Developmentally Appropriate Practice: Developing Community and

Culturally Appropriate Practice

Jessica Ball and Alan Ri Pence

nood advice to students in

G ood advice to students in speaking out about

early childhood education the needs, practices, training programs is to take and goals of their cul-

stock of the community in which tural constituency? they are working, consider the cul- This article de- tural values and wishes of parents scribes the evolution who bring their children for care, and of the generative cur- involve parents as much as possible riculum model, an (Bredekamp & Copple 1997). No early childhood edu- one would argue with that. But are cation training pro- we willing to take our own advice gram that takes seri- by yielding a place in curriculum ously the challenge to development, program design, and include community even the training of early childhood and culture. Origlnat- education providers to knowledge ing through a partner- that resides within the community? ship between the Uni- Are we willing, in our pedagogical versity of Victoria, a delivery, to yield floor time to re- mainstream Canadian spected community members university, and the

Meadow Lake Tribal I . ‘3.‘..a. . I . “ . a . b” mcil in giving me the chance to learn mada, the generative from my elders what I need to know >del seeks to ensure about who I am and my culture’s ldhood students re- ways of being with children. I .

’ “he social and couldn’t learn this from any text-

the children in mv communitv . . .

Jessica Ball, Ph.D., is an associate Council, an Aboriginal tribal council in giving me the chance to learn

professor affiliate and research con- in northern Canada, the generative from my elders what I need to know

sultant at the University of Victoria and curriculum model seeks to ensure about who I am and my culture’s

co-coordinator of the office for First that early childhood students re- ways of being with children. I Nations Partnership Programs in the ceive “knowledge of the social and School of Child and Youth Care. Jessica’s cultural contexts in which children

couldn’t learn this from any text- book, and I couldn’t reach out to

research and publications focus on inte- gration of indigenous knowledge and

live” (ESredekamp & Copple 1997, 9) from individuals whom Native com-

the children in my community . . .

participatory methods in professional without knowing what the elders

and community development. munities feel best understand those contexts. These carriers of commu-

‘can teach me through this pro-

Alan R. Pence, Ph.D., is a full profes- sor in the School of Child and Youth

nity knowledge include elders and gram.” An elder who participates regularly in the Mount Currie

Care at the University of Victoria in other respected community mem-

British Columbia. Since 1988 he has bers, professionals in the commu- program noted that “our weekly meetings with students help us

been increasingly involved in commu- nity, and the students themselves. nity-based early childhood care and In the words of a student in our

all to remember and pass along

development work with First Nations the knowledge of our culture be-

and in majority world settings. partnership program with Mount fore the White Man came and re- Currie Band in southwest British

Photos courtesy of the authors. Columbia, “This program is unique mind us of the ways of our culture in raising our children and how

...a . ..*... C.‘” b..Ab‘ca ._YC Y..utrstand those ‘can teach me through this pro- ;e carriers of commu- gram.” An elder who participates :e include elders and regularly in the Mount Currie ed community mem- program noted that “our weekly onals in the commu- meetings with students help us tudents themselves. all to remember and pass along

46 46 Young Children l March 1999 Young Children l March 1999

we want them to grow and who for by a growing number of post- they will become.” modernist educators and psycholo-

The generative curriculum ap- gists (e.g., Kessler & Swadener preach can be seen as complemen- 1992; Green 1993; Lubeck 1996; tary to the approach advocated in Dahlberg, Moss, &Pence 1999) stu- the revised Developmentally Appro- dents in this program explore the priate Practice, but it goes beyond meanings and implications, for developmentally appropriate prac- caregivers, of development in the tice to embrace community appro- context of the children’s and fami- priate practice and culturally ap- lies’ cultures and community. propriate practice. A student in the< Following the community’s vision Mount Currie program put it suc- for its children, the students, in- cinctly: “Being in this program is structors, community members, like having the best of both worlds. and university-based team work We love to learn about what re- collaboratively to elaborate cur- searchers have found out about riculum and program designs that child development and such from address the community’s needs our textbooks, and we love to learn and goals for nurturing children. more about our own culture and how Our practical intent in telling we can use it to help the children of this story is to stimulate discus- our community.” sion as well as suggest guidelines

This student’s enthusiasm goes for generating and delivering straight to the heart of the genera- training programs in communi- tive curriculum model: recognition ties to achieve community goals, and respect for diversity and real- rally social support for children ization that one size, one approach, and families, and increase the ca- cannot fit all. In the manner called pacity for child care services.

The Need for Community8ased Early Childhood Services

Increasing numbers of First Nations and lnuit communities in Canada identify early childhood education training and services as priorities for protecting and enhancing the physical and psychosocial health and well-being of children and their families. The need for child care facili- ties, and trained community members to staff them, is particularly ur- gent in First Nations communities on reserves. For families living on re- serves, access to child care is limited by geographic distances, social and cultural barriers, and eligibility regulations. The Assembly of First Nations (AFN) in Canada has urged that caregivers be trained to deal in a culturally appropriate manner with the large pool of Native chil- dren needing comprehensive care (AFN 1989).

At the same time there is growing recognition among First Nations of the ineffectiveness of sending community members away to mainstream early childhood education training programs. When administrators at the Meadow Lake Tribal Council reviewed available early childhood edu- cation programs, they asked, “What of us-our Cree and Dene cultures- is in these programs? How are the particular needs and circumstances of our remote communities going to be addressed in these programs?” The theories and methods of early childhood education taught in most universities and colleges, however well grounded in developmental theory and research, are often seen as not being fully transferable to, relevant to, or perhaps even desirable within the cultural enclaves, so- cioeconomic conditions, and sometimes remote geographic settings of many First Nations and Inuit communities.

Young Children l March 1999

Developing a culturally appropriate training model

How can universities and col- leges work with First Nations* and other cultural communities that want to increase the capacity of community members to use cultur- ally appropriate and developmen- tally appropriate approaches to nurturing children?

In 1988 the Meadow Lake Tribal Council presented this challenge to one of the authors, Alan Pence, at the University of Victoria. Representing nine Cree and Dene communities, the tribal council sought an innova- tive early childhood education train- ing program that would incorporate and further Cree and Dene language, traditions, and child care goals. The executive director of the tribal coun- cil, Ray Ahenakew, emphasized, “We must rediscover our traditional val- ues of caring, sharing, and living in harmony and bring them into our daily lives and practices” (personal communication 1988).

Letting each constituent commu- nity involved in the Meadow Lake Indian Child Care Program speak for itself and bring to the program its unique priorities and practices was a guiding principle: “The prime focus of this project was develop- ing child care services at the com- munity level, which would be ad- ministered and operated by the communities. As tribal council staff, we could not make the error of walking into any of the commu- nities to show them the correct and only way of doing things” (M.R. 0pekokew.g M. McCallum, personal communication 1994).

* First Nations are comprised ofpopu- lations of Aboriginal peoples. in Canada, excluding Inuit and Aleut peoples. Groups of First Nations are often organized for administrative purposes into band councils of tribal councils representing several commu- nities that are usually clustered to- gether geographically. Constituent communities may or may not share the same cultural and migration history, language, and customs.

The tribal council also wanted come from within the community at dents and the communities and cul- courses that could lead to a uni- Meadow Lake. in contrast to the tures they are part of.” versity degree and dovetail with many expert-driven approaches to The First Nations community a variety of services to children professional training add service de brings to the program its unique and families. The training pro- livery, with their underlying assump culture, values, practices, and gram that originated through this tions of community deficiencies, an sometimes its language, and its partnership has been delivered in empowerment approach assumes vision of what optimal child de- six other First Nations tribal or- that “all families have strengths and velopment looks like and how to ganizations through partnerships that much of the most valid and use- facilitate healthy development. A with the University of Victoria. ful knowledge about the rearing of community-based instructor in the

children can be found in the commu- Mount Currie program noted, “We

A history of ineffectual nity itself-across generations, in don’t have all the answers. In a gen-

programs networks, and in ethnic and cultural erative program, we can enjoy learn- traditions” (Cochran 1988, 144). ing about what research on child de-

The partnership between the The central role of the community velopment has shown and what Meadow Lake Tribal Council and extends to the elaboration of a “gen- methods seem to be helpful in cer- the School of Child and Youth Care erative” curriculum model that em- tain situations. And we can delve fur- (SCYC) at Victoria University began bodies the culture of the families ther into our own history and tradi- with an acknowledgment of the served. In this model, elders and tions and see how these can help us poor record of educational and so- other respected community mem- with our children.” ,’ cial programs imposed on Aborigi- bers contribute locally relevant spe nal peoples in North America by ex- cific knowledge and perspectives ternal agencies lacking in Abori- and help to ensure that trainees de-

Participants are contributors

ginal representation. Historically, velop practical objectives and meth- and learners

even partnerships have been prob- ods informed by the culture and ap- More pointedly, a community- lematic for Aboriginal peoples, propriate to the community where based administrator remarked, “We with dominant cultures attempting the trainees will work. can consider what mainstream thee to work together with Aboriginal ries say, and if we choose to believe cultures and over time requiring them and use them in our work, that them, implicitly or explicitly, to ac-

The tmriculum draws from two cultures

doesn’t make us less Indian. And if commodate themselves to the domi- we choose to assert the importance nant culture, as if assimilated. The generative curriculum model of our cultural traditions and ways of

Some First Nations students suc- focuses on building an open cur- raising children, that doesn’t make teed academically in mainstream riculum that sits between the two us wrong. This program recognizes early childhood education programs cultures, allowing both the emphasizing child development and message and the medium appropriate child care practices from each to enter the train- based on serving populations dis- ing process. The University similar to their own. However, First of Victoria brings to the Nations communities and students training program a represen- continually lament the futility and tative amount of theory, re- frustration of such training, which search, and practical ap- is divorced from the cultural con-. proaches to early childhood text and circumstances of the chil- education from the largely dren served. Neither the First Na- middle-class Euro-North tions nor the university-based American mainstream. A corn partners in our programs want to munity-based instructor from repeat this dynamic. the program’s partnership

with the Treaty 8 Tribal Coun- cil in northern British Colum-

The generat@ curriculum bia remarked, “The course model evolves from a new material really supports the

y j z

partnership instructor by giving ideas to follow and suggestions of ac-

Our new partnership grew from a tivities and resources. But it’s vision in which core elements of the also flexible enough to allow early childhood education curricu- us to adapt it to the needs of lum and the delivery of the program this particular group of stu-

48 Young Children l March 1999

and encourages this give-and-take, community resource people, and nership program between the Uni- pick and choose. It doesn’t cage us children). For example, an early versity of Victoria and the Tl’azt’en and expect us to act like Europe- childhood education class meet- Nation, in north central British Co- ans-to act as if we’re assimilated.” ing might begin with a reflection lumbia, remarked, “Having the el-

Using the generative curriculum on the words of an elder who vis- ders come to the program on a model, the curriculum develops and ited earlier. One elder discussed regular basis is really a good idea builds over the life of the training children with special needs: “We because we are learning their program with all participants, in- kept our children at home, we did knowledge and we are also getting eluding students, instructors, elders, not send them away to special to know them. Now I can walk with community members, and the uni- homes.” This statement opened the elders and we can continue to versity-based curriculum team, as the door for a discussion of why talk about the old ways and how contributors and learners. One com- facilities were developed for chil- these can still be used to help us munity-based administrator suc- dren with special needs. with our children today.” The cinctly stated a sentiment often ex- Meadow Lake Tribal Council elder pressed by the First Nations com-

17re result: A flexible and coordinator, Louis Opikokew, com-

munity partners: “I hope people at mented on enhanced intergenera- the university are learning as much tional rapport and communication from us as we’re learning from them.

widely applicable training in terms of more systemic commu-

It’s important for university lectur- program

nity change: “The students, recogniz- ers and theorists to listen and learn From the outset the First Na- ing the special wisdom of the elders, what they don’t know about what tions partnership team in the began to consult with them on per- being Indian means-in this case, School of Child and Youth Care sonal as well as course-related what being Indian means for par- has seen its role as developing matters. . . . Today we have elders ents and children growing up in the curriculum model piloted at involved in most community pro- our communities.” Meadow Lake so it can be used in grams. In the past we seldom in-

partnerships with other First Na- voived elders. The child care train-

The emphasis is on process tions communities across Cana- ing program is where it all started.” da. The training program has

The generative curriculum model grown into 18 courses embodying emphasizes process over product, the generative curriculum model, encouraging among learners intense each 1.5 academic units in length,

Conclusion engagement about questions rather leading to a two-year diploma in Based on early indicators of pro- than primarily valuing prescriptions child and youth care that is fully gram impact illuminated in three or answers. The pedagogical ap- transferable to the university’s formative program reviews (Cook preach is constructionist, and teach- four-year degree program. 1993; Jette 1993; Riggan & Kemble ing strategies are guided by the prin- The courses are equivalent to 1994) as well as feedback from on- ciples of active and interactive mainstream university courses, but going programs in four First Na- learning and discovery, necessitat- they are uniquely enriched by the tions communities, we believe that ing and celebrating dialogue among cultural teachings and experiential culturally appropriate practice and the various perspectives. Students wisdom of elders and other commu- community appropriate practice become actively involved in an ongo nity-based resource people. They should be central tenets of early ing process of articulating, compar- include activities and assignments, childhood education training pro- ing, and sometimes combining these with weekly sessions in which stu- grams and services specifically, perspectives contributed by mem- dents meet with eiders to discuss and of community health and de- bers of their own community and by specific areas related to child and velopment policies generally. the mainstream university-based youth care and development. One Definitive evaluative evidence is curriculum team. The authors saw Meadow Lake Tribal Council elder being gathered in a comprehensive evidence of such new constructions described the bicultural, commu- program evaluation now underway. of good practice during a visit to an nity-based features of the model as In the meantime, early successes on-reserve infant care program: Chil- “two sides of an eagle feather,” point- with the generative curriculum dren wrapped in beautifully beaded ing out that “both are needed to fly.” model strongly suggest that the cradle boards were sleeping soundly As a result of eiders’ regular par- means exist to make training pro- in the middle of their cribs; the ticipation in classes, not only do grams and resultant child care ser- cradle boards were hung on the students learn more about the tra- vices the embodiment of culture walls after naptime. ditions and values of their culture, and to create inexorable links

In the curriculum the intent is but they also forge relationships among training, services, and the to lead with the community when- with older members of their com- community of which these are a ever possible munity. A student in a current part- part by interweaving all of these

Young Children l March 1999 49

elements in a cohorts-driven com- of the community are heard and munity-based generative curricu- the values and needs of the com- lum approach to training. munity are embodied in child

At Meadow Lake, heightened com- care services that are community munity awareness of the challenges and culturally appropriate. faced by children and families re- A student in the Meadow Lake pro- sulted from community members’ gram remarked, “Students who took high level of involvement in the pro- this program have learned a lot gram as it was being delivered right about how our cultures think about to their doorstep. The director of the our children, and what they have Indian Child Care Program at Mea- learned will make a difference to our dow Lake observed, “There’s much children and grandchildren. 1 believe more talk in the community these our children-our futures-are go- days about improving the environ- ing to get back on the right track.” ment for children. There’s definitely a ripple effect. And it took a program ’ like this to get things rolling.”

Our experiences with First Na- References tions communities in Canada sug- Assembly of First Nations (AFN). 1989. gest that when early childhood teacher educators fully grasp the significance of taking community

Recommendation 39. Report of the na- tional inquiry into First Nations child care. Summerstown, Ontario: Assem- bly of First Nations National Indian

and culture into consideration and Brotherhood. put this good advice into practice, Bredekamp, S., & C. Copple, eds. 1997. we can no longer engage in the Developmentally appropriate practice

business-as-usual delivery of main- in early childhood programs. Rev. ed. Washington, DC: NAEYC.

stream early childhood education Cochran, M. 1988. Parental empowerment programs, no matter how ade- in family matters: Lessons learned from

quately they embody developmen- a research program. In Parent education

tally appropriate practice. as early childhood intervention: Emerg-

Opening up our training programs ing directions in theory, research, and practice, ed. D. Powell. Norwood, NJ:

to significant input from the end us- Ablex. ers of those training programs, Cook, P. 1993. Curriculum evaluation for

namely the communities where the Meadow Lake Tribal Council/

graduates will work, means engaging School of Child and Youth Care Career Ladder Project. School of Child and

in dialogues about designing cur- Youth Care, University of Victoria, ricula, sharing the floor in delivering Canada. Typescript.

courses, and moving over to let com- Dahlberg, C., P. Moss, &A. Pence. 1999.

munities determine the desired end Beyond quality in early childhood edu-

products of training. It means trans- cation and care: Postmodern perspec- tives. London: Falmer.

forming our training from a prepack- Green, M. 1993. The passions of pluralism:

aged didactic process to an open- Multiculturalism and the expanding

ended participatory process. As the community. Educational Researcher 22

Meadow Lake Tribal Council pro- (1): 13-18.

Jette, D.I. 1993. Meadow Lake Tribal Coun- grams and policy director, Vern cil Indian Child Care Program evalua-

Bachiu, put it: “What we are trying to tion. Meadow Lake Tribal Council,

do is turn the world upside down.” Saskatchewan, Canada. Typescript.

Through the generative curricu- Kessler, S., &B. Swadener. 1992. Introduc-

tion: Reconceptualizing curriculum. In lum model, early childhood educa- Reconceptualizing the early childhood

tion trainees can learn to engage in curriculum: Beginning the dialogue, eds.

practices that are developmentally S. Kessler &B. Swadener, xiii-xxviii. New

appropriate and in dialogues and York: Teachers College Press.

Lubeck, S. 1996. Deconstructing “child de- collaborative partnerships with veiopment knowledge” and “teacher communities to assess the appro- preparation.” Early Childhood Research

priateness of such practices for the Quarterly 11 (2): 147.

children and families served. This Riggan, R., & A. Kemble. 1994. The Co-

wichan Tribes Early Childhood Educa- approach ensures that the voices tion/Child and Youth Care Career Ladder

50

Project. Report to the Centre for Cur- riculum and Professional Development, Victoria, British Columbia.

For further reading

Bernhard, J. 1995. The changing field of child development: Cultural di- versity and the professional train- ing of early childhood educators. Canadian Journal of Education 20 (4): 415-36.

Bronfenbrenner, U. 1979. The ecology of human development: Experiments by nature and design. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Goffin, S. 1996. Child development knowledge and early childhood teacher preparation: Assessing the relationship-A special collection. Early Childhood Research Quarterly 11 (2): 117-34.

Lubeck, S. 1998. Is DAP for everyone? Childhood Education 74 (S): 229.

Lubeck. S., &J. Post. In press. Distrib- uted knowledge: Seeing differences in beliefs and practices as a re- source for professional develop- ment. In Rethinking childhood, ed. L.D. Soto. Albany: State University of New York Press.

Pence, A., & M. McCallum. 1995. De- veloping cross-cultural partner- ships: Implications for child care quality, research, and practice. In Valuing quality in early childhood services: New approaches to defining quality, eds. P. Moss & A. Pence, 108-22. New York: Teachers College Press.

Pence, A, V. Kuehne, M. Greenwood- Church, & M.R. Opekokew. 1993. Generative curriculum: A model of university and First Nations coop erative post-secondary education. International Journal of Educational Development 13 (4): 339-49.

Whyte, K. 1982. The development of curricula/programs for Indian and M&is people. Canadian Journal of Ndtive Education 9 (2): 121-29.

Copyright 0 1999 by Jessica Ball and Alan R. Pence, School of Child and Youth Care, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC, Canada V8W 2Y2. Contact the authors for photocopy or reprint permission. [Volume 54, Number 21

Young Children l March 1999