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38 JOURNALOFCONTEMPORARYEDUCATIONALSTUDIES5/2010 SlavkoGaber

Slavko Gaber

Dewey,work,school,anddemocracy

Abstract: Withhissupportformanualwork(includingsewing,spinning,metalwork,andwoodwork)inschools,JohnDeweyappearsatfirstglancetofavorthesubordinationofeducationtotheproductionprocess.Contrarytoexpectations,however,hedevelopedhisreflectionsonschool,activity,work,andsocietyinthedirectionofabroadlyconceivededucation.BothatthetimeofthelecturespublishedasTheSchoolandSociety(1899)andhisbest-knownworkonthethemeofeducation,DemocracyandEducation(1916),heremainedfaithfultothecommitmentofaneducationthatwillallowstudentstobecitizensthatliveinademocraticsocietywiththecapacitytoshapetheirculture.

Keywords:Dewey,work/labor,school,activelearning,teaching,democracy,child-centredness

UDC:37.01

Originalscientificpaper

Slavko Gaber, Ph.D., associate professor, University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Education, Kardeljeva ploščad 16, SI-1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia; e-mail: [email protected]

JOURNALOFCONTEMPORARYEDUCATIONALSTUDIES5/2010,38–59

Dewey,work,school,anddemocracy 39

Introduction

Dewey,oneofthemostinfluentialeducationexpertswhoinvestigatedtherelationshipbetweenschoolandsocietyfromthenineteenthintothetwentiethcenturies,1wasexplicitinhisviewsoftheconnectionbetweenschool,work,anddemocracy,statinghispositionwithregardtothisrelationshiponseveralocca-sions.Inthepresentpaperweshalldealindetailwithhisconceptualizationsoflabor,school,anddemocracyattwomomentsintime(1899and1916)throughtwoofhisworks:The School and SocietyandDemocracy and Education.

Theseworksareseparatedbymorethanadecadeandahalfofripeningmoderndemocracy,theBelle Époque,theintroductionofcompulsoryschoolingintheUnitedStates,theboomofTaylorismandFordism,andthemovementtowardsandoutbreakofWorldWarI.Between1899,whenhegavethreelecturesunderthetitleThe School and Societyinanefforttointegratethelaboratoryschoolconceptintopublicperception,and1916,theyearthatDemocracy and Educa-tionwaspublished,Deweyarrivedathisownrelativelydefinitiveviewsoftherelationshipbetweentheschoolandsociety.

School, family, and society: the role and importance of labor at the turn of the twentieth century

The shift of education to the school

Thisarticle’sdiscussionofschoolandsocietyattheturnofthetwentiethcenturyshouldbeplacedduringatimeofseveraltransitions,bothgloballyand

1Egan–withJames,Parker,Thorndike,andHall–calledhima“revolutionary”whowas“pro-foundlyinfluencedbySpencer'swork”(Egan2002,p.4).Popkewitz,whoseesinhimeventoday“afigurewhoseinternationallycirculatedideasaboutpragmatismofferedawaytothinkaboutaprogressiveindividualassociatedwithmodernity”(Popkewitz2008,p.vii),atthesametimedefineshimas“theinternationalsalesmanforAmericanpragmatismatatimewhenmassschoolingwasinstitutionalizedindiverseculturalandpoliticalfields.”(Ibidem,p.6)


personallyforDewey.Twoofthemdeserveparticularmention.First,duringthistime,theUnitedStatestransitionedfromapredominantlyruralsocietyintoanurbanandindustrially-basedeconomy.Themiddleclasswasemerging,anditsmembersbelievedinthepowerofindustrialandotherprogress.Dewey'sreflec-tionswerethus“triggeredinlargemeasurebyhisfirst-handencounterwiththeurbanisationofAmerica”(Jackson2006,p.56)2andtheformationofamodern,globallyimportant“America.”Second,parallelingthefarewelltoruralAmericaisDewey'sownfarewelltohisearlierworksashebeganhisnowfamous“middleperiod”(1899–1924).DuringtheyearshespentinChicago(1894–1904)hehadestablishedhimselfbothasaphilosopherandasapedagogue.Inthecontextofthispaper,heisdiscussedasaneducator.3

DespitethefactthatDeweybeganhisfirstlecturebynotingthat“weareapttolookattheschoolfromanindividualisticstandpoint”(Dewey1959,p.33),andevenproclaimsthistendencytobenaturalandself-evident,4itissoonclearthatheiscriticizingtheinadequacyoftheindividualisticview.Whentellinghisaudiencethatthey“rightly”judgetheworkoftheschoolbyanindividualchild’sprogress,includinghisadvanceintheabilitytoread,hisgrowthintheknowledgeofgeography,andimprovementinmannerstonameafew,Deweyispreparingtodeliverapotent“however”(ibidem,p.34).Forhim,individualisticstandpointistoonarrow:“(...)theoutlookneedstobeenlarged.Whatthebestandwisestparentwantsforhisownchild,thatmustthecommunitywantforallofitschil-dren.”(Ibidem)Totheindividualisticapproachheadds,withgreatconviction,theimportanceofeducationforsocietyanddemocracy.Thusinasearlyas1899wecantraceacloseconnectionbetweendemocracy,education,andtheschool.Throughtheagencyoftheschool,“allthatsocietyhasaccomplishedisput(...)atthedisposalofitsfuturemembers.”(Ibidem)Inhisadvocacyofeducationasanopportunityforall,Deweyisfullofhopeanddemandsahighstandardthatsocietymustachieve.“Onlybybeingtruetothefullgrowthofalltheindividualswhomakeitup,cansocietybyanychancebetruetoitself.”(Ibidem)Here“individu-alismandsocialismareatone”(ibidem).Thuswheneveritcomestoadiscussionof“anewmovementineducation,itisespeciallynecessarytotakethebroader,

2Hisviewsofsociety,ontheotherhand,wereapparentlygreatlyinfluencedbyhisfirstwifeAliceandbyJaneAddams(cf.Jackson2006,pp.56–57).

3Byleavingtoonesidethedevelopmentofhis“pragmatism,”Jackson’scriticismbecomesclear,pointingoutthatthelinesalongwhichDeweyestablishedhimselfasaworld-famousname“addresstwoentirelydifferentpublics”(Jackson2006,p.57).Eachofthemleavesasidethethemesoftheother,somethingwhichistakentoindicatethepersistenceoftheoldgulfbetweentheoryandpractice.Totheextentthatitispossible,thispaperattemptstotranscendthisdivide.FormoreonthedevelopmentofDewey'slineofpragmatism,andinparticularinstrumentalism,seeMargolis(2006,pp.1–10)andJackson(2006,pp.54–66).ThecomplexityoftheoriginsofpragmatismandthecontributionsofPeirce,whoisacknowledgedbybothJames,whocoinedtheterm“pragmatism”in1898(theyearbeforethelectureswithwhichwebeginourdiscussion)andDeweyasthefounderof“Americanphilosophy,”isalsohigh-lightedinthefirstchapterofhis1925workExperience and Nature.Deweywritesthat“thephilosophyherepresentedmaybetermedeitherempiricalnaturalismornaturalisticempiricsm,or(…)naturalistichumanism”(ibidem,p.59).ItisevidentthatDeweytookgreatpainstoavoidthetermpragmatism.

4“Thatwhichinterestsusmostisnaturallytheprogressmadebytheindividualchildofouracquaintance.”(Dewey1959,p.33)


orsocialview”(ibidem).Hisactualthesisisthereforetheurgentneedtobuildonindividualism.Toputitanotherway,heisinformingindividualisticAmericathatitsindividualismistoolittle.Democracydemandsmore.All“whocan”mustgettheiropportunitywithintheframeworkofeducation.Indirectly,boththeindividualandsocietyasawholebenefitfromthis.

ButDeweydoesnotstophere.Societyisnotonlyheretoensuretherealizationofanindividual’spotential.Itsbusinessistolead,throughtheschool,alongthepathofchanges.Society(inthenarrowsenseoftheword)andindustrytogethermustalwaysdeterminethechangestothemethodsandcurriculumoftheschool.Sincethesechangesinsocietyandproductionwereenormousduringthisperiod,theyaresignificantinDewey'slectures.

“Thechangethatcomesfirsttomind,theonethatovershadowsandevencontrolsallothers,istheindustrialone(...).[G]reatinventions(...):aworld-widemarketastheobjectofproduction,ofvastmanufacturingcenters(...),”(ibidem,p.35)–allthishasbroughtinconceivablechangestothewaypeopleliveandcoexist.Populationis“hurriedlygatheredintocitiesfromtheendsoftheearth;habitsoflivingarealteredwithstartlingabruptnessandthoroughness.”(Ibidem)Thechangeshaveprofoundlyaffectedeventhedeepest-lyingthingsinournature,whicharethusthemostconservative:our“moralandreligiousideasandinter-ests”(ibidem,pp.35–36).“Thatthisrevolutionshouldnotaffecteducation(…)isinconceivable.”(Ibidem,p.36)

Sowhathappened?Alookbackathistoryshowsusthat,forexample,inthecaseofclothing,notonlywastheitemitselfmadeinthehouse,buttheentireindustrialprocess,fromtheproductiononthefarmoftherawmaterialsuntilthefinishedarticlewasactuallyputtouse,happenedinonelocation.“Notonlythis,butpracticallyeverymemberofthehouseholdhadhisownshareinthework.”(Ibidem)Notably,“[t]hechildren,astheygainedinstrengthandcapacity,weregraduallyinitiatedintothemysteriesoftheseveralprocesses.”(Ibidem)Alongsidegaininginsightandskillswerethefactorsof“disciplineand(…)character-building:traininginhabitsoforderandofindustry,andintheideaofresponsibility,ofobligationtodosomething,toproducesomething,intheworld.”(Ibidem,p.36)Perhapsmostsignificantly,everythingtookplaceincooperationwithothersandwithasenseofresponsibilitytowardsothers.Itwasthisoldworldofanintercon-nectedlifeinacommunityofproductionandcharacter-buildingthatthegreatrevolutiontested.Notonlythat:itneededtobeconstructedafresh.

LaschappearstobeexpressingDewey'slogicwhenhedescribestheagehelivesinand,followingMarx,warnsthatthesurvival“ofanyformofhumansocietydependsontheproductionofthenecessitiesoflifeandthereproductionofthelabourforceitself.”(Lasch1979,p.267)Heisalsoutterly“Deweyan”whenhereflectsontheconnectionortheseparationofproductionandreproduction.Inthenineteenthcenturyhefirstobservesthe“socializationofproduction”withtheriseofthefactorysystem.ThefactoryeffectivelydividesuptheprocessofproductionasdescribedbyDeweyandtransfersitfromthefamilytothefactory.Thefamilythuslostitsfunctionasaproductionunit.Thefactorysystem“lefttheotherfunctionsofthefamilyintact.Thesocializationofproduction,however,


provedtobethepreludetothesocializationofreproductionitself.”(Ibidem)AndhereLaschechoesDewey:withthetransfer/transition/takeoveroftheproductionfunctionand,subsequently,thereproductionfunctionpreviouslyheldbythefamilydisappearing,theneedforapubliceducationsystemarose.Theold“education”wasnotuptothechallenge,andDewey's“neweducation”answeredthisneed.

Itappears,then,thattheschoolwasgiventhetaskofbothsubstitutingandbuildingontheearlierfamilyeducationwithsocialeducation.Nowonder,then,thatDeweyimposesontheschooltherole of a training ground for life (work) in society:theroleofa“miniaturecommunity,”or,perhaps,aminiaturefactory.

Butletusnotjumpahead.Thelecturertriestoconvincehislistenersoftheimportanceofconcreteexperiencesforeducation.Hemakeshisfamousclaimthatnolessonthataimstogiveinformationcanhopetosubstitute“acquaintancewiththeplantsandanimalsofthefarmandgarden,acquiredthroughactuallivingamongthemandcaringforthem”(Dewey1959,p.37).Itistrue,saysDewey,that“verbalmemorycanbetrainedincommittingtasks,[and]acertaindisciplineofthereasoningpowerscanbeacquiredthroughlessonsinscienceandmathematics.”(Ibidem)Yetthesesubjectsaremerelyashadowofwhatwecanachievethroughthetrainingof“attentionandofjudgementthatisacquiredinhavingtodothingswitharealmotivebehindandarealoutcomeahead.”(Ibidem)Unfortunately,however,the“concentrationof industryanddivisionof laborhavepracticallyeliminatedhouseholdandneighborhoodoccupations–atleastforeducationalpurposes.”(Ibidem)Theworldtoday(1899)isnolongerlimitedtotheplacewhereyouareborn.Wehavelostthedepthofknowledgeofthedirectworldaroundus,butwehavegained“theincreaseintoleration,inbreadthofsocialjudgement,thelargeracquaintancewithhumannature,thesharpenedalertnessinreadingsignsofcharacterandinterpretingsocialsituations,greateraccuracyofadaptationtodifferingpersonalities.”(Ibidem,pp.37–38)

Havewe,then,jumpedoutofthefryingpanandintothefire,sotospeak?Thatwouldappeartobeexactlywhathashappened.ButDewey,whoisconvincedthat“theeducationpeopleembracemakesallthedifferenceforthewayoflifetheywillendupleading”(Hansen2006,p.185),doesnotgiveup.Hewantsbothapproaches,andhehasalreadyidentifiedthembothinembryonicformintheAmericanschoolsoftheday.Heenthusiasticallystatesthatinschoolsheobserves“tendencies(…)towardtheintroductionofso-calledmanualtraining,shop-work,andthehouseholdarts–sewingandcooking”(Dewey1959,p.38).Thisisthere-forepositive.Yetstillindicatesthenewisnotenoughforhim.AsaprogressivewithperhapsaSpencerianstamp(cf.Egan2002),heistroubledbythefactthatconsciousness“ofitsrealimportisstillsoweakthattheworkisoftendoneinahalf-hearted,confusedandunrelatedway.”(Dewey1959,p.38)

Fromheretothenotionthatitisnecessaryforschoolstocarryoutmoreconsistentlyandcoherentlytheearlypreparationofyoungpeoplefortheper-formanceoftheirlateroccupationsisbutastep.Deweyseemedlikelytoshiftthestartingpointtothebeginningofschoolingformoreconsistentandcoherentearlypreparationforfutureoccupationsandtoobservethat“sincethechildmustbepreparedforthefunctionhewillonedayserve,educationandinstruction–at


leastfromacertainage–cannotremainthesameforallsubjects.”(Durkheim2009,p.54)Thepointofspecialization,saysDurkheim,“isbeingestablishedatanever-earlierage”(ibidem).5

Ourexpectations,however,areconfounded.Onthecontrary,though,Deweyisunhappythatmanualworkinschools,thislearning through workisviewedasearlypreparation of young people for an occupation.Naturally,hesays,itiswrongtounderestimatetheworthofgeneralpreparationforafuturevocation,buttheworkinschoolthatisdescribedhereinvolvesmuchmorethansimplytheoccupationsofyoungpeoplewhoaresupposedtobepreparingthemselvesformanualwork.Educationisnotsolelyaboutgaining“bettertechnicalskillascooks,seamstresses,orcarpenters”(Dewey1959,p.42).Wherechambersofcom-merce,crafts,andtradesinSloveniaandtheEuropeanUnionasawholewouldseesalvation,Deweyseesaproblem.

“Wemustconceiveofworkinwoodandmetal,ofweaving,sewing,andcooking,asmethodsoflifenotasdistinctstudies.”(Ibidem,p.39)Significantly more important than the mastery of concrete skillsinthistypeofinstructionis“their social significance, as types of the processes by which society keeps itself going”(ibidem,emphasisadded).ForDewey,theprocessesofworkreplacethedisappearingprocessofsocializationofthechild,whointhefamily,throughworkandthroughlife,almostincidentallyformedthehabits,behaviors,knowledge,andconnectionsthatthecommunityneededforitssurvival.Consequently,schoolmustfillthisrole.Activitieslikesewing,spinning,andwoodworkingare,saysDewey,amechanism,awaytoacquaintchildrenwiththeselected“necessitiesofcommunitylife”(ibidem).TheAmericaofhisdayneedsnotonlyindividualism,butthefeelingcreatedby“abusykitcheninwhichagroupofchildrenareactivelyengagedinthepreparationoffood.”(Ibidem,p.39)Ifthemereabsorptionoffactsandtruthsis“soexclusivelyindividualanaffairthatittendsverynaturallytopassintoselfishness”(ibidem,p.40),“whereactiveworkisgoingonallthisischanged”(ibidem).Theschoolgainsthechancetoaffiliateitselfwithlife,to“becomethechild'shabitat,”(ibidem,p.41)anenvironmentinwhichthechild“learnsthroughdirectedliving;insteadofbeingonlyaplacetolearnlessonshavinganabstractandremotereferencetosomepossiblelivingtobedoneinthefuture.”(Ibidem)

InthiswayDeweypositstheschoolas“aminiaturecommunity,anembryonicsociety”through“activeoccupation”(ibidem).In1899Deweythusplacesworkasthefoundationofthe“NewEducation.”Not,asinDurkheimforexample,aboveallaspreparationoftheindividualforanoccupation(althougheveninDurkheimitisnevermerelyamatterofvocationaleducationinitspresentsense),forDeweyschooloperatesas a medium, as a process of socialization,astheenvironmentinwhichyoungpeoplebecomesocialized.Heretheylearnthatwhichcannolongerbeexpectedfromthefamily,towhichtheprocessofaccustomingchildrentocom-

5ComparisonsoftheideasofDeweyandhisFrenchcontemporaryÉmileDurkheimwillalsoappearatotherpointsinthetext.Bydrawingattentiontopossiblecomparisons,wearepointingtothepossibilityoffurtherparallelingtheconceptualizationsoftherelationshipbetweenwork,school,anddemocracyintwocountries,ontwocontinents,andintwooutstandingauthorsdealingwiththesocialdimensionofeducation.


munitylifethroughspinning,cooking,workinwoodandmetal,etc.,badefarewellwhentheprocessofproductionmoveddefinitivelyfromthehometothefactory.

Thisworkisnot,however,justanyactivity.Wecanactuallyonly talk indirectly about work as an activity which obtains resources for life.Inthecaseoftheoccupa-tionsfollowedintheschool,“theaimisnottheeconomicvalueoftheproducts,butthedevelopmentofsocialpowerandinsight.”(Ibidem,p.42)“Itisthisliberationfromnarrowutilities,”saysDewey,thatallowstheschooltomakethesepracticalactivities“alliesofartandcentersofscienceandhistory”(ibidem).

Whenweseeboysandgirlsaged10to13engagedinsewingandweavingandlookatthisactivityfromthestandpointofpreparationforavocationwhichthemajorityofthemwillneveractuallyhold,itmakeslittlesense,butifwelookatitfromanothersidewefindthattheseactivitiesgivechildrenthechanceto“followtheprogressofmankindinhistory”(ibidem,p.43).Forexample,weavingoffersstudentsawealthofopportunitiestolearnaboutmaterials(chemistryandbiology),possiblewaystoworkthemandsubsequentmeansofprocessing(physics,mechanics,andtechnology),andactualprocessingmethods;theyexperiencethelogicandlogisticsoftheprocessandtherelationswithintheproductiongroupthroughhistoryandindifferentpartsoftheworld.Withthisshift of intent,Deweydevelops–ashehaddoneearlierinMy Pedagogic Creed–theprincipleofpassingfromwhatisfamiliartothechild(suchasactivitiesthatarepartofhisorherenvironment)tothelevelof“moreformalsubjects”(Dewey1897,ArticleThree).Ingeneral,activitiesinthechild'sschoolareaspringboardforentryintoconceptualreflectionsconnectedtoexperience.Cookingisrelatedtochemistry,allthewaydowntomoleculesandatoms,whileontheotherhandbotanydoesnottreatplants“simplyasfood,but[reveals]alltheiradaptationstothesociallifeofman.”(Dewey1959,p.83)Inshort,inanenvironmentwherethefieldofactivitiesisnotrequiredtoachievenormsintheproductionofusefulvalueandalsobringprofit,worktransforms into a subject of insight,study,andcommonlearningorsocialization.

Inlightoftheseviews,itwouldappearthatDeweywouldnothaveapprovedoftheconceptualizationoftheschoolasanactivitytosupportproduction(and,byextension,unlikelytosupportsuchinitiativesastheEurope2020strategy).Althoughatfirstglanceitseemstousthathisconnectingofeducationtoworkwillleadtoagreementwiththeconceptionwherebydiscussionofthefutureissubordinatetothelogicof“morejobsandbetterlives”(Europe...2010,p.3),andthatthewaytoachievethisisthroughsmart,sustainableandinclusivegrowth(ibidem),arepeatedreadingshowsthatDeweyisnotgoinginthisdirection.


Figure 1: Chart III (Dewey 1959, p. 81)

Inthecentreoftheschool,whichheisdeterminedtoconnecttothehome,heplacesthelibrary.

Inthisconfiguration,thelibraryconnectstheschooltotheworldaroundit.Workinthetextileroomandthewoodandmetalshopsarebroughttogetherwiththekitchenandthediningroom,gaining“meaningandliberalvalue”(Dewey1959,pp.81–82).Deweyclearlydoesnotsupportsimplejustificationsofvocationaleduca-tionandeducationforwork.Indeed,Deweyhimselfconcludes“ifthefourcornersrepresentpractice,theinteriorrepresentsthetheoryofthepracticalactivities.”(Ibidem,p.82)Howcoulditbeotherwise,wondertheadvocatesofthevocationallyorientedschool.Theywouldclaimthatthisispreciselywhattheythemselvesaredefending.Butnotforlong.Deweyceasestobeanargumentforthemandinsteadbecomesaproblemassoonasthenextstepinhisthinkingisrevealed:“Inotherwords,theobjectoftheseformsofpracticeintheschoolisnotfoundchieflyinthemselves,orinthetechnicalskillofcooks,seamstresses,carpentersandma-sons,butintheirconnection,onthesocialside,withthelifewithout.”(Ibidem)

WemaythusprovisionallyconcludethatDewey’s resting of the school on work is oriented more towards pedagogy than to production.Moreover,heexplicitlysidelinesproductionwithinthephysicalstructureoftheschool.Heisinterestedintheintegrativeroleoftheschool–itsincorporationintoalifethatmodernchildrenwouldnototherwisereceive–arelosingsightbecauseoftheshiftofproductionfromthehometothefactory–andashiftawayfromthetraditionalroleofschoolasapassiveinstitution.


Active learning as a journey not a destination

Onthispointheisinflexible.Atthelevelofpedagogy,educationmustbreakfromitstraditionthatdemandsthechildto“leavehismindbehind,becausethereisnowaytouseitintheschool.”(Ibidem,p.82)WheneducationlimitsitselftotheoldJesuitapproachtoteachingandlearning,itlapsesbehindtimesthatarepragmaticandinterestedintheconcrete.Inhisprinciples,Deweyrepresentstherationalityofthenewage,thepragmaticrationalityofanAmericathatcallsfortheestablishmentofschoolsthatwillmanagechildren'stimeandpotentialsef-fectively.Herehecoincideswiththepositionoftheemergingmiddleclass,whichexpectsaschoolthatwillbepermeatedwiththeintereststhatestablishthepointsofthenewhegemony.

SimilarlytoDurkheim(cf.Durkheim2009,pp.169–184),Deweydrawsat-tentiontotheimportanceofscience,whichistryingtoobtainasuitableplaceintheschoolcurriculum.“Underpresentconditions,allactivity,tobesuccessful,hastobedirectedsomewhereandsomehowbythescientificexpert–itiscaseofappliedscience.”(Dewey1959,p.45)Scienceisnotlimitedtotheproductionofthings;rather,scientificinsightsshouldbecome“indispensibleinstrument[s]offreeandactiveparticipationinmodernlife”(ibidem).

Tothisend,Deweybelievestheschoolshouldshapeopportunitiesforthescientificmanagementoftheindividualandsocialtrajectories,encouragingamoreinsularfocus.Theactivityoftheindividualmusthave“meaningtohim-self”(ibidem);onlythisactionenablesademocraticsociety.Forexample,afewcenturiesbefore,learningwasmonopolizedandquiteliterallya“classmatter”(ibidem,p.46).Today,however,asadirectresultoftheindustrialrevolution,thishaschanged.Printingmadebooksandnewspapersreadilyavailable,thelocomotiveenabledtravelthatshranktheworld.“Learninghasbeenputintocirculation(…),knowledgeisnolongeranimmobilesolid;ithasbeenliquefied.”(Ibidem,pp.46–47)Societyhasfinallygonebeyondtheworldinwhichsomeareborntoknowandothersareborntousetheknowledgeoftheformerandturnitintolife.Throughtheindustrialrevolution,knowledgeis“activelymovinginallthecurrentsofsocietyitself”}(ibidem,p.47).

Suchachangeinview,however,alsorequiredachangeintheattitudetowardseducation.Thosewhodeprecatetheintroductionofpracticaltraining,ortrainingthroughwork,onthegroundsthatittendstowardsthe“productionofspecialists”(ibidem)aremistaken.Deweyarguestheopposite;hefeltthateducationathistimewas“highlyspecialized,one-sidedandnarrow(…)aneducationalmostentirelydominatedbythemediaevalconceptionoflearning.Itissomethingwhichappealsforthemostpartsimplytotheintellectualaspectofournatures,ourdesiretolearn,toaccumulateinformation,andtogetcontrolofthesymbolsoflearning;nottoourimpulsesandtendenciestomake,todo,tocreate,toproduce,whetherintheformofutilityorofart.”(Ibidem)Suchsimplifiedapproachtoeducationalsodividedsocietyinto”culturedpeopleandworkers”(ibidem).Whiletrainingfortheprofessionoflearningisregardedasa“typeofculture,asaliberaleduca-tion,thatofamechanic,amusician,alawyer,adoctor,afarmer,amerchant,or


arailroadmanagerisregardedaspurelytechnicalandprofessional.”(Ibidem,p.48)Bypersistinginthisway,theschoolconsolidateslabeling,stigmatizing,anddividingpeopleinasocietyinwhich,for“thegreatmajorityofhumanbeings[,]thedistinctivelyintellectualinterestisnotdominant.”(Ibidem)

LikeDurkheim,Deweyisconvincedthatthemajorityofpeoplehave“theso-calledpracticalimpulseanddisposition”(ibidem).Here,hisobservationsandreflectionscoincidewiththeprevailingeducationalviewsofhistime.

Butonlyforamoment.Whilesharingtheirconvictionthatthemajorityregardtheschoolaboveallas“apracticaltoolwithwhichtogetbreadandbutterenoughtoekeoutarestrictedlife”(ibidem),hepointsoutthatitisthetaskoftheschooltoaddressthispopulation.“Ifweweretoconceiveoureducationalendandaiminalessexclusiveway,ifweweretointroduceintoeducationalprocessestheactivitieswhichappealtothosewhosedominantinterestistodoandtomake,weshouldfindtheholdoftheschooluponitsmemberstobemorevital,moreprolonged,containingmoreofculture.”(Ibidem)

InthiswayDeweychallengesthethenfashionabledismissalofdifficultques-tionsabouttherelationshipbetweenschoolandsociety(includingtheeconomy)withthelabelofneoliberalanti-intellectualismandthesubordinationoftheschooltotheundemandingmentaloperationsof industrialsocietiesandtheconsumerismrelatedtoit.

Acondemnationofhispragmaticalitywouldonlyserveforapolemic.Forthepurposesofadiscussion,6ontheotherhand,itwouldbeentirelyunproduc-tiveandwouldnotachievetheconceptthattheauthordevelopsinthecontextofhisreflectionsonpragmatism.JacksonpointsoutthatitisnocoincidencethatDeweyestablishesadifferencebetweenpragmatismandpragmaticality.Prag-maticalityrequiresthateverydoctrineandtheoryproveitsvaliditybyverifying“consequencesofanyproposition(...),provided,ofcourse,thatthoseconsequencesarenotjustimaginedbutaretheresultofactiontakeninaccordancewiththepropositionitself.”(Jackson2004,p.59)Thetruthofassumptions,theiractuality,willthusalwaysonlybeverifiablebytheirfuturerealization.Concreteeventswillshowwhetherconceptualizationsandactivitiesperformedontheirbasishavecontributedforthe“bettermentofhumankindingeneralandoftheindividualinparticular”(ibidem,p.60).

Dewey'sprincipledcommitmenttohisconceptualizationofeducation–theconnectionoftheschooltocontemporarylifeandthedemandstoadaptschoolstocontemporarylife–revealsthatitissimplynotpossibletoreducehisideastothepejorativetreatmentoftheschoolstigmatizedbyinstrumentalismandutili-

6Forthedifferencebetweenapolemicandadebateordiscussion,seePolemics, Politics and Prob-lematizations–theinterviewgivenbyFoucaulttoRabinowin1984.“It'struethatIdon'tliketogetinvolvedinpolemics.IfIopenabookandseethattheauthorisaccusinganadversaryof“infantileleftism”Ishutitagainrightaway.That’snotmywayofdoingthings;Idon’tbelongtotheworldofpeoplewhodothingsthatway.Iinsistonthisdifferenceassomethingessential:awholemoralityisatstake,theonethatconcernsthesearchfortruthandtherelationtotheother.[...]Intheseriousplayofquestionsandanswers,intheworkofreciprocalelucidation,therightsofeachpersonareinsomesenseimmanentinthediscussion.[...]Thepolemicist,ontheotherhand,[...]reliesonalegitimacythathisadversaryisbydefinitiondenied.”(FoucaultinRabinow1984)


tarianism.Althoughheisconvincedthatachild’sinability“toutilizetheexperi-enceshegetsoutsidetheschool”withintheschoolitselfand“toapplyindailylifewhatheislearningatschool”(Dewey1959,p.78)revealsthegreatweaknessoftheschool,hepointsoutthatthoughthereshouldbe“an organic connection between the school and business life, it is not meant that the school is to prepare the child for any particular business.”(Ibidem,emphasisadded)Thus,justashisfirstlecturepointedouttheessentiallydifferentnaturesoftypicalactivitiesofsewing,weaving,metalworking,woodworking,etc.,intheprocessesofproductionandeducation,inthethirdlecturehesurprisinglydefendsaparticulartypeofconnectionbetweenschoolandbusinesslife.ToDewey,theschoolshouldenablea“naturalconnectionoftheeverydaylifeofthechildwiththebusinessenviron-mentabouthim”(ibidem).Understanding“thebankasafactorinmodernlife...whatitdoes,andhowitdoesit”(ibidem,p.79)islogicalandnecessary.Itisonlyinthiscontext,inhisopinion,that“relevantarithmeticalprocesseswouldhavesomemeaning–quiteincontradistinctiontothetime-absorbingandmind-killingexamplesinpercentage,partialpayments,etc.”(Ibidem)Theschoolmustthereforebecapableofincorporatingintoitscurriculumcontentswhich,whiletheyarenotthesubjectofadirectproductionprocess,neverthelessenableunderstanding,thelogicofthecourseofindividuallives,andthestructuringofthesocialasawhole.Theyenableustounderstandandtoliveinthepresentandreducetheneedtoremainwithparticularremnantsofthepast.Perseveringwiththem,whichex-pertsinindividualsubjectsfavorasanelementof“preservingmentaldiscipline”intheyoungpopulation,evidentlytroubleshim.7

AnalyzingsomeelementsofDewey’s1899conceptrevealsthathedidnotbelongamongthosewhofeltthateducationneededtobedirectlyinvolvedinpreparationforproduction.Hisrequirementfortheinterweavingofschoolintodailylifeand,withit,occupations,islesssimple.ConnectingDewey’sconceptu-alizationstotheirtimeoftenleadsustoorapidlytotheconclusionthatwearedealingwithasimplifiedeconomisticprogressivismaimedonlyat“knowledgeforwork,”orevenmerelyworkasasourceofknowledge.

Attheleveloffundamentalconceptualizations(lessattheleveloftheconcep-tualizationofconcretestrategies),theauthorissignificantlyclosertoDurkheim'spreoccupationwithdevelopinganadequateconnectionofschooltosocietyasawhole.Healsofavorsestablishingrationalityineducationthatwillcontributetobringingtheaffirmedentitlementofindividualstopersonalchoicesclosertoactualchoices.Belowweshallpresentselectedelementsofhisconceptionofthecontemporaryschool.

7Fortheentryofcontentsinschools,seeMiłosz(1997)andGaber(2000).


On listening, uniformity, and the center of activities

Inhissecondlecture,whilediscussingtherelationshipbetweenschoolandthelifeofthechild,Deweyintroduceswhatappeartobehistwobest-knownthesesofhispedagogical“doctrine”.Hedevelopstheminanenvironmentthatforusisbarelycomprehensible:asocietymarkedbyindustrialprogressandthelastdaysofavanishingnon-capitalistworld.Inthiscontext,the“old”isrepresentedbytheschool,whichischangingfromaninstitutionforthechosenfewintoaschoolthatisgenuinelyuniversalandobligatory.Theoldtypeofschool,whichhasitsrootsinthecollegesoftheJesuitsandisorientedtowardslistening,mustchangeintoaschoolinwhichthechildisactive–thisisthefirstthesis.Thesecondthesisconcernstheissueofthecentreofgravityofteaching.The“oldeducation”locatesthecentreofactivitiesintheschool“outsidethechild.”

Deweyadmitsthatinthecourseofhispresentationoftheoldtypeofschoolhemayhave“exaggeratedsomewhatinordertomakeplainthetypicalpointsoftheoldeducation.”(Dewey1959,p.52)Describinghismethodas“exaggeration”isstillanunderstatement.Evenintermsofarchitectureandorganization,hepresentstheoldschoolasaplaceinwhich“thereshallbeaslittlemovingroomaspossible”intheclassrooms;classroomsarefullof“desksalmostallofthesamesize,withjustspaceenoughtoholdbooks,pencilsandpaper.”(Ibidem,pp.50–51)Assuch,classroomsdonotallowanythingotherthan“listening”and,throughtheirverylayout,theypreventchildrenfrom“working,”ormoreaccurately,beingactive(cf.ibidem).Whenwearedealingwithaconceptoftheschoolinwhich“theworkshop,thelaboratory,thematerials,thetoolswithwhichthechildmayconstruct,createandactivelyinquire(...)havebeenforthemostpartlacking”(ibidem,p.51),the school is transformed into an institution for controlling the masses.Thenewschoolwouldhavetodoquitetheopposite.Whenchildrenareallowedtobeactive,“theyindividualisethemselves;theyceasetobeamass,andbecometheintenselydistinctivebeingsthatweareacquaintedwithoutofschool.”(Ibidem,p.50)

ForDewey,thenewschoolmustbeorganizedsolearning is not merely ab-stract andunconnectedtotheeverydayrealityofthechild.The“idealschool”shouldgeneralisewhatwouldordinarilyhappeninafamilyinwhich“theparentisintelligentenough”(ibidem,p.53).Thechildshouldlearnthrough“thesocialconverseandconstitutionofthefamily”(ibidem).Inthecourseofconversation“statementsaremade,inquiriesarise,topicsarediscussed,andthechildcon-tinuallylearns”(ibidem).Thechildparticipatesinfamilyactivitiesand“getshabitsofindustry,orderandregardfortherightsandideasofothersandthefundamentalhabitofsubordinatinghisactivitiestothegeneralinterestofthehousehold.”(Ibidem)Alongsidetheseengagements,“thelifeofthechildwouldextendoutofdoorstothegarden,surroundingfieldsandforests.Hewouldhavehisexcursions,hiswalksandtalks,inwhichthelargerworldoutofdoorswillopentohim”(ibidem).Educationthroughworkandwithwork,withlife,wasinDewey'sviewthebestschool.


Figure 2: Chart II (Dewey 1959, p. 77)

The child at the center, experience at the centre, democracy as a goal?

Theproblem,however,wasthatsuchafamilynolongerexisted,ormoreaccurately,itisnolongerpossibletocounton“idealhomes”providingalloftheabove.Schoolcouldfillthatvoid,though,bydoingwhattheidealfamilynaturallydid.“Now,ifweorganizeandgeneralizeallofthis,wehavetheidealschool.Thereisnomysteryaboutit,nowonderfuldiscoveryofpedagogyoreducationaltheory.”(Ibidem)Nothing,nothingatall,saysDewey.Howanxiousheistoconserve,toreplicatetheconditionsoftheformercommunityevenatatimeofanexplosionofthesocialdimension,isevidentfromhisinsistencethattheschoolshouldbean“enlargedidealhome”(ibidem,p.53).

Duringthisprocess,theschoolshouldpreparefororbuildoninterdependentyetdistinctentitiessuchashome,job,university,andenvironment(nature).

Thislinealsoincorporatesthenotionofthechild-centredschool,hismostnotoriouspedagogicalconceptand,frequently,thepointatwhichpeopledepartfromDewey’slineofthinking.8Thereisatendencytoforgetthattheauthormakesthischoicewhenheseeksabasistoserveasthestartingpointoftheschool.

Thechildcomestoschoolfromafamilythatcannolongerprovideacoherentprocessofsocialization,butthephysicalhomeitself,withitskitchen,livingroom,andwhatremainsofitsworkshops,stillrepresentsthechild'sexperienceandoffersapossiblebeginningforinclusioninareflectiononthepresent.Thereflec-tionshouldmovebetweenthedirectlyexperiencedmaterialityofthepresentand,gradually,itstemporallyandspatiallyremovedmoments.ItisclearfromDewey's

8Contemporarydiscussionstendtoignorethat“thefamouscentringofeducationonthechildisnotanendinitselfandshouldonlybeusedinspecificcircumstances.”(Blaisetal.2008,p.227)


ChartIII(figure 1,seeabove)thattheschoolshould,aboveall,beconcernedwithsocializationinanewsocietywhere,withthetransferofworkoutsidethefamily,thefathermustabandonthelatterforlongperiodsinordertoearnaliving.

Theneedforthefundamentalelementsofsocialization(familiarizationwiththebasicelementsoftheworld)goeshandinhandwiththegrowingdemandforpreparationthatwillenableindividualstounderstandthecomplexityandabstractnessoftheworldofindustryandproduction,anincreasinglyaccessibleoutwardenvironmentthankstoincreasedmobility,and,aboveall,thedifferentsocialstructuresthatappearedagainstabackgroundofmovementsfromthevillagetothetownandemergedfromtheconcentrationoflabourinindustrialcentres.The child-centered focus of Dewey’spedagogical approach should,aboveall,beunderstoodasan attempt to enter the process of mass instruction at a point that offers a greater possibility of success.

Theeffectivenessoftheschoolwasgreatlylimitedbecause,inthespaceofafewdecades,ithadtoconvertamassofdifferencesthatforindividuals,includingteachers,wasdifficulttocomprehendintoa“newcommonality.”Howtoapproachaninfinitemassofpeoplewhoare, furthermore,verydifferent (intermsofethnicorigin,religion,language,culture)andconvincedoftherightnessoftheirview,whichatthesametimeistheonlyonethattheyhavetrulyexperienced?Tobeginwiththeindividual,thespecial,wouldbeinconceivableforthesystem,preciselybecauseofthedizzyingnumberofdifferences.Conversion,or,inasense,normalization,ofthe“singularityofthelocal,theparticular,thefamilial”was,intheopinionoftheschool,andinlinewiththepoliciesofthattime,mosteasilyachievedthroughsubordinationofall“tothecommon”–tothesameforall.JustasinFrancethepetites patrieswerebecomingthegrande patrie,theUnitedStateswasbecominga“meltingpot”(cf.Chanet1996).

Dewey,despitehiscommitmenttotheindividual,wasnotagainsttheforma-tionofthecommon.Heaccepteditasanecessity.Hedid,however,objecttothemethodsusedtoreachasenseofcommonality.Inhisview,achievingcommonhabits,values,andknowledgeshouldoccurthroughseizingtheparticularratherthanimposingabstractideas.DeweyfoundthattheUnitedStateshadgainedaschoolinwhichtherewas“acertainamount–afixedquantity–ofready-maderesultsandaccomplishmentstobeacquiredbyallchildrenalikeinagiventime.”(Dewey1959,p.52)Tothisend,nationalcurriculaweredeveloped,settingouteducationalcontentanddesiredacademicmilestonesfromelementaryschooltocollege.Here,inDewey'sopinion,thecurriculumdesignersmodeledFrance’sbadexampletooclosely,wheretheeducationalauthoritiesboastedthattheyhadachievedsuchalevelofcoordinationintheprocessofensuringuniformitythat“thousandsofchildrenwerestudyingatagivenhour(…)justsuchalessoningeography.”(Ibidem)

Bycontrast,insteadofblindlymakinguniformlessonplans,Deweyfeltitwasnecessarytoacceptthatwhenachildentersschool,heisalready“intenselyactive,andthequestionofeducationisthequestionoftakingholdofhisactivi-ties,ofgivingthemdirection.”(Ibidem,p.54)


Deweyhasnoillusionsaboutthis.Headdressedtheadage“ifyoubeginwiththechild'sideas,impulsesandinterests,allsocrude,sorandomandscattering,solittlerefinedorspiritualized,howishegoingtogetthenecessarydiscipline,cultureandinformation”(ibidem)byencouragingdirectionforstudents.LikeDurkheim,whorejectsTolstoy'sbeliefthatchildrencansimplybelefttotheirim-pulses,interests,andideas,Deweysuggeststhatitispossibleto“directthechild'sactivities,givingthemexercisealongcertainlines,andcanthusleadup to the goal which logically stands at the end of the path followed.”(Ibidem,emphasisadded)“Education(…)mustinfacttakeplaceassupervisedsocialisation,animatedbytheintellectualvitalityofthechild,whoisplacedatthecentreofthecurriculumandchannelledtowardsthespecificgoalsofsociety.”(Bulle2000,p.192)

Logically,achild’spathtoreachingagoalpresupposes“runningupagainstobstacles,becomingacquaintedwithmaterials,exercisingingenuity,patience,persistence,[and]alertness,[thisprocess]ofnecessityinvolvesdiscipline–or-deringofpower–andsuppliesknowledge.”(Dewey1959,pp.54–55)Theabovetakesplaceinaspectrumthatgoesfromexperiments,viaobservation,recording(memory),toimagination.Withabeliefinlifeandin“thelifeofthechild(…)thenwillallhistoryandsciencebecomeinstrumentsofappealandmaterialsofculturetohisimagination,andthroughthattotherichnessandorderlinessofhislife.”(Ibidem,p.70)Inshort, natureandsocietymustbeletintotheschoolroom,andcultureshallbethe “democratic password” (ibidem,emphasisadded).

Work, school, and democracy fifteen years later?

We can no longer manage without school in complex societies

DeweyalsodealswiththequestionsofworkandtheschooloverfifteenyearslaterinDemocracy and Education,“whichrepresentsDewey’smostimportantworkinthefieldofthephilosophyofeducation”(Bulle2000,p.193).AccordingtoHansen,thisworkis“manybooksinone”(Hansen2006,p.184).Itisneitheraseriesoflecturesnorapolemicovertheaffirmationoftheconceptof“neweduca-tion”inhisexperimentalschool,thereforemakingitlesscontroversial.LimitinginquirytoHansen'snotionofmanybooksinone,weshalllimitourselveshere,despitethefactthatthequestionofactivity,experienceandeducationappearsinthemoreorlessallthe'booksofthisbook',tofourchaptersinparticular.9Eveninthese,weshallmerelyverifywhethertheauthor'sviewswithregardtothework/schoolrelationshiphavechangedsince1899.Weareparticularlyinterestedinthefollowingchapters:“EducationAsaSocialFunction”(2),“PlayandWorkintheCurriculum”(15),“LaborandLeisure”(19),and“VocationalAspectsofEducation”(23).

Humanbeings, likeall livingcreatures,mustrenewtheirownphysicalexistences.Inthecaseofhumanbeings,however,“withtherenewalofphysical

9Theworkisdividedintotwenty-sixchapters.


existencegoes(…)therecreationofbeliefs,ideals,hopes,happiness,miseryandpractices.”(Dewey1968,p.2)Thelattertakesplacethrougheducation,which“initsbroadestsense,isthemeansofthissocialcontinuityoflife”(ibidem).

Societyhastworoleshere.Itenablesthecontinuationofindividuallifewhilesimultaneously,througheducation,italsocontinuesandpreservesitself.Society,justlikebiologicallife,hastoreproduceitself.Inthecaseofsociety,reproductiontakesplacethrough“communicationofhabitsofdoing,thinkingandfeelingfromtheoldertotheyounger”(ibidem,p.3).Infact,humanyoungare“soimmaturethatiftheywerelefttothemselves,withouttheguidanceandsuccorofothers,theycouldnotacquiretherudimentaryabilitiesnecessaryforphysicalexistence.”(Ibidem,p.4)ThisradicallyKantianstatementplacesthesocialconstitutionofthehumanbeingfaraheadofhisnature,yetitisalsonecessaryrecognizetherefer-ences–frequentinDewey–tothenatureofthehumanbeingandthechild.Soonerorlater,ifheremainsfaithfultohisstatementsontheimportanceofeducationandsociety,hemayhaveanentirelydifferent(social)natureofnatureinmind.

Ifhumanbeingsaretoformacommunityorsociety–actuallynotsomethingtheydooftheirownnature–whattheymustshareare“aims,beliefs,aspirations,knowledge–acommonunderstanding–like-mindednessasthesociologistssay”(ibidem).

TheunambiguoussocialnatureofthehumanbeingasahumanbeingisreadilyreflectedinDemocracy and Education’sopening.Forthehumanizationofgenerationaftergeneration,however,educationisofextraordinaryimportance.Withoutit,thehumanbeingwouldnotexist,andeventhespecieswoulddisappearinthequicksandofnature.Educationistherefore,inthefirstplace,thetransferofthe“achievements”ofpreviousgenerationstonewgenerations.Butinwhatway;throughwhatmediaandwithwhatpurpose?

Deweyassertsthat“anysocialarrangementthatremainsvitallysocial,orvitallyshared,iseducative.”(Ibidem,p.6)Thusnotonlyisasocietydependentoneducation,alllifethatissocialalsoformspeople;iteducatesthem.For the child, where he is born and in what kind of community he grows up is of extraordi-nary importance.“Thewayourgrouporclassdoesthingstendstodeterminetheproperobjectsofattention.”(Ibidem,p.17)Afamilyofmusicianswillawakenandencourageentirelyspecificimpulsesinachild–because“somekindsofpartici-pationinthelifeofthosewithwhomtheindividualisconnectedareinevitable.”(Ibidem,p.16)

Andyet,it is evident that in complex societies there is a need for schools, “amoreformalkindofeducation–thatofdirecttuitionorschooling”(ibidem,p.7).Only“undevelopedsocialgroups”havelittleformalteachingandtraining.Therefore,schoolhasmanycrucialtasks:

Ithasto“provideasimplifiedenvironment.Itselectsthefeatureswhichare1.fairlyfundamentalandcapableofbeingrespondedtobytheyoung.”(Ibidem,p.20)Theyoungaresupposedtofamiliarizethemselvesprogressivelywiththesefeaturessothatthelevelof insightalreadyattainedisameansofgaininginsightintowhatismorecomplicated.


Indeterminingwhatfeaturestheschoolwilltransmit,notonlyistherea2.processofselectionaccordingtothecriterionofwhatisfundamental,butitisthebusinessoftheschoolenvironmentto“eliminate,sofaraspossible,the unworthy features of the existing environmentfrominfluenceuponmentalhabitudes.”(Ibidem,emphasisadded)Inthisway,itistheschool'sjob“toseetoitthateachindividualgetsthe3.opportunitytoescapefromthelimitationsofthesocialgroupinwhichhewasborn,andtocomeinto livingcontactwithabroaderenvironment.”(Ibidem)

Arapidglanceatthefunctionsoftheschoolisenoughtoshowthat,just as at the turn of the century, even during World War I, its function is normalization.Dewey,likeDurkheim,believesthattheschoolwillbecapableofdistinguishing,neutrally – positively,theimportantfromtheunimportant,andthegoodfromthebad,andwillthusofferallwhocomefromgroupswithlimitedculturalcapitalthechancetoentertheworldofabetterfuture.Or,ashehimselfputsit,“[a]nyeducationgivenbyagrouptendstosocializeitsmembers,butthequalityandvalueofthesocializationdependsuponthehabitsandaimsofthegroup.”(Ibidem,p.83)HereDewey,unlikeDurkheim,seesschoolasaninstitutionthatformsabroadspectrumofvaluesthatarecommontocitizens.Fortheformationofvaluesthatareactuallycommon,itisveryimportantthat“allthemembersofthegroup(…)haveanequableopportunitytoreceiveandtotakefromothers.Theremustbealargevarietyofsharedundertakingsandexperiences.Otherwise,theinflu-ences which educates some into masters, educate others into slaves.”(Ibidem,p.84,emphasisadded)Evenwithout“formal”slavery,thedivisionoflaborthatisdemandedbyefficiencyreducesworktoa“mechanicalroutine.”Itdoesthisbecauseitdoesnotensurethatworkersseethe“technical,intellectualandsocialrelationshipsinvolvedinwhattheydo.”(Ibidem,p.85)

Dewey’sviewofthedivisionoflaborconcurswithPlato'sconvictionthateachindividualshouldengageinthoseactivities“forwhichhehasanaturalequip-ment,”andthetaskoftheschoolisto“discoverthisequipmenttoitspossessorandtrainhimforitseffectiveuse.”(Ibidem,p.90)Atthesametime,however,healsopointsout–andthisisofkeyimportanceforourdiscussion–thatPlatoartificiallydivided“individualsandtheiroriginalpowers intoafewsharplymarked-offclasses”(ibidem).ToDewey,itwasclearthat“originalcapacitiesareindefinitelynumerousandvariable.”Thedegreeofasociety’sdemocratizationistheextenttowhich“socialorganizationmeansutilizationofthespecificandvariablequalitiesofindividuals,notstratificationbyclasses.”(Ibidem,p.90–91)Thetaskofschoolandofsociety,particularlyofdemocraticsociety,isto“retainalltheyouthundereducationalinfluencesuntiltheyareequippedtobemastersoftheirowneconomicandsocialcareers”(ibidem,p.98),thuspermanentlylinkingschoolanddemocracytogether.

AsChanialpointsout,Dewey“isactuallydefendingawell-structuredtheoryofthecoextensivenessofthefieldsofeducationanddemocracy.”(Chanial2006,p.207)Theconnectionbetweeneducationanddemocracyisjustasdevelopedin


Democracy and Educationasitwasover15yearsearlier,evenwithreferencetothesameauthor.Onthisoccasion,too,thereareofcoursesomecaveats.Wheneducationbecomesmasseducation,thereisalsoariskthatformalinstructioncanbecome“remoteanddead–abstractandbookish”(Dewey1968,p.8).ToDewey,democracydoesnotinfactneededucationsimplyasaninstrumenttoprovide,particularlyatatimewhentheprincipleof“externalauthority”hasbeensub-stitutedby“voluntarydispositionandinterest”(ibidem,p.87),orthenecessaryinsightsintoandunderstandingofeventsinsocietyasapoliticalentity.Rather,a“deeperexplanation”existsfortheconnectionandtheconcernforthequalityandreachofeducation.“Ademocracyismorethanaformofgovernment;itisprimarilyamodeofassociatedliving,ofconjointcommunicatedexperience.”(Ibidem)Accordingly,educationisatypeofagift,fromsocietytotheindividual,andwillfree“individualcapacityinaprogressivegrowthdirectedtosocialaims”(ibidem,p.98).Inthisway,educationenablesagiftfromtheindividualtosociety,consistentwithDewey’s1916formulationoftherelationshipbetweeneducationandschoolas“areciprocalgift,analliancebetweentheindividualandsociety.”(Chanial2006,p.208)

What about preparation for employment and work?Judgingfromtheconclusiontothechapterthatdealswithaimsinthefield

ofeducation,Dewey'spositionshavenotchangedsignificantlyonthispointeither.Ifanything,Deweymerelysharpenedhisorientation.Forexample,hefeltthat,ineducation,externallyimposedaimsare“responsiblefortheemphasisputuponthenotionofpreparationforaremotefutureandforrenderingtheworkofbothteacherandpupilmechanicalandslavish.”(Dewey1968,p.110)Tothisend,thehighestaimofeducationiseducationitself;Deweywrotethat“education is literally and all the time its own reward”(ibidem,emphasisadded),meaningthat“noallegedstudyordisciplineiseducativeunlessitisworthwhileinitsownimmediatehaving.”(Ibidem,p.109)WemayconcludefromtheabovethatDeweyremainedfaithfultohiscommitmenttoamorethanmerelyinstrumentalorientationofeducation.Headvocatedabroadeducation–eveninthecaseofanoccupationsuchasthatofafarmer.Forexample,whenhediscussesthedifferentopportunitiesofpeopleindifferentoccupations,heusesthefarmertoshowthatanindividualwithamoregeneraleducation“willseeagreaternumberofpossiblestartingplaces,andagreaternumberofwaysofgettingatwhathewantstodo.”(Ibidem)

Thisofcoursedoesnotmeanthathehasrenouncedhisviewsontheim-portanceofactivityandstartingwithexperienceintheprocessofeducation.ItwouldbewrongtoconcludefromtheabovestatementsthatDeweynowfavoursteachingwhichisseparatefromlifeandthepresenceofthechild.In Democracy and Educationheevaluatesthesuccessofthedemandfor“child-centerdness,”findingthatexperiencehasshownthat“whenchildrenhaveachanceatphysicalactivitieswhichbringtheirnaturalimpulsesintoplay,goingtoschoolisajoy,managementislessofaburden,andlearningiseasier.”(Ibidem,p.194)Schoolisaplaceinwhich“playandworkcorrespond,pointforpoint,”(ibidem,p.195)


anditshould“setupanenvironmentinwhichplayandworkshallbeconductedwithreferencetofacilitatingdesirablementalandmoralgrowth.”(Ibidem,p.196)Accordingly,Deweychampionsboththeinnerpurposeofeducationand active learning,talkingexplicitlyabouttheimportanceofplayineducatinggenerationsofstudentstomaintainasystemofdemocraticeducation.Ifitwasoncepossibletodirecteducationtobooks,inatimeofmasseducation(thesocializationofre-production),itisnecessarytounderstandthat“theoldertypeofbookworkisfarfromhavingtheforceitusedtopossess”(ibidem,p.196).Thepurposeofplayandworkintheschoolisagainunderlined,withanultimateaimtowards“desirablementalandmoralgrowth”(ibidem).Deweytakesthisinterconnectionandthecom-mitmenttoitasadevicewithapreciselydefinedaim.Forhim,theintroductionofgamesandmanualworkis“notenough”;“[e]verythingdependsuponthewayinwhichtheyareemployed.”(Ibidem)Thetaskoftheteacherisnot,then,touseplaytoensurethatthechildisnotoverburdenedtooearly.Theartfulnessoftheteachingprofessionis,bybeginningwiththeknownandthedesirable,toleadasmanychildrenaspossibleto“intellectualresultsandtheformingofasocializeddisposition”(ibidem,p.197).Justashehaddonefifteenyearspreviously,Deweyannouncedthatinthecaseoflearningthroughplayandwork,factorssuchasmanualskill,technicalefficiency,andimmediatesatisfaction,“togetherwithpreparationforfutureusefulness(…)shallbesubordinatedtoeducation”(ibidem)formoredemandingintellectualresultsandsocializeddispositions.Atfirstglancethisclaimseemsalmostincredible.Atatimeoffrenziedindustrialization,theintroductionofTaylorism,andthesuccessesofbigindustry,Deweyostensiblystatesthateducationissupposedtodisregardusefulness?

Acommitmenttoeducationwhichmustoffersatisfactioninitself,findsenseinitself, isonlyunderstandablewhenweunderstandDewey'sconceptofthevocation.Avocationisnotreducedtotheactivitiesthatpeopleperforminordertoearnaliving,norisitlimitedtotheperformanceofphysicalworkwithalowlevelofprestige.Avocationmeans“nothingbutsuchadirectionoflifeactivitiesasrendersthemperceptiblysignificanttoaperson,becauseoftheconsequencestheyaccomplish,andalsousefultohisassociates.”(Ibidem,p.307,emphasisadded)Avocationisconnectedneithertoacareernortoleisure,butdenotesamode of active life.Vocationshouldnotbelimitedto“theoccupationswhereim-mediatelytangiblecommoditiesareproduced,butalso[include]thenotionthatvocationsaredistributedinanexclusiveway,oneandonlyonetoeachperson.”(Ibidem)Individualoccupationsarethusnotlimitedtothesphereoftheproduc-tionofgoodsorthings.Humanvocationsextendintothefieldofconcernforhisfellow-manandconcernforthepublicgood.Plato,saysDewey,isrightwhenheassertsthatitisthebusinessofeducationtodiscover“what each person is good for, and to train him to mastery of that mode of excellence.”(Ibidem,p.309,em-phasisadded)He(Plato)ishoweverwrongthat”thescopeofvocations[is]sociallyneeded”(ibidem).Bylimitingtheneedsofsocietyandtherangeofoccupationsavailabletotheindividual,heoverlooks“theinfinitevarietyofcapacitiesfoundindifferentindividuals”(ibidem).


Education,then,mustovercometheold,historicallyconditioneddualismofeducationfor“culture”andeducationfor“usefulness”'–fortheperformanceoftheusefultasksthataregenerallynecessaryforlife.Thetaskoftheschool–inpartbecausebythebeginningofthe20thcenturyitisalreadypossibletoobservetheincrediblefragmentationoflabourinthecontextofTaylorism,andinpartbecausetheimportanceofmachinesfortheperformanceofvitalmechanicalworkisalreadybecomingevident–isthusnottopreparesomefor“knowledgeforthesakeofknowledge”andothersfor“mechanicaloccupations”.

Theproblemfacedby“educationinademocraticsocietyistodoawaywiththedualism[ofeducationforcultureandformechanicalwork–S.G.]andtocon-structacourseofstudieswhichmakesthoughtaguideoffreepracticeforallandwhichmakesleisurearewardofacceptingresponsibilityforservice,ratherthanastateofexemptionfromit.”(Ibidem,p.261)Inaccordancewiththeconceptionofeducationand,withinit,vocationaleducation,DeweyalsoconsistentlyopposedtheintroductionofspecialvocationalschoolsintheUnitedStates..“Hefeared,aboveall,thatthekindofvocationaleducationfavoredbybusinessmen(...)wasaformofclasseducationwhichwouldmaketheschoolsamoreefficientagencyforthereproductionofanundemocraticsociety.”(Westbrook1993,p.175)

Conclusion

Withhissupportformanualwork(includingsewing,spinning,metalworkandwoodwork)inschools,Deweyappearsatfirstglancetofavorthesubordina-tionofeducationtolabor.Contrarytoexpectations,however,hestructureshisreflectionsonschool,activity,work,andsocietyintheoppositedirection.

BothatthetimeofthelecturespublishedasThe School and Society(1899)andatthetimeofthepublicationofhisbest-knownworkonthethemeofeduca-tion,Democracy and Education(1916),heremainsfaithfultohiscommitmenttoabroadconceptionofeducationthatwilldevelopinallwhoreceiveitthecapacitytoliveinandtoshapeademocraticsociety.Dewey’sschoolbeginswiththedirectexperienceofthechildandincorporatesintothelearningprocesstheexperienceofrelativelysimpleoperations(sewing,weaving,metalwork,woodwork,etc.).Here–veryexplicitlyin1916–headvocatestheinclusion of play and workinthelearningprocess.Hisgoalisclear;it is the task of schoolto preparethegreatestnumberofpupils,irrespectiveoftheirsocialorigins,for understanding the working processontheonehandandforactive inclusion in the democratic life of societyontheother.Botharenecessaryforalifeinwhich“thought[is]aguideoffreepractice”andleisureis“arewardofacceptingresponsibilityforservice,ratherthanastateofexemptionfromit.”(Dewey1968,p.261)

In1913,inthemidstofdebatesonpublicsupportforvocationaleducationandtheintroductionofspecialvocational colleges,Deweystrongly opposed their foundation.“Andsomeemployersoflaborwoulddoubtlessrejoicetohaveschoolssupportedbypublictaxationsupplythemwithadditionalfoodfortheirmills.”(Dewey1979,p.102)Everyoneshouldopposetheseparationof“trainingofem-


ployeesfromtrainingforcitizenship,trainingofintelligenceandcharacterfromtrainingfornarrowindustrialefficiency.”(Ibidem)

Deweywasexplicitandclear;hedisfavoredspecificvocationaleducationbe-causeitdisproportionatelyaffectedcitizensfromlowersocioeconomicgroups,heplacededucationforlifeinademocraticsociety–whichshouldalsoincludeeducationthatenablesanindividualtoperformanoccupation.The1917National Vocational Education Act(commonlyknownastheSmith-HughesAct)tippedthescaleinfavorofspecialvocationaleducation.TheFederalGovernmentsupportedthisformofeducationinthenameofthedriveforgreaterefficiencyintheUSeconomy.10

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dewey, work, school, and democracy - sodobna · pdf filedewey, work, school, and democracy ......

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