Contemporary Influences Affecting Provision, Choice, Participation and

Performance in Physical Activity

Section BExamined by one 20 mark question

from a choice of 2

Socio-cultural and economic factors that affect opportunity,

participation, provision, attitudes and values

Deviance in Sport

Lesson Obs:1. Define and explain the terms gamesmanship

and sportsmanship with examples2. Explain the contract to compete giving the 3

components of morality in sport it upholds3. Explain the terms positive, negative and

relative deviance giving examples in a sporting context

4. Name 4 possible causes of deviance in today’s society

“If you can meet with triumph and disasters and treat the two imposters just the same”. Rudyard Kipling – Wimbledon statue

Batting on a sticky wicket

Being on the ropes

The final hurdle

Our culture puts sport on a pedestal and our sporting heroes

are influential role models.

Millions watch sport on the TV – Olympics, World Cup,

Premiership matches, F1

But sometimes are sporting heroes let us down….

Twitter

When we enter in to a sporting

situation we enter in to an unwritten

moral contract with the others involved.

(Pledged verbally at the Olympics)

Contract to compete

An unwritten code governing how to strive to play fairly, within the rules

SportsmanshipConforming to the rules, spirit and

etiquette of a sport

Based on the C to C we expect performers to:

1. Try their best2. Show sportsmanship

3. Respect rules and officials

The spirit of the contest Concept based on a deep

UK culture – the Victorian ideas of fair play,

amateurism, athleticism, respect for opponent,

taking part not winning etc

Fair play

Character

Sportsmanship

Three components of morality in sport

Allowing all participants an equal chance – acting towards other performers in an honest,

straightforward, dignified manner – assumes respect of team mates, opponents and

officials

Refers to values and habits that determine the way a person

reacts to fears, challenges, failures and success – typically seen as polite behaviours – helping an opponent up, shaking hands

Overtime a more negative ethic has

invaded sport involving for example:

1. prize money,2. Gamesmanship3. The idea that

winning is everything

4. The use of drugs

Gamesmanship – bending the rules – often seen as time wasting in some sports

1. Pressure to win increased in modern times – pressures can lead to deviant

behaviour2. Sometimes performer lacks morals or

ethical restraints that might govern their behaviour

3. Pressure increase as the importance of the occasion increases

4. Will also increase with age potentially

Some pressures are external – outside control of performer – demands from sponsors, the

intrusion of media, expectations of organisers/crowd, demand

from coach/team mates

Functional actions in sport – within the contract to compete:

1. Returning the ball to the opposition after an injury break

2. Clapping the opposition after losing3. ‘walking’ in cricket4. Clapping the opposition’s century5. Exhausting yourself in the attempt to win6. Lending the opposition a player if they are

short7. Admitting fouls

Dysfunctional actions in sport

1. Arguing with the referee2. Appealing for a throw when you know it’s not

yours3. Deliberately fouling to prevent good performance4. Diving in a game to gain a foul5. Tying laces to get a rest6. Using drugs

Reasons why this behaviour is contrary to the contract to compete:• Acts of violence is outside the rules of the activity and outside the characteristics,

etiquette and ethics of the activity• In general violence will deprive the victim of free and fair opportunity to win

• Violence is often against the law

• Some games will allow violence if mutually agreed, accepted limits, and in some sports within the rules – e.g. boxing

Deviance=

Dysfunctional actions in sport

From Latin – De (from) via (way)

Deviance could be:

Voluntary e.g. performer

decide

Co-operative e.g. the performer decides to take

drugs because all his friends are doing so

Enforced e.g. a former East German swimmer took drugs because her coach gave them to her

Deviance: behaviour that falls outside the norms with in society or outside what is deemed to be

acceptable

Also behaviour of spectators,

managers, coaches and officials

Behaviour of players

Breaking the laws of sport

v breaking the laws

of society

Sport can be seen as a subsection of social behaviour

Types of devianceSports sociologist Jay Coakley (1992) considered 3 types of behaviour:

Positive deviance:Behaviour that is

outside the norm but with no intention to

harm or break rules – overconforming to what is expected

Normal

Negative deviance:Behaviour that goes

against the norm and has a detrimental

effect on individuals and on society in

general – underconforming to

what is expected

Normal distribution for this behaviour

Positive deviance:Behaviour that is

outside the norm but with no intention to

harm or break rules – overconforming to what is expected

E.g. oAn individual who trains or plays so hard they injure themselves oBehaviour that can lead to a disruption of normal lifeoPlay when they are injured

Deviance but their actions are for positive reasons:

They are striving to win or to improve within the ethical guidelines of the activity

Although deviant can be seen in a positive light

Could argue that a player who is striving to win within the rules and etiquette of the sport and who accidently and without intent injures another player is also exhibiting

positive deviance

Negative deviance:Behaviour that goes

against the norm and has a detrimental

effect on individuals and on society in

general – underconforming to

what is expected

Behaves in a way that knowingly and intentionally breaks the rules and ethics of sport

e.g.Using performance enhancing drugsCheating within a contest – deliberately fouling another playerBeing bribed to influence the outcome of a match (e.g. Pakistan cricket scandal)Fan violence or hooliganismIllegal betting on the outcome of a contestFinancial irregularities in the transferring of playersPlayer violenceGamesmanship e.g. diving in football, sledging in cricket

Relative deviance:Deviant behaviour that is not acceptable in wider

society but may be deemed to acceptable by those

involved in a sub-culture

Some behaviour acceptable in sport

but not in wider society? e.g. use of fists in

rugby (hidden in scrum or

otherwise

Players deem this acceptable as

long as violence doesn’t breach an

unwritten limit

BUT gouging & biting

completely off limits

Sport often likes to deal with

things in house

But police less and less willing to turn a blind eye

Deviance and the

contract to compete

Whether or not the behaviour is viewed within a sporting context is determined by whether or not it breaks the contract to compete.

Don’t strive to win or try to loose –

negative deviance

Not trying to win fairly – cheating or

unacceptable physical contact e.g.

biting – negative deviance

Expected to allow opponent fair and

free change to win – taking drugs or

bribing an official does not allow this –

negative deviance

Using tactics, strategies and skills that you use to stop an opponent within the expectations of

the activity – Relative deviance

Concept of relative deviance and the contract to compete are closely linked

Concept increasingly challenge but the

media and society in general

Both imply that somehow sport exists within its

own moral subculture

Rewards of winning so great that a large

number of individuals may be prepared to

cross the line. (May be particularly true of positive deviance)

Causes of deviant

behaviour

Individual lacks moral restraint to keep to code of

conduct

Individuals may value winning above the loss of respect or

punishment that may occur

Deviant behaviour may be becoming less socially

unacceptable and cause less negative comment than in

the past

NGBs may feel less able to punish due to power of commercial interests or fear

of being taken to court by performer who they punish

Is deviance more prevalent in some sports than others?

• Common feature in some sports e.g. cycling, athletics

• No sport is immune – ‘bloodgate’ scandal in rugby

Lesson Obs:1. Define and explain the terms gamesmanship

and sportsmanship with examples2. Explain the contract to compete giving the 3

components of morality in sport it upholds3. Explain the terms positive, negative and

relative deviance giving examples in a sporting context

4. Name 4 possible causes of deviance in today’s society

Lesson Obs:1. Describe at least 3 causes of hooliganism and

3 methods used to combat it2. Explain the impact of hooliganism and player

violence has on those involved, on sport and on wider society

3. Explain why violence between players may occur and how it is dealt with by managers/coaching staff/NGBs

Violence in sport

Violence between players

Violence among

spectators

Two ways this generally occurs:

A spontaneous outburst

A premeditated and planned action

Cause of violence between players:

Most violence occurs as an aggressive act – refer to sport psychology notes

In summary, aggressive behaviour may be caused by:

•Innate•Frustration•Loss of identity (follow the actions of the crowd)•Social learning – imitating others

Within some teams they have a well-known characters (enforcers), whose role it is to physically intimidate the opposition or to act in retaliation on behalf of others

Drugs, gamesmanship taken too far,

hyping-up, presence of spectators, unacceptable

aggression, acts against the law

Dealing with violence between players

Responsibility of individual performers, team managers or

coaches and the NGBs

An NGB may take a range of actions:

•Ensuring that match officials and their decisions are supported when dealing with violent behaviour of players•Punishing players post match•Being prepared to use post-match video evidence•Upholding players with a good disciplinary record as role models•Using ‘fair play’ awards to reward clubs with good disciplinary records•Training officials in player management and how to defuse situations between players

NGBs keen to diminish violence – so sport’s

reputation is not damaged

NGBs like to deal with violence themselves but more involvement from

legal system evident

Important that leaders, managers,, coaches, captains set a good example and set the tone for their teams as they have a

great responsibility for player conduct.

To ensure good player behaviour they could:

Set a good example themselves before and during contests

Establish a clear code of conduct and expectations

Criticise or punish players who fail to meet the code of conduct; play substitutes in their place

Praise or promote those players who set a good example

Where possible, ensure that players who have a low flash point are kept away from high stress situations

Stress appropriate behaviour in team talks

Understand each individual player’s level of arousal and try to avoid overarousal

Train players to manage their own level of arousal

Avoid an attitude of winning at all costs.

Hooliganism

Hooliganism: anti-social or aggressive/violent behaviour by people in a group of spectators

Suggested causes:• Fans drink too much alcohol• Local derby/high tension

between rival fans• Pre-match media hype• Poor officiating• Diminished responsibility

within a large crowd/depersonalisation

• The team being supported is losing

• Poor crowd control/poor policing – crowd confinement

• Religion

Solutions:• Control alcohol sales• All seater stadiums• Improve policing (numbers

increase)/segregation of fans• Stewards• Increase family concept• CCTV• Penalties/bans• More responsible media

reporting• Kick racism out of football

campaign

Hooliganism - CausesRitualised behaviour –

expression of masculinity – a rite of passage……..may be some

explanation but goes beyond this

A form of tribal behaviour?

Membership granted if prove yourself. Group perceive protecting

their local area/patch……Not always locals, supporters of fans in other sports don’t do

this

Tension on pitch – violence between players – or poor ref decision can all trigger

passionate fans………………………may be but doesn’t affect all fans or in

all sports

An outlet for young working class males – feel restricted

by the constraints of an increasingly ‘safe’ society………counterargument –

not all hooligans are working class, not all young men feel need to engage in

this behaviour

Some football groups infiltrated by

extreme political groups

…….true of a minority but cannot

account for all

Change in fan base from just working class to include

middle class (bourgeoisification) and

increased unemployment, loss of trad W/C jobs,

boredom – a reaction to this?…..may be but although

balance has changed…all hooligans not working class

Hooliganism - CausesRitualised behaviour –

expression of masculinity – a rite of passage……..may be some

explanation but goes beyond this

A form of tribal behaviour?

Membership granted if prove yourself. Group perceive protecting

their local area/patch……Not always locals, supporters of fans in other sports don’t do

this

Tension on pitch – violence between players – or poor ref decision can all trigger

passionate fans………………………may be but doesn’t affect all fans or in

all sports

An outlet for young working class males – feel restricted

by the constraints of an increasingly ‘safe’ society………counterargument –

not all hooligans are working class, not all young men feel need to engage in

this behaviour

Some football groups infiltrated by

extreme political groups

…….true of a minority but cannot

account for all

Change in fan base from just working class to include

middle class (bourgeoisification) and

increased unemployment, loss of trad W/C jobs,

boredom – a reaction to this?…..may be but although

balance has changed…all hooligans not working class

Close rivalry between fans – local derbies can inflame

fans passion – particularly when sensationalised by

media…….may be but other sports have rivalries and some of these fans sit together to

enjoy the match

ULTIMATELY……..Impossible to identify

just one cause

Seen as multi-causal – each reason adds to

over overall understanding

Effec

t of v

iole

nce

on in

divi

dual

s,

spor

t and

wid

er s

ocie

ty1. Violence brings a sport in to disrepute2. Damages ability to encourage children, young people and families

to participate3. Parents will not allow their children to be involved in a sport

where their well-being will be put at risk4. A similar reaction is going to happen if poor behaviour occurs at

local matches

Effects: Fan violence leads to poor treatment of legitimate fans and supporters

i.e. held in grounds until home fans gone, herded through streets with suspicion and distrust (particularly abroad)

Career ending tackles as a result of deliberate fouls Individual players may miss chance for international recognition if team restricted from playing in some competitions Huge cost – FA/Club pays some – local police pay rest – tax money spent on this instead of other issuesReputation of country damaged – poor behaviour abroad can effect national morale effect of achieving international success (just as easily as the lift this can bring)

Strategies to combat

hooliganism:

Prevention of known hooligans travelling to

matches – banning orders – having to

report to police stations during match time

Control of alcohol – bans in grounds, on terraces,

local pubs shut

Segregation of fans – travelling and within

grounds

All-seater stadiums – better control of movement

within ground and control of ticket sales

Improved levels of police and stewards (and

training)

CCTV with face-recognition software

Sharing police intelligence/UK officers travel abroad to share

knowledge

Not allowing players to make gestures to crowd or take any

action

Responding to poor behaviour by banning or removal from

competitions, fines, playing matches away or behind closed

doors

Use by FA of high profile role models to appeal for better

supporter behaviour (‘Kick racism out of football’)

Lesson Obs:1. Describe at least 3 causes of hooliganism and

3 methods used to combat it2. Explain the impact of hooliganism and player

violence has on those involved, on sport and on wider society

3. Explain why violence between players may occur and how it is dealt with by managers/coaching staff/NGBs