloping trend.


It is drawn along EE´ where E represents the proximal and E´ represents the distal part.

The profile of L5 shows the gradual increase and decrease throughout the journey. The height

variation of L5 ranges from 105 m to 136 m (figure 5.7 E). The upper segment of the profile cuts

various geomorphic surfaces while the middle and lower segment cuts the Sai nadi at some

locations with different point height. The total length of this segment is 157.50 km with SE

gradient.

67

Figure 5.7 A and 5.7 B showing longitudinal profile of L1 and L2 respectively

Figure 5.7 C and 5.7 D showing longitudinal profile of L3 and L4 respectively

68

Figure 5.7 E showing longitudinal profile of L5

69

Longitudinal Profile of Sai-Gomati interfluve

The longitudinal profile of Sai-Gomati interfluve contains the six divisions, designated as

L1, L2, L3, L4, L5 and L6. These divisions are parallel to each other and they are at equidistance

as well (figure 5.8).

Figure 5.8 Index map of longitudinal profile of Sai-Gomati interfluve


L1 is drawn along NW-SE. Two points AA´ represent the proximal and distal part of L1

respectively. The L1 profile clearly indicates the gradual increase and decrease and shows that

there is not much height variation of this section. The minimum height of L1 is 106 m and

maximum goes up to 130 m (figure 5.8 A). The middle segment of L1 cuts the Sai nadi in two

locations at different heights while the lower segment cuts the Naiya nadi at various locations.

The total length of this profile is 125.70 km and it exhibits the SE sloping trend.

70


L2 is drawn parallel to L1 and BB´ denotes the upper and lower part respectively. This

profile shows the height variation from 128 m to 108 m with gradually decrease from starting

point to end point (figure 5.8 B). The upper segment of this profile cuts the Nagwa nala and

Kusaila nala at different point height. The middle and lower segment cuts the Bakh nala and

Naiya nala respectively. At some locations it also cuts the some geomorphic features such as

ponds and lakes. The total length of L2 is 132.50 km and it also exhibits SE gradient.


The L3 is drawn along CC´ where C is the proximal and C´ is the distal part of the

profile. The profile of this section does not show much height variation. It starts from 128 m

height and finally ends their journey with 104.2 m (figure 5.8 C). The upper segment of L3 cuts

the some geomorphic features and Behta nadi at different altitude while the rest of the segment

cuts the palaeo-channels only on different altitudes. Total length of L3 is 122 km with SE

sloping trends.


This is drawn along DD´ where D represents the proximal and D´ represent the distal part

of the area. Throughout the journey this profile shows the very steep ups and downs on various

locations (figure 5.8 D). This profile starts their journey with 120 m height and cuts the Gomati

River at the altitude of 109 m, 111.4 m and 106 m respectively. The lower segment of L4 cuts

the Naiya nala at some locations. Total length of the profile is 124 km and exhibits SE sloping

trends.


This profile is dawn along EE´ where E is starting point and E´ is the end point of the

profile. This profile exhibits the height variation from 122 m to 105 m and it‟s clearly exhibits

the steep ups and downs on the various locations (figure 5.8 E). This profile cuts the Gomati

River at 9 locations at some heights while the lower segment cuts the Naiya nala. Total length of

this profile is 130.50 km with SE gradient.


L6 is drawn along FF´ where F represents the starting point and F´ represents the end

point of the profile. The point height of this profile is fluctuated between 100 m to 114 m and it

shows gradual decrease in SE direction (figure 5.8 F). Total length of L6 is 39.48 km.

71



72

Figure 5.8 E and 5.8 F showing longitudinal profile of L5 and L6 respectively

73

Longitudinal Profile of Gomati-Ghaghara interfluve

The longitudinal profile of Gomati-Ghaghara interfluve is drawn along NW-SE and it

includes six segment designated as L1, L2, L3, L4, L5, and L6. These segments are running

parallel and equidistance with each other (figure 5.9).

Figure 5.9 Index map of longitudinal profile of Gomati-Ghaghara interfluve


L1 profile is drawn along AA´ where A is a proximal part of the profile while A´ is distal

part. The proximal part starts its journey with 120 m height, maximum goes up to 125.1 m and

after travelling 82.40 km distance, it finally ends its journey at 100 m height (figure 5.9 A). The

lower segment of L1 cuts the Reth nadi at 112 m elevation and Gomati River at some locations

with different point height. It exhibits SE sloping trend.

74


It is drawn along BB´ where B represents the proximal and B´ represent the distal part of

the profile. This profile starts at 129 m height and ends with 95 m height (figure 5.9 B). This

profile shows the continuous decrease from starting to end point. The upper and middle segments

of the profile cut the Reth nadi on few locations while the lower segments cuts the Rari nala and

Gomati River. In the profile it can be seen that though the topography is gentle but still marked

with few upwarps and one downwarp which is probably due to intersection of small order

stream. The total length of the profile is 126.65 km with SE sloping trend.


It is drawn along CC´ and point height of this segment is varying between 88 m to 127 m

height (figure 5.9 C). The upper part of the profile cuts mostly the geomorphic features such as

various lakes and ponds. The middle segment cuts the Kalyani nadi on various locations with

different point height while lower segment cuts the Betwa nala. Total length of this segment is

119.60 km and exhibit SE sloping trends.


L4 is drawn along DD´ and it shows the gradual decrease towards the SE. The point

height of L4 is varies between 100 m to 128 m (figure 5.9 D). The upper and middle segment of

the profile mostly cuts the Kalyani nadi and its tributaries on various locations with different

altitude while the lower segment cuts the geomorphic features. The total length of L4 is 126.70

km.


The profile L5 is also shows the gradual decrease in point height from start point (127 m)

to end point (100 m) towards SE and it is drawn along EE´. L5 cuts the geomorphic surface at

various locations on different altitudes (figure 5.9 E). The length of L5 is 124.65 km.


L6 is drawn along FF´ and it shows various ups and downs throughout its entire journey.

L6 segments mostly cuts the Ghaghara River at various locations with different altitudes. The

maximum height of L6 is 113 m and minimum goes to 97 m (figure 5.9 F). The total length of

L6 is 126 km and it exhibits slope towards SE.

75



76

Figure 5.9 E and5.9 F showing longitudinal profile of L5 and L6 respectively

77

5.3.2 Transverse Profile

Transverse Profile of Ganga-Sai interfluve

Transverse Profile of Ganga-Sai interfluve includes ten segments; which are designated

as T1 to T10. These segments are running parallel to each other (figure 5.10). The all segments

of the transverse profile are drawn along NE-SW.

Figure 5.10 Index map of transverse profile of Ganga-Sai interfluve

Transverse Profile T1

T1 includes 22.06 km length along aa´ where a denotes the starting point and a´ denotes

end point of the profile. This profile starts with 124 m height and maximum goes up to 133 m

height. After reaching the maximum, profile further shows decline and ends its journey at 128 m

height (figure 5.10 A). During its entire journey profile T1 cuts geomorphic features at various

locations. This profile shows sloping trend towards SW.

78


T2 is drawn along bb´ where b is proximal part of the profile while b´ is distal part. The

elevation of this profile ranges between 120 m to 133 m with 29.69 km distance. Profile of T2

shows gradual increase and decrease on various locations, but at one location there is a sudden

change in the point height and it goes from 132 m to 122 m (figure 5.10 B). The entire segment

of T2 cuts only geomorphic surfaces on different altitudes. T2 shows sloping trend towards SW.


T3 is drawn along cc´ and point height of this profile ranges between 120 m to 128 m

with 37.12 km distance. This profile clearly indicates undulation during its entire journey (figure

5.10 C). T3 cuts geomorphic surfaces on various locations at different altitude. T3 shows sloping

trends towards SW.


T4 is drawn along dd´ and the profile of this section shows 14 m height variation and

ranges between 113 m to 127 m (figure 5.10 D). The overall segment of T4 cuts most of the

Palaeo-channels on few locations with different point heights. Total length of T4 is 40.62 km and

exhibits SW gradient.


T5 is drawn along ee´ and elevation ranges between 111 m to 124 m with 41.84 km

distance (figure 5.10 E). Upper segment of T5 cuts the Paleo-channels while the middle and

lower segment cuts Loni nadi and Khar nala respectively at different altitudes. It exhibits

gradient towards SW.


T6 is drawn along ff´ and height is varying between 109 m to 120 m (figure 5.10 F).

Upper segment of T6 cuts the palaeo-channel while middle and lower segment cuts Loni nadi

and Khanti nala respectively. Total length of T6 is 48.18 km and it exhibits SW sloping trend.


T7 covers 57.35 km distance along gg´ and point height is varying between 112 m to 118

m (figure 5.10 G). Upper segment of T7 cuts Begi nala and palaeo-channels on few locations

while the middle segment cuts Loni nadi and Kharhi nala on different point height.


79

T8 is drawn along hh´ and point height fluctuates between 108 m to 116 m (figure 5.10

H). Upper segment of this profile cuts Basaha nala while middle segment cuts Loni nadi and its

tributary at some locations. Lower segment of T8 cuts Bairajpur nala with different point heights.

Total length of T8 is 38.45 km.


T9 is drawn along ii´ and elevation of this profile ranges between 100 m to 115 m (figure

5.10 I). The entire segment of T9 cuts the palaeo- channels at various locations. Total length of

T9 is 27.36 km.


T10 is drawn along jj´ and elevation of this profile ranges between 100 m to 112 m

(figure 5.10 J). This profile cuts most of the palaeo-channels on different altitude. Total length of

T10 is 26.49 km and it exhibits sloping behavior towards SW.

Figure 5.10 A and5.10 B showing transverse profile of T1 and T2 respectively

80

Figure 5.10 C and 5.10 D showing transverse profile of T3 and T4 respectively

Figure 5.10 E and5.10 F showing transverse profile of T5 and T6 respectively

81

Figure 5.10 G and 5.10 H showing transverse profile of T7 and T8 respectively

Figure 5.10 I and5.10 J showing transverse profile of T9 and T10 respectively

82

Transverse Profile of Sai-Gomati interfluve

Transverse Profile of Sai-Gomati interfluve includes seven segments, which are

designated as T1 to T7. These segments are running parallel and equidistant from each other

(figure 5.11). All segments of the transverse profile are drawn along NE-SW.

Figure 5.11 Index map of transverse profile of Sai-Gomati interfluve


T1 includes 28.18 km length along aa´ where a denotes the starting point and a´ denotes

the end point of the profile. This profile starts at 109 m height and maximum goes up to 126 m

(figure 5.11 A). During its entire journey, profile cuts Jhingi nala, Panjare nala, Behta nadi and

Nagwa nala on various altitudes. The sloping behavior of T1 is towards NE.

83


T2 is drawn along bb´ where b is proximal part of the profile while b´ is distal part. This

profile shows only 8 m height variation throughout the journey and fluctuated in between 118 m

to 126 m (figure 5.11 B). The lower segment of T2 cuts Nagwa nala at various locations. The

total length of this profile is 26.20 km. It exhibits sloping behavior towards NE.


T3 has been drawn along cc´. The profile of this segment starts with 108 m height and

maximum goes up to 122.1 m (figure 5.11 C). Upper and lower segments of T3 cuts mainly

geomorphic features on different point heights while middle segment cuts Bakh nala. Length of

T3 profile is 37.12 km with NE sloping trend.


T4 is drawn along dd´ and height is varying between 112 m to 118.6 m (figure 5.11 D).

The upper and middle segment of the profile cuts mostly the geomorphic surfaces on various

locations while lower segment cuts Bakh nala. Total length of this profile is 31.68 km and shows

NE sloping behavior.


T5 is drawn along ee´ where e is proximal part of the profile while e´ is distal part. The

path of T5 shows various highs and lows during their entire journey. This profile mostly cuts the

geomorphic features and point height is varying between 100 m to 116 m (figure 5.11 E). Total

length of T5 is 51.68 km.


T6 is drawn along ff´ where f is proximal part of the profile while f´ is distal part. T6

starts with 100 m height and maximum goes up to 116 m height (figure 5.11 F). Upper and

middle segment of T6 cuts Ghagra nala and Naiya nala respectively while lower segment cuts

Kalwanaya nala on different point height. Total length of T6 is 61.49 km.


T7 includes 57.35 km distance along gg´ where g denotes the starting point and g´

denotes the end point of the profile. Upper part of the profile cuts Kandu nala and Naiya nala

while lower segment cuts Naiya nadi at different point height. The point height of T7 is

fluctuates between 100 m to 111.7 m (figure 5.11 G).

84

Figure 5.11 A and 5.11B showing transverse profile of T1 and T2 respectively

Figure 5.11 C and 5.11D showing transverse profile of T3 and T4 respectively

85

Figure 5.11 E and5.11 F showing transverse profile of T5 and T6 respectively

Figure 5.11 G showing transverse profile of T7

86

Transverse Profile of Gomati-Ghaghara interfluve

Transverse profile of this interfluve contains seven segments from T1 to T7. These

segments are drawn along NE-SW and are parallel with each other (figure 5.12).

Figure 5.12 Index map of transverse profile of Gomati-Ghaghara interfluve


T1 is drawn along aa´ where a is the proximal part of the profile and a´ is the distal part.

T1 starts its course with 110 m and maximum goes up to 126 m (figure 5.12 A). T1 shows

various ups and downs during its entire journey. The upper segment of T1 cuts Sotia nala and

Samli nadi at various altitude while the middle and lower segment cuts Kalyani nadi and Reth

nadi respectively.

87


T2 is drawn along bb´ and it starts its journey at height of 103 m; maximum goes up to

124 m (figure 5.12 B). The upper segment of T2 cuts the Chauka nadi while the middle and

lower segment cuts the Kalyani nadi, Reth nadi and Kukrail nala respectively on various

altitudes. Total length of T2 is 60.81 km.


It is drawn along cc´ and starting segment of the profile shows sudden increase and

decrease in height while the middle segment shows slightly increasing and decreasing behavior.

The height of T3 is fluctuates between 101 m to 121 m (figure 5.12 C). Middle segments of T2

cuts Kalyani nadi and its tributary (Gari nadi) while the lower segment cuts Reth nadi. Total

length of T3 is 41.18 km.


T4 is drawn along dd´. The upper segment of the profile cuts the Jori nala while the

middle and lower segment cuts Kalyani nadi and its tributary (Rari nala) at various locations. T4

profile shows sudden ups and downs throughout the journey and height is ranges from 103 m to

117 m (figure 5.12 D). Total length of the profile is 44.91 km.


T5 is drawn along ee´ and it is fluctuates in between 97 m to 112 m height (figure 5.12

E). T5 has various positive and negative peaks at different locations due to height differences.

The lower segment of this profile cuts Kalyani nadi and Gomati River at various locations with

different point height. Total length of T5 is 36.56 km.


T6 is drawn along ff´ and the height variation of this profile is fluctuates from 100 m to

107 m (figure 5.12 F). The upper segment of the profile cuts mostly the geomorphic features

while the lower segment cuts the Betwa nala and Gomati River with different altitudes. Total

length of the profile is 39.53 km.


T7 is drawn along gg´ where g is the proximal part of the profile and g´ is the distal part.

This segment exhibits over all 11 m height difference from beginning to end point (93 m to 104

m) (figure 5.12 G). Upper segment of T7 cuts Marha nadi while lower segment cuts Betwa nala

with different point height. Total length of T7 is 57.44 km.

88

Figure 5.12 A and 5.12B showing transverse profile of T1 and T2 respectively

Figure 5.12 C and 5.12 D showing transverse profile of T3 and T4 respectively

89

Figure 5.12 E and 5.12 F showing transverse profile of T1 and T2 respectively

Figure 5.12 G showing transverse profile of T7

90

5.3.3 Longitudinal profile of the rivers

Longitudinal profile is an important geomorphic tool to interpret the evolution of river

undergoing various geotectonic disturbances (Hack, 1973; Seeber and Gornitz, 1983; Schumm,

1986; Rhea, 1993; Schumm, 1993; Merritts et al., 1994; Demoulin, 1998; Holbrookand Schumm,

1999). In other words, the characteristic of longitudinal profile of a river is an important

geomorphic index of tectonic and geologic perturbations. It is a curve with convex and concave

surfaces, the concavity of which increases towards the headwater area. The concave nature of

stream profile is associated with progressive increase in stream discharge in the downstream

direction (Bull and Knuepfer, 1987). The irregularity in the profile is a result of neotectonic and

tributary confluences (Schumm, 1986). At equilibrium condition, the convex upward profile is

formed when river is adjusting to increasing resistance and / or decreasing discharge

downstream. The concave upward profile is exhibited by river where they adjust to decreasing

resistance and / or excessive increasing discharge downstream (Brookfield, 1998). All factors,

such as rocks of different hardness, tributaries, neotectonic movements and discontinuities

causing different stages in the evolution of the profile, account for deviations from the general

form of the profile, without fundamentally modifying it (Radonae et al., 2003).

When a river passes through zones of active tectonics, for example subsidence or

upliftment, its longitudinal profile shows the effects of deformation. A number of studies have

provided useful information related to river profile adjustments against active crustal warping

(Burnett and Schumm, 1983; Ouchi, 1985; Snow and Singerland, 1990). The most prominent

and fundamental effect in crossing a site of deformation, is the up warping in longitudinal profile

of the river relative to average valley gradient (Holbrook and Schumm, 1999). Upwarping may

cause convexity of terraces, valley floor, water surface, mimicking the shape and location of

underlying ridge or other basement features. Restoration of the longitudinal profile to a

consistent grade after deformation is by aggradation or degradation (Ouchi, 1983; 1985; Marple

and Talwani, 1993). In study area the longitudinal profile of the rivers has been drawn with the

help of point heights provided by the Survey of India toposheet along with the ARC GIS 10

software.

91

Longitudinal profile of Ganga River (left bank)

Ganga River covers 135 km distance with SE sloping behavior under the interfluve area.

The profile of Ganga River shows undulation in topography (figure 5.13) and elevation is

varying in between 100 m to 120 m. Kalyani nadi, Khar nala, Morahi nadi debouches in to

Ganga River at higher altitudes while Bairaj nala and Loni nadi debouches with lower altitude.

Lower segment of Ganga River is probably influenced by Faizabad ridge.

Longitudinal profile of Ghaghara River (right bank)

Under the study area Ghaghara River covers 135 km distance from Barabanki to

Faizabad district. The course of Ghaghara starts with 110 m elevation and ends with 93 m and

profile behaves just likes as wave motion throughout (figure 5.13) the journey. Soti nala, Samli

nadi meets with Ghaghara River at high altitude while Joyri nala and Marha nadi meets with low

altitude. The sloping behavior of Ghaghara River is towards SE.

Longitudinal profile of Gomati River (left bank)

The point height of left bank varying between 115 m to 88 m and topographically the

profile of left bank exhibits undulation (figure 5.14). There are four major tributaries namely

Kukrail nala, Reth nadi, Kalyani nadi, and Betwa nala meets with Gomati River on the right

bank.

Longitudinal profile of Gomati River (right bank)

Gomati is a most important ground water fed river of the study area and it covers 230 km

distance. The maximum elevation of right bank is 113 m and minimum goes to 100 m. Right

bank profile starts with 110 m height (figure 5.14). The profile of right bank exhibits slightly

increase and decrease throughout the journey and the lower most part of this area is cut by the

100 m contour at various locations. Behta nadi and Loni nala are the major tributaries of left

bank meeting with in it at different elevations.

92

Figure 5.13 showing longitudinal profile of Ganga and Ghaghara River respectively

Figure 5.14 showing longitudinal profile of left and right bank of Gomati River respectively

93

Longitudinal profile of Kalyani nadi (left bank)

Left bank starts with 123 m elevation and ends with 88 m. The left bank of Kalyani nadi

exhibits gradual decrease and increase throughout the journey (figure 5.15) and it passes through

two reserve forest namely Niamatpur reserve forest and Palhri reserve forest. Rari nala and Gari

nadi are the two major tributaries meeting with Kalyani nadi on left bank.

Longitudinal profile of Kalyani nadi (right bank)

The elevation of right bank of Kalyani nadi ranges from 125 m to 100 m and after

travelling 195 km distance, it finally debouches into Gomati River. The profile of the right bank

shows continuous decrease in height since beginning to almost entire segment (figure 5.15).

There are three locations, where profile shows slightly increasing behavior.

Diagnostic property: The gradient of the Kalyani nadi exhibits a diagnostic feature because

initially it exhibit towards SE but ends their journey towards SW.

Longitudinal profile of Reth nadi (left bank)

Left bank starts with 124 m elevation and confluence in to Gomati River with 102 m

elevation. Profile of left bank shows the abrupt change in the point height near the confluence

point and it goes from 116 m to 102 m while the rest of the segment shows very gentle height

variation (figure 5.16).

Longitudinal profile of Reth nadi (right bank)

The elevation of right bank is ranges between 124 m to 103 m and starts its course with 120

m height and after travelling 80 km distance, empties itself into Gomati River with 103 m

height. Profile of the right bank shows slightly decrease and increase topography (figure 5.16).

The Reth nadi shows variable gradient behavior; initially it shows towards SE but near

the confluence point, it turns itself towards SW.

94

Figure 5.15 showing longitudinal profile of left and right bank of Kalyani nadi respectively

Figure 5.16 showing longitudinal profile of left and right bank of Reth nadi respectively

95

Longitudinal profile of Sai nadi (left bank)

Left bank starts with 124 m elevation and ends with 100 m. Topographically the profile

of left bank exhibits undulation (figure 5.17) and shows slope towards SE. During its entire

segment the left bank tributaries of Sai nadi such as Kusalia nala, Kharui nala, Sarhi nala, Basaha

nala meet with it at different elevations.

Longitudinal profile of Sai nadi (right bank)

Sai nadi is one of the major tributary of Gomati River. It originates from a pond in

village, Bijgwan near Pihani (Hardoi district) and confluence in to Gomati River at Rajepur in

Jaunpur district. In the study area right bank starts with 130 m elevation and covers 275 km

distance, after suffering various ups and downs finally ends it 100 m elevation(figure 5.17).

Nagwa nala, Bakh nala, Kalwanaya nala are the right bank tributaries, meeting with Sai nadi at

different point heights.

Longitudinal profile of Loni nadi (left bank)

Profile of left bank starts with 123 m height and goes below up to 100 m near the

confluence point with Ganga River. Left bank also exhibits gradual increase and decrease

throughout entire segment but near the confluence, it exhibits abrupt change in point height just

like right bank (figure 5.18). The major tributary of left bank, Samrai nala meets with Loni nadi

at 110 m elevation.

Longitudinal profile of Loni nadi (right bank)

Loni nadi is a fifth order tributary of Ganga River. The point height of right bank is varying

in between 122 m to 100 m. The overall profile of right bank shows gradual increase and

decrease and after travelling 132 km distance it finally meet with Ganga river. At 110 m height

the major tributary Konti nala meets with right bank of Loni nadi. The confluence point of right

bank shows abrupt change in point height (109 m to 100 m) (figure 5.18).

The gradient of Loni nadi is towards SE.

96

Figure 5.17 showing longitudinal profile of left and right bank of Sai nadi respectively

Figure 5.18 showing longitudinal profile of left and right bank of Loni nadi respectively

97

Longitudinal profile of Behta nadi (left bank)

Left bank starts with 123 m elevation and meets with Gomati River at 119 m elevation

near Sarora ghat. Left bank profile also shows gentle height variation throughout the journey

(figure 5.19).

Longitudinal profile of Behta nadi (right bank)

The right bank starts its course with 127.5 m point height and after travelling 82.17 km

distance, it finally meets with Gomati River at 109 m height. The profile of the right bank shows

various high and low peaks and the lower segment shows abrupt change in point height (figure

5.19 a).

Remarkable features: The gradient of the Behta nadi is towards SE from beginning to middle

segment but from middle segment to its confluence point with Gomati River, it exhibits gradient

towards NE, this because the Lucknow fault interrupt the course of Behta nadi.

Figure 5.19 showing longitudinal profile of left and right bank of Behta nadi respectively

98

5.4 Anatomy of valley width and channel width

Anatomy of valley width and channel width of the rivers gives the clear idea about the

flood history and palaeoclimatic condition of any area/region. In study area there are two glacial

fed and two ground water fed rivers whose valley width and channel width ratio has been

calculated with the help of Google earth maps.

The right bank of Ghaghara River shows that there is much variation in the ratio of valley

width and channel width (figure 5.20). The valley width of right bank is maximum goes up to

more than 6 km and minimum is less than 2 km while the channel width is maximum goes up to

more than 1 km and minimum is 0.20 km. The bar diagram clearly indicates that there are many

high and low value of valley and channel width throughout entire segment and clearly shows the

behavior of Ghaghara River under the area.

Figure 5.20 Bar diagram showing relationship between valley width and channel width of Ghaghara River.

99

The Ganga River also exhibiting the wider valley but it is not much wider than Ghaghara

River. The value of maximum valley width of left bank is more than 3 km and minimum goes to

less than 1 km while the channel width maximum goes up to 0.5 km and minimum is 0.10

km(figure 5.21). Bar diagram shows the undulation in valley width and channel width

throughout entire segment, and also indicates Ganga River flows with in a very narrow channel.

Figure 5.21 Bar diagram showing relationship between valley width and channel width of Ganga River.

Bar diagram of Gomati River clearly indicates that there is not much variation in valley

width and channel width ratio (figure 5.22). The valley width of Gomati River maximum goes up

to more than 0.3 km and minimum is less than 0.1 km while the channel width is maximum goes

up to more than 0.15 km and minimum is less than 0.10 km. The same valley width and channel

width of Gomati River creates havoc in the monsoon season when the heavy discharge and

enough sediment load choked the channel of Gomati River and water easily over tops the valley.

This situation brings the condition of catastrophic flood in the low lying areas.

The valley width and channel width of Sai nadi is also same in most part of the

investigated area (figure 5.23). Sai nadi is almost dry throughout the year but during monsoon

100

period, it receives enormous amount of water. Since the ratio of valley width and channel width

is not much, therefore during the monsoon season the most part of the investigated area also

struggles with catastrophic flood situation.

Figure 5.22 Bar diagram showing the relationship between valley width and channel width of Gomati River.

Figure 5.23 Bar diagram showing relationship between valley width and channel width of Sai nadi.

101

5.5 Sinuosity Index

The sinuosity indices are calculated by the following formula: OL/EL (Schumm, 1963)

where OL means observed (actual) path of a stream and EL expected straight path of a stream.

Sinuosity may help considerably in studying the effect of terrain characteristics on the river

course and vice versa. It also gives the vivid picture of the stage of basin development as well as

landform evolution. The sinuosity of any rivers totally depends upon the lithology, tectonics of

the area, sediment load, and velocity of the rivers or simply says dynamics of the river. In Ganga

plain most of ground water fed rivers cut their channel through lateral erosion and exhibits

meandering behavior.

The sinuosity of Gomati River has been calculated at 28 locations and sinuosity index of

the Gomati River is varying from one location to other location (figure 5.24). The lower value of

sinuosity index of Gomati is 1.53 and highest is 13.03 while the average value of sinuosity index

3.57.

Figure 5.24 Bar diagram showing sinuosity index of Gomati River

102

The sinuosity of Sai nadi has been calculated at 54 locations and the high peaks of bar diagram

suggest that at most of the locations, the value of sinuosity index is more than 3 (figure 5.25).

This indicates that in the study area, the course of Sai nadi is highly meandering. The lower

value of SI for Sai is 1.64 and higher is 6.56.

Figure 5.25 Bar diagram showing sinuosity index of Sai nadi

Behta nadi is one of the small tributary of Gomati River. The sinuosity of Behta nadi has

been calculated from starting point of the river to the confluence point (more than 50 locations).

The lower value of SI for Behta nadi is 2.23 and higher is 23.19 (figure 5.26) while the average

value of SI is 5.59, which indicates that the course of Behta nadi is highly meander.

Reth nadi is one of the local river of Barabanki districts and sinuosity of Reth nadi has

been calculated at more than 30 locations (from origin of the river to it confluence) and the

sinuosity index of Reth nadi is varying from 2 to 12.28 (figure 5.27). The average value of SI is

4.96, which indicates that the meandering course of Reth nadi.

103

Figure 5.26 Bar diagram showing sinuosity index of Behta nadi

Figure 5.27 Bar diagram showing sinuosity index of Reth nadi

104

Kalyani nadi is a fifth order tributary of Gomati River. The sinuosity of Kalyani nadi has been

calculated at more than 45 locations and most of the locations the sinuosity index is high. The

sinuosity index of Kalyani nadi varies from 2.31 to 30.66 (figure 5.28).

Figure 5.28 Bar diagram showing sinuosity index of Kalyani nadi

Loni nadi is a fifth order tributary of Ganga River. The sinuosity of Loni nadi has been

calculated at more than 25 locations and most of the locations the sinuosity is more. The

sinuosity index of Loni nadi varies from 2.00 to 10.03 (figure 5.29) while the average value of SI

is 4.66.

Sinuosity Index value of all ground water fed rivers is more than 1.5 which indicates that

all the rivers exhibits meandering behavior under the study area.

105

Figure 5.29 Bar diagram showing sinuosity index of Loni nadi

106

Morphometry of investigated river basins

6.1 General

Morphometry is a combination of two greek words “morph”, means form or shape and

“metron” means measurment. According to J.I. Clarke, 1970 „Morphometry may be defined as

the measurment and mathematical analysis of the confriguration of the earth‟s surface and of the

shape and dimensions of its landforms. Study area incorporates five river basins which cover

2996.35 km2 area (figure 6.1). Of five river basin, four basins are the part of Gomati River, and

remaining one is a part of Ganga River. The morphometric analysis involves all the parameters

of river basins such as: Basic parameters, Derived parameters and Shape parameters.

Figure 6.1 River basins of the area

107

6.1.1 Morphometry of Kalyani nadi Basin

Kalyani nadi is a small stream of local origin. It originates from Fatehpur tehsil of

Barabanki district and confluence into Gomati River as a fifth order tributary near Dwarkapur

village of Faizabad district. Kalyani nadi is a ground water fed river following the tortuous

course. The total length of the Kalyani nadi is about 194 km from its origin to confluence point.

About 101km length of the river is almost dry throughout the year except during monsoon

season. During the rains of year 1872, Kalyani presented a vast volume of water 269 feet (82 m)

broad, 337 feet (103 m) deep, rushing along with a velocity of 9.18 km/hour and with a discharge

of 51,540 cubic feet per second (1,459 m3/s). In ordinary monsoons the highest discharge is

about a quarter less than this.

Figure 6.2 Drainage map of Kalyani nadi basin

108

The Rari nala, Naiya nala and Gari nadi are the important tributary of the Kalyani nadi meeting

at the right bank. There are three reserve forests present on the right bank of the river namely;

Niamatpur reserve forest, Palhrai reserve forest and Zaidpur reserve forest. The doab or

interfluve area of Kalyani-Gomati is 1,46,526 ha and it is one of the best fertile lands. The doab

area is a leading producer of menthol, opium and sugarcane.

Table 6.1 Morphometric parameters of Kalyani Nadi Basin

Basic Parameters

Kalyani nadi basin occupies an area about 1,234.15km2 and perimeter of the basin is

226.76 km. Maximum length (L) of the basin from origin to the confluence (end point) of the

river is 83.16 km. The maximum and minimum height of the basin is 127 m (msl) and 88 m

(msl) respectively. The total numbers of first, second, third, and fourth order tributaries are 372,

70, 11 and 2 respectively. The total length of first, second, third, fourth and fifth-order streams

are 259.76 km, 76.72 km, 48.27 km, 171.23 km and 22.84 km, respectively. The total numbers of

streams of all orders are 456 covering the total length of 578.82 km. The geometric relationship

between log values of stream number (Nu) to stream order and stream length (Lu) to stream

order of the Kalyani nadi is showing in Figure 6.3.

Basic, Derived and Shape parameters of Kalyani nadi Basin


N1 373.0 Rb1 5.25 Re 0.47

N2 071 Rb2 5.91 Rc 0.30

N3 012 Rb3 6.00 Ff 0.17

N4 02 Rb4 2.00 E 4.39

N5 01 Rb 4.79

L1 (km) 261 Rl 2-1 0.50

L2 (km) 131.3 Rl 3-2 0.68

L3 (km) 90.3 Rl 4-3 0.55

L4(km) 73.4 Rl 5-4 0.31

L5(km) 22.9 Rl 0.51

Lt (km) 578.9 Fs (km-2

) 0.37

H (m) 127 Dd (km-1

) 0.47

h (m) 88 T (km-1

) 0.18

R (m) 39

Rr (m km-1

) 0.46

RHO 0.10

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opium

109

Figure 6.3 Graph between stream number (Log Nu), stream length (Log Lu) and Stream order

110

Derived Parameters

Kalyani nadi basin has low 39 m basin relief (R) indicates low run-off, low sediment

transport, and spreading of water within the basin. The relief-ratio (Rr) of Kalyani nadi basin is

0.46 which indicates low to medium surface run-off, and low stream power for erosion. Average

bifurcation ratio (Rb) of Kalyani nadi basin is 4.80 which fall in the normal range (3-5). Average

stream length ratio (Rl) of Kalyani nadi basin is 1.14. The RHO coefficient of Kalyani nadi basin

is 0.23. The Stream frequency (Fs) of Kalyani nadi basin is 0.37 km-2

indicates highly permeable

alluvium and low relief for basin. The drainage density (Dd) of the basin is 0.47 and it reflects

highly permeable and easily erodible alluvium. The drainage texture (T) of the basin is 0.18

indicates that the channels are far away from each other.

Shape Parameters

The elongation ratio (Re) of Kalyani nadi basin is 0.24 and it indicates the elongated

shape of the basin. The Circularity index (Rc) of the basin is 0.30 indicates elongated shape,

mature topography and support dendritic pattern of drainage network. The form factor (Ff) of the

basin is 0.19. Elipticity index (E) of the basin is 4.39.

Figure 6.4 View of Kalyani nadi near Masuali area of Barabanki district

111

6.1.2 Morphometry of Loni nadi Basin

Loni nadi is a fifth order tributary of Ganga River (locally called as Lon nadi). It

originates near Ibrahimabad village of Unnao district and meets in Ganga River near

Raghunathganj village of Raibareilly district. The Loni nadi is ground water fed river and it

exhibits the meandering behavior. The total length of the Loni nadi is 137 km from its origin to

confluence point and about 44 km distance is almost dry throughout the year. Samrai nala, Konti

nala, Padiyara nala, Pipri nala, Khahi nala and Kura nala are the major tributaries of Loni nadi.

Figure 6.5 Drainage map of Loni nadi basin

112

Table 6.2 Morphometric parameters of Loni nadi Basin

Basic Parameters

Loni is a fifth order river basin with dominance of lower order streams (figure 6.5). The

area of the basin is 1047.63 km2 and perimeter is 181.68 km. Maximum length of the basin

parallel to the main meandering belt from origin to the confluence (end point) of the river,

known as basin length (L), is 71.41 km. The height is maximum towards foothill in the proximal

part 123 m (msl) and minimum in distal part 106 m (msl). The total numbers of first, second,

third and fourth order tributaries are 180, 42, 7 and 2 respectively. The total length of first,

second, third, fourth and fifth order streams are 183 km, 68 km, 90 km, 53 km and 19 km,

respectively. The total numbers of streams of all order are 239 covering the total length of 413

km. The geometric relationship between log values of stream number (Nu) to stream order and

stream length (Lu) to stream order of the Loni nadi is shown in following figure 6.6.

Basic, Derived and Shape parameters of Loni nadi Basin


N1 184 Rb1 4.18 Re 0.26

N2 044 Rb2 5.50 Rc 0.40

N3 08 Rb3 4.00 Ff 0.20

N4 02 Rb4 2.00 E 1.21

N5 01 Rb 3.92

L1 (km) 183 Rl 2-1 0.37

L2 (km) 68 Rl 3-2 1.32

L3 (km) 90 Rl 4-3 0.58

L4(km) 53 Rl 5-4 0.35

L5(km) 19 Rl 0.65

Lt (km) 413 Fs (km-2

) 0.22

H (m) 123 Dd (km-1

) 0.39

h (m) 106 T (km-1

) 0.08

R (m) 17

Rr (m km-1

) 0.24

Rf 0.20

RHO 0.16

113


Derived Parameters

Loni nadi basin has low 17 m basin relief (R) indicates low run-off, low sediment

transport, and spreading of water within the basin. The relief-ratio (Rr) of Loni nadi basin is 0.24

which indicates low to medium surface run-off, and low stream power for erosion.

114

Average bifurcation ratio (Rb) of Loni nadi basin is 3.92 which fall in the normal range (3-5).

Average stream length ratio (Rl) of Loni nadi basin is 0.65. The RHO coefficient of Loni nadi

basin is 0.16. The Stream frequency (Fs) of Loni nadi basin is 0.22 km-2

indicates highly

permeable alluvium and low relief for basin. The drainage density (Dd) of the basin is 0.39 and it

reflects highly permeable and easily erodible alluvium. The drainage texture (T) of the basin is

0.08 indicates that the channels are far away from each other.

Shape Parameters

The elongation ratio (Re) of Loni nadi basin is 0.26 and it indicates the elongated shape

of the basin. The Circularity index (Rc) of the basin 0.40 indicates elongated shape, mature

topography and support dendritic pattern of drainage network. The form factor (Ff) of the basin

is 0.20. Elipticity index (E) of the basin is 3.82.

Figure 6.7 View of Loni nadi near Manghat kera area of Unnao district

115

6.1.3 Morphometry of Reth nadi Basin

Reth nadi is a local stream of Barabanki district and Barabanki itself situated on the left

bank of this stream. Reth nadi is a fourth order stream that flows in between the doab or

interfluve area of Gomati-Kalyani. It originates near Nawabganj tehsil of Barabanki district and

after travelling 109 km distance, finally debouches into Gomati River near Sekh pur village of

barabanki district. The entire part of the Reth nadi is almost dry throughout the year, but in

monsoon season, it receives the enough amount of water. Lohsari nala, Jamuria nala and Narwa

nala are the major tributaries of Reth nadi.

Figure 6.8 Drainage map of Reth nadi basin

116

Table 6.3 Morphometric parameters of Reth nadi Basin

Basic Parameters

Reth nadi basin occupies an area of about 391.71 km2 and perimeter of the basin is

117.79 km. Maximum length (L) of the basin from origin to the confluence (end point) of the

river is 49.23 km. The maximum and minimum height of the basin is 124 m (msl) and 102 m

(msl) respectively. The total numbers of first, second, and third order tributaries are 146, 31 and

4 respectively. The total length of first, second, third and fourth order streams are 102.47 km,

75.28 km, 45.09 km 37.09 km and respectively. The total numbers of streams of all order are 182

covering the total length of 259.93 km. The geometric relationship between log values of stream

number (Nu) to stream order and stream length (Lu) to stream order of the Reth nadi is showing

in figure 6.9.

Basic, Derived and Shape parameters of Reth nadi Basin


N1 146 Rb1 4.7 Re 0.45

N2 031 Rb2 7.7 Rc 0.28

N3 04 Rb3 0 4 Ff 0.16

N4 01 Rb 5.46 E 4.86

L1 (km) 102.47 Rl 2-1 0.73

L2 (km) 75.28 Rl 3-2 0.59

L3 (km) 45.09 Rl 4-3 0.82

L4 (km) 37.09 Rl 0.71

Lt (km) 259.93 RHO 0.13

H (m) 124 Fs (km-2

) 0.46

h (m) 102 Dd (km-1

) 0.66

T(km-1

) 0.30

R (m) 22

Rr (m km-1

) 0.44

117


Derived Parameters

Reth nadi basin has low 22 m basin relief (R) indicates low run-off, low sediment

transport, and spreading of water within the basin. The relief-ratio (Rr) of Reth nadi basin is 0.44

which indicates low to medium surface run-off, and low stream power for erosion.

118

Average bifurcation ratio (Rb) of Reth nadi basin is 5.46. Average stream length ratio (Rl) of

Reth nadi basin is 0.71. The RHO coefficient of Reth Nadi basin is 0.13. The stream frequency

(Fs) of Reth nadi basin is 0.46 km-2

indicate highly permeable alluvium and low relief for basin.

The drainage density (Dd) the basin is 0.66 and it reflects highly permeable and easily erodible

alluvium. The drainage texture (T) of the basin is 0.30 indicates that the channels are far away

from each other.

Shape Parameters

The elongation ratio (Re) of Reth nadi basin is 0.45 and it indicates the elongated shape




Figure 6.10 View of Reth nadi near Sharifabad area of Barabanki district

119

6.1.4 Morphometry of Behta nadi Basin

The Behta nadi is a fourth-order tributary of the Gomati River. It originates from the

Behta tal located near Tikari village and meets in the Gomati River at right bank near Sarora

village. The total length of Behta nadi is 86 km from its origin to confluence point. The

Malihabad block situated on the left bank and Kakori block situated on the right bank of this

nadi. The most part of the Behta nadi is almost dry throughout the year except monsoon season.

The Behta nadi basin is an elongated basin.

Figure 6.11 Drainage map of Behta nadi basin

120

Table 6.4 Morphometric parameters of Behta nadi Basin

Basic Parameters

Behta nadi basin occupies an area of about 236.11 km2 and perimeter of the basin is

90.58 km. Maximum length (L) of the basin from origin to the confluence (end point) of the river

is 36.11 km. The maximum and minimum height of the basin is 128 m (msl) and 109 m (msl)

respectively. The total numbers of first, second, and third order tributaries are 95, 22 and 3

respectively. The total length of first, second, third and fourth order streams are 69 km, 22 km,

15 km and 78 km respectively. The total numbers of streams of all order are 121 covering the

total length of 184 km. The geometric relationship between log values of stream number (Nu) to

stream order and stream length (Lu) to stream order of the Behta nadi is shown in following

figure 6.12.

Basic, Derived and Shape parameters of Behta nadi Basin


N1 095 Rb1 4.31 Re 0.47

N2 022 Rb2 7.33 Rc 0.36

N3 03 Rb3 3 Ff 0.18

N4 01 Rb 4.88 E 4.33

L1 (km) 69 Rl 2-1 0.31

L2 (km) 22 Rl 3-2 0.68

L3 (km) 15 Rl 4-3 5.2

L4 (km) 78 Rl 2.06

Lt (km) 184 RHO 0.42

H (m) 128 Fs (km-2

) 0.51

h (m) 109 Dd (km-1

) 0.77

T(km-1

) 0.39

R (m) 19

Rr (m km-1

) 0.52

121


Derived Parameters

Behta nadi basin has low 19 m basin relief (R) indicates low run-off, low sediment

transport, and spreading of water within the basin. The Relief-ratio (Rr) of Behta nadi basin is

0.52 which indicates low to medium surface run-off, and low stream power for erosion. Average

bifurcation ratio (Rb) of basin is 4.88. Average stream length ratio (Rl) of basin is 2.06. The

RHO coefficient of Behta nadi basin is 0.42. The stream frequency (Fs) of the basin is 0.51 km-2

indicate highly permeable alluvium and low relief for basin. The drainage density (Dd) of the

122

basin is 0.77and it reflects highly permeable and easily erodible alluvium. The drainage texture

(T) of the basin is 0.39 indicates that the channels are far away from each other.

Shape Parameters

The elongation ratio (Re) of Behta nadi basin is 0.47 and it indicates the elongated shape




Figure 6.13 View of Behta nadi near Rahimabad area

123

6.1.5 Morphometry of Kukrail nala Basin

Kukrail nala is a fourth order tributary of Gomati River. It arises from the west part of the

Kukrail reserved forest and after travelling 25.90 km distance, empties itself into Gomati River

on the left bank. Ruhwa nala is the major tributary of Kukrail nala.

Figure 6.14 Drainage map of Kukrail nala basin

124

Table 6.5 Morphometric parameters of Kukrail nala Basin

Basic Parameters

Kukrail nala basin occupies an area about 86.75 km2 and perimeter of the basin is 49.46

km. Maximum length of the basin from origin to the confluence (end point) of the river (L) is

16.76 km. The maximum and minimum height of the basin is 122 m (msl) and 108 m (msl)

respectively. The total numbers of first, second, and third order tributaries are 77, 14 and 3

respectively. The total length of first, second, third and fourth order streams are 40.55 km, 12

km, 04 km and 23 km respectively. The total numbers of streams of all order are 95 covering the

total length of 79.55 km. The geometric relationship between log values of stream number (Nu)

to stream order and stream length (Lu) to stream order of the Kukrail nala basin is shown in

following figure 6.15.

Basic, Derived and Shape parameters of Kukrail nala Basin


N1 077 Rb1 5.5 Re 0.62

N2 014 Rb2 4.6 Rc 0.44

N3 03 Rb3 3 Ff 0.30

N4 01 Rb 4.36 E 2.54

L1 (km) 40.55 Rl 2-1 0.29

L2 (km) 12 Rl 3-2 0.33

L3 (km) 04 Rl 4-3 5.75

L4 (km) 23 Rl 2.12

Lt (km) 79.55 RHO 0.48

H (m) 122 Fs (km-2

) 1.09

h (m) 108 Dd (km-1

) 0.80

T(km-1

) 0.87

R (m) 14

Rr (m km-1

) 0.83

125


Derived Parameters

Kukrail nala basin has low 14 m basin relief (R) indicates low run-off, low sediment

transport, and spreading of water within the basin. The relief-ratio (Rr) of Kukrail nala basin is

0.83 which indicates low to medium surface run-off and low stream power for erosion. Average

126

bifurcation ratio (Rb) of basin is 4.36. Average stream length ratio (Rl) of basin is 2.12. The

RHO coefficient of Kukrail nala basin is 0.48.

The stream frequency (Fs) of basin is 1.09 km-2

indicate highly permeable alluvium and

low relief for basin. The drainage density (Dd) of the basin is 0.80 and it reflects highly

permeable and easily erodible alluvium. The drainage texture (T) of the basin is 0.87 indicates

that the channels are far away from each other.

Shape Parameters

The elongation ratio (Re) of Kukrail nala basin is 0.62 indicates the elongated shape of

the basin. The Circularity index (Rc) of the basin is 0.44 indicating elongated shape, mature



Figure 6.16 View of Kukrail nala near Khurram Nagar area

127

7.1 General

Land use is the human use of land. Land use planning involves the management and

modification of natural environment or wilderness into built environment such as fields, pastures,

and settlements. It has also been defined as “the arrangements, activities and inputs people

undertake in a certain land cover type to produce, change or maintain it”.

According to United Nation‟s Food and Agriculture Organization Water Development

Division "Land use concerns the products and/or benefits obtained from use of the land as well

as the land management actions (activities) carried out by humans to produce those products and

benefits.

7.2 Land use map

The land use covers both the aspects of natural as well as human activities and is derived

together for relevant prospects. The land use map of the study area has been prepared with the

help of NRSC (National Remote Sensing Centre) data and Survey of India toposheet. The

digitization of the features of these raster data into polygon with the help of ARC GIS software,

made easier the land use classification of the area. The area has been broadly divided into

following six classes (figure 7.1) such as:

1- Agriculture and others

2- Water bodies

3- Reserve forest and dense jungle

4- Major habitation

5- Waste land

6- River and drainage network

Agricultural land includes 17904.36 km2 or about 79 percent part of the study area (figure 7.2)

and most part of the agricultural land is either made up of older alluvium (Bangar) or younger

alluvium (Khadar). Figure 7.1 clearly indicates that the area of Barabanki, Faizabad, Sultanpur

and Raibareilly has agricultural land with appreciable amount while the industrialization and

urbanization clearly downs the percentage of agricultural land in Unnao and Lucknow region.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_and_Agriculture_Organization

128

The water bodies include the 2 percent of the total area (492.64 km2). These are mainly found in

the form of lakes/ponds. The water bodies are frequently found in most part of the area but

abundance of the water bodies are mainly concentrated in Unnao and Raibareilly districts only.

The most of water bodies are dry throughout the year, but during monsoon season, it receives the

water with appreciable amount.

Reserve forest and dense jungle includes about 1 percent part of the area (101 km2). Area

includes nine reserve forests namely Niamatpur, Zaidpur, Palhri, Makdumpur, Pali, Sansarpur,

Manjgaon, Ahaldapur and Kukrail. The most of the reserve forests and dense jungle are situated

along the bank of the rivers.

Major habitation includes 1 percent of the total area (300.7 km2). Lucknow, Barabanki,

Unnao, Faizabad and Sultanpur are the major area which includes the most part of the habitation.

Waste land covers 16 percent of the total area (3704.77 km2).

It includes the sub classes

of salt affected land, gullies/ ravines, scrub land, water logged and river sand etc. The waste land

spread almost all the areas but the concentration of waste land is slightly higher in Unnao,

Lucknow and Sultanpur districts. The urbanization and industrialization are the main causative

factor behind it. The gullies/ravines are confined mainly along the rivers and nalas of the area.

River and drainage network includes 1 percent of the area (144.89 km2). Ghaghara, Ganga,

Gomati and its tributaries makes the drainage network of the area.

129

Figure 7.1 Land use map showing various classes

Figure 7.2 Pie chart showing percentage vise distribution of land use classes

130

7.3 Natural hazards

The interfluve area suffers two types of natural hazards: (1) Flood (2) Bank erosion.

Since we all know that the flood is the most common natural hazard in the rivers of Ganga Plain

either it may me glacier fed rivers of Himalaya, ground water fed rivers of alluvium or rain water

fed rivers. The situation of flooding is most common during the peak season of monsoon when

discharge, sediment load, and carrying capacity of the rivers of Ganga Plain are very high. Under

the study area, Ghaghara River creates havoc due to flooding and bank erosion. The heavy

discharge during the monsoon season and release of a million gallon of water from the Banbasa

bairage of Nepal, are the two main causative factors behind the flooding of Ghaghara River in

the investigated area. The 6 km buffer zone map related to natural hazards in figure 7.3 clearly

indicates the real scenario of the Ghaghara River.

Figure 7.3: Buffer zone map of the study area related to Natural hazards

The bank erosion on the right bank of the Ghaghara River has mostly been done in the form of

lateral erosion. The lateral erosion is most prominent and effective during the high discharge

period in monsoon season but Singh and Awasthi, 2011 has identified that the lateral erosion is

131

also effective even in low discharge period. The textural immaturity of the soil is one of the most

prominent causative factor behind the lateral erosion on the banks of Ghaghara River. Instead of

Ghaghara River, Gomati and Sai also bring the situation of catastrophic flood during the

monsoon season. Since the valley width and channel width ratio of Gomati and Sai is almost

same at various locations and during the high discharge the water easily crosses the banks and

creates the havoc in low lying areas.

7.4 Anthropogenic hazards

At present all the rivers of Ganga Plain suffer with the problem of water pollution very

badly and his master consequence (Ganga River) has already been given the rank of fifth most

polluted river of the world in 2007. In the study area, the water of Ganga and his fifth order

tributary Loni nadi suffer with the contamination of chromium. In these areas, the percentage of

the chromium in water is much higher than the permissible limit of W.H.O. The tannery works

of the surrounding areas are the most causative factor behind the contamination of chromium in

water. Instead of chromium Ganga also suffers with the sewage dumping problem. Most of the

sewage drained directly in to Ganga River without any proper treatment. The sewage dumps give

the birth of coliform bacteria near Kanpur and Unnao districts, the percentage of such bacteria in

water is much higher than the permissible limit. The government has been launched the various

programs to prevent the pollution of the Ganga River. The Ganga Action Plan was one of them

but this plan has totally failed due to the corruption and lack of technical expertise; lack of good

environmental planning; and lack of support from religious authorities. Gomati is another river

which suffers with the problem of contamination of water in study area; it suffers mainly the

problem of dumping of industrial waste related from sugar factories, distilleries and domestic

waste related to sewage and dumping of garbage. The water of Gomati River near Lucknow

region mostly suffers with the problem of oxygen level deficiency and it affects the ecosystem of

aquatic life.

The Ganga Plain is one of the most populous regions in the world. The population density

gives the birth of another type hazard well known as lowering of ground water table and land

subsidence. These two hazards are totally related to excess withdrawal of ground water.

132

The Ganga Plain is vast, highly populous and one of the most productive land in the world.

1. Study area „Ghaghara-Ganga interfluve between Faizabad and Kanpur region‟ is a part of

Central Ganga Plain. Geographically, the area is broadly divided in to two major units:

Bhangar (Older alluvium) and Khadar (Newer alluvium).

2. It is drained mainly by Ganga, Gomati, Ghaghara and their tributaries.

3. The climate of the area is humid subtropical and falls in Cwa system of Koppen‟s

classification. Agriculture and productivity of most part of the area totally depends the

monsoon season only (mid June to September).

4. Lithologically, the area is made up of loose and unconsolidated materials of sand, silt and

clay.

5. Tectonically, the study area is mainly influenced by the Lucknow fault and Faizabad

ridge.

6. Study area reveals the mature stage topography of fluvial system and lateral erosion is

one of the most effective processes governs by all the rivers.

7. Geomorphologically, area has three major geomorphic units namely River Valley

Terrace (T1), Upland Terrace Surface (T2) and Active Flood Plain Surface (T0).

8. Each geomorphic unit contains the micro-geomorphic elements such as ox-bow lakes,

point bars, braid bars, cut-off meanders, sand ridges, ponds and lakes etc. Ganga-Sai

interfluve exhibits the prominent belt of abandoned channel which runs from Unnao to

Raibareilly district. The ground water fed rivers of the area has very narrow T1 surface

and most of the cases, it is not easily identified with satellite imageries while the

mountain fed rivers has its own wider T1 surface.

9. Kalyani nadi and Sai nadi exhibit the example of Yazoo type river (Kalyani runs parallel

with Reth nadi and Sai runs parallel with Ganga River)

10. The contour map suggests that the most of the ground water fed rivers is flowing at

higher level while the mountain fed rivers flowing at low point heights.

11. The Digital Elevation Model (DEM) shows the general sloping trend of the area towards

SE and slope ranges from 0 to 4 degree.

12. The morphometric parameters of the river basins suggest that it has low basin relief, low

to medium surface run-off, low sediment transport, low stream power for erosion, highly

permeable and easily erodible alluvium.

133

13. The drainage texture (T) and circularity index (Rc) indicates that channels are far away

from each other and support dendritic pattern of drainage network.

14. The average bifurcation ratio (Rb) of most of the river basins is in the normal range (3-5).

It shows that the drainages are natural and not much influenced by geological structures.

The bifurcation ratio (Rb) of Reth nadi basin is 5.46 which is higher than the normal

range (3-5). This indicates that the basin may influenced by geological structures.

15. Study of geomorphic indices reveals about the tectonics of the area. The longitudinal

profile has been drawn along NW-SE and it shows sudden breaks in slope at various

locations. These sudden breaks exhibit the topographical undulation. Longitudinal profile

exhibits sloping trend towards SE.

16. Transverse profile is drawn along the NE-SW and it shows the variable sloping trends. At

some places it exhibits towards SW and some places it is towards NE.

17. The escarpment analysis exhibits the topographical undulation; this undulation is a result

of tectonic disturbance of Ganga Plain that has happened during 5 to 8 ka. The high

escarpment values of the areas indicate the upwarped character and low escarpment value

indicates the downwarped character respectively. At most of the locations, the high

escarpment value has been observed either at the confluence point of the tributaries with

the main river or along the railway over bridge.

18. The longitudinal profile of the Ghaghara, Ganga, Gomati, Sai and Loni rivers show slope

towards SE direction. The initial course of the Gomati River is influenced by the

Lucknow fault while the lower most segment of Ganga and Ghaghara River is influenced

by the Faizabad ridge.

19. The tributaries of Gomati River exhibits variable sloping behavior. Reth nadi and Kalyani

nadi initially exhibits the slope towards the SE but at confluence point, it exhibits towards

SW while the Behta nadi initially exhibits towards SE but end with NW direction. The

course of Behta nadi is influenced by the Malihabad fault/Lucknow fault near the

Rasulpur.

20. The anatomy of valley width and channel width shows that there is much difference of

valley width and channel width ratio of Ghaghara and Ganga River. The lithology and the

climate are the main causative factor behind the valley widening. Since the Ganga Plain

is made up of loose and unconsolidated material and during the monsoon season, this

134

material is easily eroded by the active river channel through lateral erosion and widens its

valley.

21. The sinuosity index (SI) of all ground water fed rivers of the area is more than 1.5 which

indicates that the ground water fed rivers exhibits meandering behavior while the

sinuosity index of Ghaghara and Ganga river is 1.23 and 1.10 respectively which

indicates that they show braided behavior. At some locations the active channel of

Ghaghara and Ganga exhibit anastomosing behavior.

22. The land use map clearly shows that the area is best for cultivation and about 79 percent

of the total areas are come under agricultural land category.

23. Flood hazard zonation map clearly shows that the Ghaghara River is notorious for its

valley widening and flooding under the study area. Instead of Ghaghara River, Gomati

and Sai may also bring the situation of flood. The water of Ganga, Loni and Gomati

rivers is highly contaminated.

135

Agarwal, K.K., Singh, I.B., Sharma, M. and Sharma, S., 2002. Extensional tectonic activity

in the cratonward parts (peripheral bulge) of the Ganga Plain foreland basin, India.

International Journal of Earth Science, 91, 897–905.

Agarwal, R.K., 1977. Structure and tectonics of Indo-Gangetic Plains. Geophysical case

Histories of India. Association of Exploration Geophysics, 1, 29–46.

Agarwal, R.P. and Bhoj, R. 1992. Evolution of Kosi river fan, India: Structural implication

and geomorphic significance. International Journal on Remote Sensing, 13, 1891–1901.

Awasthi, A. and Singh, D.S., 2011. Shallow Subsurface Facies of the Chhoti Gandak River

Basin, India. Singh, D. S. and Chhabra, N.L. (Eds.), Geological Processes and Climate

Change, Macmillan Publishers India Ltd., pp. 223–234, ISBN: 978-0230-32129, 2232.

Awasthi, A., 2012. Fluvial Dynamics and Subsurface Stratigraphy of Chhoti Gandak River

Basin, Ganga Plain. Ph. D. Thesis, Department of Geology, University of Lucknow,

Lucknow, India. 127 pp.

Awasthi, A.K., 1970. Skewness as an environmental indication in the Solani river system,

Roorkee (India). Sedimentary Geology, 4, 177–183.

Bhardwaj, V., Singh, D. S., and Singh, A.K., 2010. Environmental repercussions of

canesugar industries on Chhoti Gandak River basin, Ganga Plain, India. Environmental

Monitoring and Assesment, 171, 321–344. (DOI 10.1007/s10661-009-1281-2).

Bilahm, R. and Gaur, V.K., 2000. Geodetic contributions to the study of seismotectonics in

India. Current Science, 79, 1259–1269.

Brookfield, M.E., 1998. The evolution of great river system of southern Asia during the

Cenozoic India-Asia collision: rivers draining southwards. Geomorphology, 22, 285–312.

Bull, W.B. and Knuepfer, P.L.K., 1987. Adjustments by the Charwell River, New Zealand, to

uplift and climatic changes. Geomorphology, 1, 15–32.

Burbank, D.W. and Anderson, R.S., 2001. Tectonic Geomorphology. Blackwell Science, 274

pp.

Burbank, D.W., Beck, R.A. and Mulder, T., 1996. The Himalayan Foreland basin. In: Yin, A.

and Harrison, T.M. (Eds.), The Tectonic Evolution of Asia. Cambridge University Press,

149–188.

Burnett, A.W. and Schumm, S.A., 1983. Alluvial river response to neotectonic deformation

in Louisiana and Mississippi valley. Science, 222, 49–50.

136

Chandra, S., 1993. Fluvial landforms and sediments in the north-central Gangetic plains,

India. Ph.D., Thesis. University of Cambridge, Cambridge.

Chandra, S., 2000. (Eds.), Urmila 2000. Lucknow Mahotsav Samiti, Prakash Packagers, 257

Golaganj, Lucknow, 57 pp.

Covey, M. 1986. The evolution of foreland basin of steady state: the foreland of the Banda

Orogen, In: Allen, P.A. & Homewood, P. (Eds.), Foreland basin. International Association of

Sedimentology (Special Publication, 8), 77–90.

Das Gupta, S.P., 1975. The Upper Gangetic Flood Plain: A regional survey. National Atlas

Organization Monograph, Calcutta, 194 pp.

Davis, W.M., 1902. Base level, grade, and peneplain. Journal of Geology, 10, 77–111.

DeCelles, P.G. and Giles, K.A., 1996. Foreland basin systems. Basin Research, 8, 105–123.

Dewey, J.F. and Bird, J.M., 1970. Mountain belts and new global tectonics, Journal of

Geophysical Research, 40, 695–707.

Dickinson, W.R., 1974. Plate Tectonics and Sedimentation, p. 1–27. In: Tectonic and

Sedimentation, (Eds.) Joshi, D.D. and Bhartiya, S.P. 1991. Geomorphic history and

lithostratigraphy of eastern Gangetic plain, Uttar Pradesh. Journal of Geological Society of

India, 37, 569–576.

France-Lanord, C., Derry, L. and Michard, A., 1983. Evolution of Himalaya since Miocene

time: isotopic and sedimentological evidence from the Bengal fan, p. 603–621. In:

Himalayan Tectonics, (Eds.) Trelor, P.j. and Searl, M.P., Geological Society Special

Publication, 74 pp.

Friend, P.F. and Sinha, R., 1993. Braiding and meandering parameters in braided river.

Geological Society of London Special Publication, 75, 105–111.

Garde, R.J., 2006. River Morphology. New Age Internatuional (P) Ltd., Publ., (formerly

Wiley Eastern Limited), 479 pp.

Geddes, A., 1960. The alluvial morphology of the Indo-Gangetic plain: Its mapping and

geographic significance. Transactions of the Institute of British Geographer, 28, 253–276.

Ghosh, D.K. and Singh, I.B., 1988. Structural and geomorphic evolution of the north-west

part of the Indogangetic plain. Proceedings National Seminar Recent Quaternay Studies in

India, Department of Geology, M.S. University, Baroda, 164–175.

137

Ghosh, S.K. and Chatterjee, B. K., 1994. Depositional mechanism as revealed from grain

size measures of the paleoproterozoic Kalhan Siliciclastics, Keonjhar District, Orissa, India.

Journal of Sedimentary Geology, 89, 181–196.

Gibling, M.R., Tandon, S.K., Sinha, R. and Jain, M., 2005. Discontinuity-Bounded Alluvial

Sequences of the Southern Gangetic Plains, India: Aggradation and Degradation in Response

to Monsoonal Strength Journal of Sedimentary Research, 75, 369–385. DOI:

10.2110/jsr.2005.029.

Gole, C.V.and Chitale, S.V., 1966. Inland delta building activity of the Kosi River. American

Society of Civil Engineers, Journal of Hydraulic Division, 92, HY2, 111–126.

Hack, J.T., 1973. Stream-profile analysis and stream–gradient index. U.S. Geological Survey

Journal of Research, 1, 421–429.

Holbrook, J. and Schumm, S.A., 1999. Geomorphic and sedimentary response of rivers to

tectonic deformation: a brief review and critique of a tool for recognizing subtle epiorogenic

deformation in modern and ancient settings. Tectonophysics, 305, 287–306.

Horton, R.E., 1932. Drainage basin characteristics. Transaction American Geophysical

Union, 14, 350–361.

Horton, R.E., 1945. Erosional development of stream and their drainage basins:

hydrophysical approach to quantitative morphology. Geological Society of America Bulletin,

56, 275–370.

Jain, V. and Sinha, R., 2003. River systems in the Gangetic plains and their comparison with

the Siwaliks: a review. Current Science, 84, 1025–1033.

Jain, V. and Sinha, R., 2004. Fluvial dynamics of an anabranching river system in Himalayan

foreland basin, Baghmati River, north Bihar plains, India. Geomorphology, 60, 147–170.

Joshi, D.D. and Bhartiya, S.P., 1991. Geomorphic history and lithostatigraphy of a part of

eastern Gangetic plain, Uttar Pradesh. Journal of Geological Society of India, 37, 569–76.

Kale, V.S., 1997. Flood studies in India: A brief review. Journal of the Geological Society of

India, 49, 359–370.

Kale, V.S. and Gupta, A., 2001. Introduction to Geomorphology. Orient Longman Limited,

274 pp.

138

Kapoor, D., 2003. Geomorphology and Morphotectonics of the Ghaghara Megafan Ganga

Plain: A remote sensing perspective. Ph. D. Thesis, Geology Department, Lucknow

University, Lucknow, India, 171 pp.

Karunakaran, C. and Ranga Rao, A., 1979. Status of Exploration for hydrocarbons in the

Himalayan region-Contribution to the Stratigraphy and Structure. Geological Survey of

India, 41, 1–66.

Keller, E.A. and Pinter, N., 1996. Active Tectonics Earthquakes, Uplift and Landscape.

Prentice-Hall, Inc. Simon and Schuster / Aviacom Company, Upper Saddle River, New

Jersey, 338 pp.

Keller, E.A., 1986. Investigations of active tectonics: use of surgical earth processes. In Panel

of active tectonics. National Academy Press, Washington D.C.

Kumar, G., Khanna, P.C. and Prasad, S., 1996. Sequence stratigraphy of the foredeep and

evolution of Indo-Gangetic plain, Uttar Pradesh. Proceedings of Symposium on NW

Himalaya and Foredeep. Geological Society of India, 21, 173–207.

Kumar, S. and Singh, I.B., 1978. Sedimentological study of Gomati River sediments, Uttar

Pradesh, India. Example of a river in alluvial plain. Senckenbergiana marit, 10, 145–211.

Kumar, S., Singh, M., Chandel, R.S. and Singh, I.B., 1995. Depositional pattern in upland

surface of Central Ganga Plain near Lucknow. Journal of the Geological Society of India, 46,

545–555.

Leopold, L.B. and Wolman, M.G., 1957. River Channel patterns; braided, meandering and

straight. U.S. Geol Survey Prof. paper, 282-B, 39–85.

Lyon-Caen, H. and Molnar, P., 1985. Gravity anomalies, flexture of the Indian Plate and the

structure, support and evolution of the Himalaya and Ganga basin. Tectonics, 4, 513–538.

Merritts, D.J., Vincent, K.R. and Whol, E.E., 1994. Long river profiles, tectonism, and

eustacy: A guide to interpreting fluvial terraces. Journal of Geophysical Research, 99,

14031–14050.

Mesa, L.M., 2006. Morphometric analysis of a subtropical Andean basin (Tucuma´n,

Argentina). Environmental Geology, 50, 1235–1242.

Miller, V.C., 1953. A quantitative geomorphic study of drainage basin characteristics in the

Clinch Mountain area, Virginia and Tennessee. Technical report, 3, Office of Naval

Research. Department of Geology, Columbia University, New York.

139

Misra, M.N., Srivastava, R.N., Upadhyaya, M.C. and Srivastava, M.P., 1994. Quaternary

geology and morphotectonic evolution of the Lower Sindh Basin, Marginal Gangetic Plain,

M.P. and U.P. Journal of the Geological Society of India, 43, 677–684.

Misra, R.C., Singh, I.B. and Kumar, S., 1972. A note on the sedimentological study of

Gomati River, Uttar Pradesh, India. Geophytology, 1, 151–155.

Mohindra, R. and Parkash, B., 1994. Geomorphology and neotectonic activity of the Gandak

megafanand adjoining areas, middle Gangetic Plains. Journal of the Geological Society of

India, 43, 149–157.

Mohindra, R., Parkash, B. and Prasad, J., 1992. Historical geomorphology and pedology of

the Gandak Megafan, Middle Gangetic Plains, India. Earth Surface Processes and

Landforms, 17, 643–662.

Mukherji, A.B., 1963. Alluvial morphology of the upper Ganga-Yamuna doab. The Deccan

Geographer, 2, 1–36.

Oldham, R.D., 1917. The structure of Himalayas and the Gangetic Plain as elucidated by

geodetic observations in India. Memoir Geological Society of India, 42, 1–153.

Ouchi, S., 1983. Response of Alluvial Rivers to Slow Active Tectonic Movement. Ph. D.

Dissertation, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, 205 pp.

Ouchi, S., 1985. Response of alluvial rivers to slow active tectonic movement. Geological

Society of America Bulletin, 96, 504–515.

Parkash, B., Kumar, S., Rao, M.S., Giri, S.C., Kumar, S.C., Gupta, S. and Srivastava, P.,

2000. Holocene tectonic movements and stress fields in the western Gangetic Plain. Current

Science, 78, 438–449.

Pascoe, R.D., 1917. Early history of Indus-Brahamaputra and Ganges. Quaternary Journal of

the Geological Society, London, 76, 136 pp.

Pathak, B.D., 1966. Geology and groundwater resources of the Azamgarh, Ballia region,

Eastern Uttar Pradesh. Bulletin Geological Survey of India, 18, 1–246.

Philip, G., Gupta, R.P. and Bhattacharya, A., 1991. Landsat image enhacement for mapping

fluvial paleofeature in parts of middle Ganga Basin, Bihar. Journal of Geological Survey of

India, 37, 63–74.

140

Phillip, G., Gupta, R.P. and Bhatatcharya, A.B., 1989. Channel migration studies in the

Middle Ganga Basin, India using remote sensing. International Journal of Remote Sensing,

10, 1141–1149.

Pilgrim, G.E., 1919. Suggestions concerning the history of the drainage of northern India

arising out of a study of Siwalik boulder conglomerate. Journal of the Asiatic Society of

Bengal, 15, 81–99.

Pati, P., Parkash, B., Awasthi, A.K. and Jakhmola, R.P., 2012. Spatial and temporal

distribution of inland fans/terminal fans between the Ghaghara and Kosi rivers indicate

eastward shift of neotectonic activities along the Himalayan front. A study from parts of the

upper and middle Gangetic plains, India. Journal of Earth-Science Reviews, 115, 201–216.

Qureshy, M.N. and Kumar, S., 1992. Isostacy and neotectonics of North West Himalaya and

foredeep. Memoir Geological Society of India, 23, 201–222.

Qureshy, M.N., Kumar, S. and Gupta, G.D., 1989. The Himalaya megalineament-its

Geophysical characteristics. Memoir Geological Society of India, 12, 207–222.

Radonae, M., Radonae, N. and Dumitriu, D., 2003. Geomorphological evolution of

longitudinal profiles in Carpathians. Geomorphology, 50, 293–306.

Raiverman, V., Kunte, S.V. and Mukherjea, A., 1983. Basin geometry, Cenozoic

sedimentation and hydrocarbon in north western Himalaya and Indo-Gangetic plains.

Petroleum Asia Journal, 6, 67–92.

Rao, K.L., 1975. India‟s Water Health. Orient Longman Limited, New Delhi, 267 pp.

Rao, M.B.R., 1973. The subsurface Geology of Indo Gangetic Plains. Journal of the

Geological Society of India, 14, 217–242.

Sastri, V.V., Bhandari, L.L., Raju, A.T.R. and Dutta, A.K., 1971. Tectonic framework and

subsurface stratigraphy of the Ganga Basin. Geological Society of India, 12, 222–233.

Schumm, S.A., 1956. Evolution of drainage systems and slopes in badlands at Perth Amboy,

New Jersey. Geological Society of America Bulletin, 67, 597–646.

Schumm, S.A., 1963. Sinuosity of alluvial rivers of Great Plains. Geological Society of

America Bulletin, 74, 1089–1100.

Schumm, S.A., 1986. Alluvial river response to active tectonics, in Active Tectonics Studies

in Geophysics. National Academic Press, Washington D.C., 80–94.

141

Schumm, S.A., 1993. River response to base level changes: Implications for sequence

stratigraphy. Journal of Geology, 101, 279–294.

Schumm, S.A., 1999. Causes and Controls of Channel Incision. In Darby, S.E. and Simon, A.

(Eds.), Incised River Channels: Processes, Forms, Engineering and Management. John Wiley

and Sons Chichester, 19–33.

Schumm, S.A., Dumont, J.F. and Holbrook, J.M., 2000. Active Tectonics and Alluvial

Rivers. Cambridge University Press, 276 pp.

Seeber, L. and Gornitz, V., 1983. River profiles along the Himalayan arc as indicators of

active tectonics. Tectonophysics, 92, 335–367.

Seeber, L., Armbuster, J.G., and Quittmeyer, R.C., 1981. Seismicity and continental

subduction in the Himalayan Arc, p. 215–242. In: Zagros, Hindukush, Himalaya

Geodynamic evolution, (Eds.) Gupta, H.K. and Delany, F.M. Am. Geophys. U., Washington,

Geodyanmic Series 3.

Shukla, U.K., Singh, I.B., Srivastava P. and Singh, D.S., 1999. Palaeocurrent pattern in Braid

bar and Point bar deposits: Examples from Ganga River India. Journal of Sedimentary

Research, 69, 992–1002.

Shukla, U.K., Singh, I.B., Sharma, M. and Sharma, S., 2001. A model of alluvial megafan

sedimentation: Ganga Megafan. Sedimentary Geology, 144, 243–262.

Singh, D.S. and Singh, I.B., 2005. Facies architecture of the Gandak Megafan, Ganga Plain,

India. Special Publication of the Palaeontological Society of India, 2, 125–140.

Singh, D.S., Awasthi, A. and Bhardwaj, V., 2009. Control of Tectonics and Climate on

Chhoti Gandak River Basin, East Ganga Plain, India. Himalyan Geology, 30, 147–154.

Singh, D.S. and Awasthi, A., 2011(a). Natural hazards in the Ghaghara River area, Ganga,

Plain, India, Natural Hazards, 57, 213–225. DOI 10.1007/s11069-010-9605-7.

Singh, D.S., 1998. Sedimentology of Gandak Megafan, Ganga Plain. Ph. D. Thesis,

Department of Geology, University of Lucknow, Lucknow, India. 141 pp.

Singh, D.S. and Awasthi, A., 2011(b). Implication of Drainage Basin Parameters of Chhoti

Gandak River, Ganga Plain, India, Journal of the Geological Society of India, 78, 370–378.

Singh, I.B. and Bajpai, V.N., 1989. Significance of syndepositional tectonics in the facies

development of the Gangetic Alluvium near Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh. Journal of the Geological

Society of India, 34, 61–66.

142

Singh, I.B. and Ghosh, D.K., 1992. Interpretation of Late Quaternary Geomorphic and

tectonic features of Gangetic Plain using remote sensing technique. Proceedings of National

Symposium on Remote Sensing for sustainable Development, Lucknow, 287–373.

Singh, I.B. and Ghosh, D.K., 1994. Geomorphology and neotectonic features of Indo-

Gangetic Plain. In: Dikshit, K.R., Kale, V.S. and Kaul, M.N. (Eds.), India:

Geomorphological diversity, 270–286.

Singh, I.B. and Kumar, S., 1974. Mega and giant ripples in the Ganga, Yamuna and Son

Rivers, Uttar Pradesh, India. Sedimentary Geology, 12, 53–66.

Singh, I.B. and Rastogi, S.P., 1973. Tectonic framework of Gangetic alluvium with special

reference to Ganga River in Uttar Pradesh. Current Science, 42, 305–307.

Singh, I.B. and Rastogi, S.P., 1975. Some less common sedimentary structures from the point

bar and natural levee deposits of Gomati River, Uttar Pradesh, India. Geophytology, 5, 186–

187.

Singh, I.B., 1987. Sedimentological history of Quaternary deposits in Gangetic plain. Journal

of Earth Science, 14, 272–282

Singh, I.B., 1992. Geological evolution of the Ganga Plain: present status. In: Singh, I.B.

(Ed.), Gangetic Plain: Terra Incognita. Geology Department, Lucknow University, Lucknow,

1–14.

Singh, I.B., 1996. Geological evolution of Ganga Plain –an overview. Journal of the

Palaeontological Society of India, 41, 99–137.

Singh, I.B., 1999. Tectonic control on sedimentation in Ganga Plain foreland basin:

constrained on Siwalik sedimentation models. In: Jain, A.K. and Manickavasagam, R.M.

(Eds.), Geodynamics of the NW Himalaya. Gondwana Research Group Memoir, 6, 247–262.

Singh, I.B., 2001. Proxy records of neotectonics, climate change and anthropogenic activity

in the late Quaternary of Ganga Plain. Geological Survey of India Special Publication No.,

65(1), XXXIII–L.

Singh, I.B., 2002. Late Quaternary evolution of Ganga Plain and proxy records of climate

change and anthropogenic activity. Pragdhara, 12, 1–25.

Singh, I.B., 2004. Late Quaternary History of the Ganga Plain. Journal of the Geological

Society of India, 64, 431–454.

143

Singh, I.B., Ansari, A.A., Chandel, R.S. and Misra, A., 1996. Neotectonic control on

drainage system in Gangetic Plain, Uttar Pradesh. Journal of the Geological Society of India,

47, 599–609.

Singh, I.B., Srivastava, P., Sharma, S., Sharma, M., Singh, D.S., Rajagopalan, G. and Shukla,

U.K., 1999. Upland Interfluve Deposition: Alternative Model to Muddy Over bank Deposits.

Facies, 40, 197–210.

Sinha, R. and Friend, P.F., 1994. River systems and their sediment flux, Indo-Gangetic

Plains, Northern Bihar, India. Sedimentology, 41, 825–845.

Sinha, R., Jain, V., Babu, G.P. and Gosh, S., 2005. Geomorphic characterization and

diversity of the fluvial systems of the Gangetic Plains. Geomorphology, 70, 207–225.

Sinha, R., Khanna, M., Jain, V. and Tandon, S.K., 2002. Mega-geomorphology and

sedimentation history of parts of the Ganga–Yamuna plains. Current Science, 82, 562–566.

Smith, K.G., 1950. Standards for grading texture of erosional topography. American Journal

of Science, 248, 655–668.

Snow, R.S. and Singerland, R.L., 1990. Mathematical modelling of graded river profiles.

Journal of Geology, 95, 15–33.

Sreedevi, P.D., Subrahmanyam, K. and Ahmed, S., 2004. The significance of morphometric

analysis for obtaining groundwater potential zones in a structurally controlled terrain.

Environmental Geology, 47, 412–420.

Srivastava, P., 1998. Sedimentology and geomorphology of interfluve areas of central Ganga

Plain. Ph.D. Thesis, Department of Geology, University of Lucknow, Lucknow, India. 141

pp.

Srivastava, P., Parkash, B. and Pal, D.K., 1994. Role of neotectonic activities and climate in

development of Holocene geomorphology and soils of Gangetic Plains between Ramganga

and Rapti Rivers. Sedimentary Geology, 94, 129–131.

Srivastava, P., Singh, I.B., Sharma, M. and Singhvi, A.K., 2003. Luminescence chronometry

and Late Quaternary geomorphic history of the Ganga Plains, India. Palaeogeography

Paleoclimatology Palaeoecology, 197, 15–41.

Strahler, A.N., 1952. Hypsometric (area-altitude) analysis of erosional topography.

Geological Society of America Bulletin, 63, 1117–1142.

144

Strahler, A.N., 1957. Quantitative analysis of watershed geomorphology. Trans. American

Geophysical Union, 38, 913–920.

Strahler, A.N., 1964. Quantitative geomorphology of drainage basin and channel network, In:

Chow, V.T., (Eds.), Handbook of applied hydrology. McGraw Hill Book Co., New York, 4–

76.

Tangri, A.K. 1992. Satellite remote sensing as a tool in deciphering the fluvial dynamics and

applied aspects of Ganga Plain, India. Singh, I.B. (Eds.), Gangetic Plain: Terra Incognitia.

Geology Department, Lucknow, Lucknow, India, 73–84.

Valdiya, K.S., 1976. Himalayan transverse faults and folds and their parallelism with

subsurface structures of the northern Indian plains. Tectonophysics, 32, 15–37.

Verma, R.K., 1991. Geodynamics of Indian Peninsula and the Indian Plate Margin. Oxford

and IBH Publishing company Pvt. Ltd., 357 pp.

Verstappen, H., 1983. Applied Geomorphology. Geomorphological surveys for

environmental development, Elsevier, 437 pp.

Wells, N.A. and Dorr, J.A.,1987. Shifting of Kosi River, Northern India. Geology, 15, 204–

207.

Williams, M.A.J. and Clarke, M.F., 1984. Late Quaternary environments in North-Central

India. Nature, 308, 633–635.

Williams, M.A.J. and Clarke, M.F., 1995. Quaternary geology and prehistoric environments

in the Son and Belan valleys, North Central India. Journal of Geological Society of India,

282–307.

dhirendra kumar thesis.pdf

Documents