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DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGYKey controversies in Developmental:

Nature vs. Nurture: are we the result of our genes or the environment? - Critical periods and maturationContinuity vs. Stage: Do we develop gradually or in rapid bursts?Stability vs. Change: Does your personality stay the same or change with time?Areas of interest:

Cognitive growth: how do our thoughts change as we age?Physical growth: how do the physical changes we go through at different stages of life effect us psychologically?Emotional growth: what are some of the shifts in our emotions that occur as we age?Social growth: who are the different social groups that we interact with at different stages in life? How is our growth influenced by others?

Research designs

Longitudinal: follows the same group of people over many years - Snowdons Minnesota Nun Study:1986 & Alzheimers disease- Termans termites:1927 Gifted childrenCross-sectional: studies people of all different ages at one point in time - cohort effects are confounds3.Cross-sequential: both

New Born BrainBrain has fewer- dendrites + synapses

During first 3 years Brain Density increases

Stimulation causes brain growthDeprivation = lack of stimulation

Deprivation vs. EnrichmentEnrichmentComplex EnvironmentIntellectually Stimulating*Extra Enhanced Stimulation- increases brain sizeSo enriched complex, stimulating environment is good.Parents open kids to experiences- colors, music, people, things to see, taste, smell, touchDeprivationLack of stimulationIQ downEmotional ScaringPoverty can impact development-Lower IQ- Fearful, unhappyProne to hostile- aggressive behaviorKey QuestionsWhat does an Enriched Environment look like with respect to physical environment and personal interaction?Cognitive Development TheoryPiagets theory (1960s)Children actively construct knowledge as they manipulate and explore their world, & their cognitive development takes place in stages.Argued that children adapt to their surroundings.Children dont come out with blank slate, but with methods for acquiring knowledge.

Cognitive Development

Childrens thinking is concrete (less abstract)Need examples- objects to see or touch

Piaget believed learning occurs through Assimilation: Kids use existing knowledge to new situationsAccommodation:Ideas + knowledge are modified to fit new requirementsNew ideas are created to accommodate new experiences.

Chapter 11 - Developmental"To present an adequate notion of learning one must first explain how the individual manages to construct and invent, not merely how he repeats and copies."

Chapter 11 - DevelopmentalSchema: a mindset or way of thinking about something [cognitive structures]Examples: what is your schema of NCS? Canadians? A Car?Your teacher? Schemas influence how we think about the world around usMany schemas are activated and used automatically or without any conscious thought. [example: stereotypes]Schemas: ExerciseRead the following paragraphs and fill in the missing words:

The problems that confront p___ in raising ch___ from in___ to adult life are not easy to ___. Both fa___ and m___ meet with many di___ in their concern for the pro___ from the e__ stage to later life. It is important that young ch___ should have plenty of s___ and good f___ for healthy growth. B___ and g___ should not occupy the same b___ or sleep in the same r___. They are often afraid of the d____.Schema exercise: Anyone get this?The problems that confront poultrymen in raising chickens from incubation to adult life are not easy to summarize. Both farmers and merchants meet with many difficulties in their concern for promotion from the egg stage to later life. It is important that young chicks should have plenty of sunshine and good feed for healthy growth. Banties and geese should not occupy the same barnyard or sleep in the same roost. They are often afraid of the dark.PIAGET and Stage theorist: believed cognitive growth occurs in 4 distinct stages

Every stage except for the last one is an inadequate approximation of reality. Development from one stage to the next is caused by the accumulation of errors in the child's understanding of the environment this accumulation eventually causes such a degree of cognitive disequilibrium that thought structures or schemas require reorganizing or changing

Piagets Stages of Cognitive DevelopmentSensorimotor (birth to 2 yrs)- infants acquire knowledge by acting on their environment, using their senses and movements to explore the world.Preoperational (2-7 yrs)- preschool-age children acquire advanced language skills and start to think using symbols. Concrete operational (7-11 yrs)- Childrens reasoning becomes logical. They learn to logically organize concepts. They learn conservation of liquids and solids. Formal operational (11+ yrs)-Abstract thinking comes on-line, problem solving ability improves.

Piaget Stages:Age 0-2 Sensorimotor StageNon-verbal intellectLearning CoordinationUse SensesDevelop Object permanenceObjects continue to exist when out of sightAge 2-7 Pre-Operational StageBefore 6-7 children think concretelyAge 7 more logical thinkingBegin to think symbolicallyStill intuitive, beginning logicLanguage developingEgocentric= unable to see the viewpoint of others self concernedSelfishAge 7-11 Concrete Operational Stage

Age 7-11 Concrete Operational StageConcept of conservation developedIdea that objects have mass and volume constancyProportions Children begin to use time, space and numberLogical ThinkingConcrete objects Categories PrinciplesAge 11 and up Formal Operational: AbstractAbstract Principles developLess egocentricAdolescentCan consider Hypothetical PossibilitiesAdult abilitiesInductive ReasoningDeductive ReasoningFormal thinking needs and enhanced by (not just maturity)EnvironmentKnowledgeExperienceWisdomCons of Piagets theory1. Piaget underestimated the competencies of infants and preschoolers. (E.g., when young children are given tasks scaled down in difficulty, their understanding appears closer to that of older children and the adult)

2.Childrens performance on Piagetian tasks can be improved with training. Suggests there is a problem with the assumption that discovery learning rather than adult teaching is the best way to foster development.

Vygotsky and Socio-Cultural Theory of CognitionChildrens thinking develops through dialogues with expert others (more skilled)Children are guided by experts = Tutors= parents=teachersZone of Proximal (close) Development (Learning) Children can achieve more complex/higher levels with support working with expert others or skilled partnersScaffolding=Temporary Support to help kids learnMust be responsive to childrens needsMental bridgesKey Questions Which is more important:Exploration or Experts?What factors may inhibit moving from one stage to the next? How can we encourage or accelerate the transition from one stage to the next?

Eriksons Stages of Psychosocial DevelopmentApproximateageStage Description of Task

InfancyTrust vs. mistrust If needs are dependably met, infants(1st year) develop a sense of basic trust.ToddlerAutonomy vs. shame Toddlers learn to exercise will and (2nd year)and doubt do things for themselves, or they doubt their abilities.

PreschoolerInitiative vs. guilt Preschoolers learn to initiate tasks(3-5 years) and carry out plans, or they feel guilty about efforts to be independent.

ElementaryCompetence vs. Children learn the pleasure of applying(6 years-inferiority themselves to tasks, or they feel inferior.puberty) Eriksons Stages of Psychosocial DevelopmentApproximateage StageDescription of Task

Adolescence Identity vs. roleTeenagers work at refining a sense of self by(teens into confusiontesting roles and then integrating them to 20s)form a single identity, or they become confused about who they are.Young Adult Intimacy vs.Young adults struggle to form close relation- (20s to early isolation ships and to gain the capacity for intimate 40s) love, or they feel socially isolated.

Middle Adult Generativity vs. The middle-aged discover a sense of contri-(40s to 60s) stagnation buting to the world, usually through familyand work, or they may feel a lack of purpose.

Late Adult Integrity vs.When reflecting on his or her life, the older(late 60s and failure.adult may feel a sense of satisfaction or up) despair GernerativityIn Erik Eriksons Stages of Psychosocial Development, generativity is a struggle against stagnation that ascends during adulthood. Generativity in the psychosocial sense refers to the concern for establishing and guiding the next generation and is said to stem from a sense of optimism about humanity.Erikson Stages of SuccessFavorable outcomes at each stage are sometimes known as "virtues" The virtues in the order of the stages in which they may be acquired are: hope will purpose confidencefidelitylovecarewisdom

Evaluating Stages TheoryGender differences more focus on menCultural differences and historical changeFew cultural comparison studies doneInconsistent evidenceQuestions about idea of stage theoriesMid-course correction, not mid-life crisesPredicted changes do not occur at ages indicated

Kohlberg Stages of Moral Development

Level 1 - Pre-conventional moralityAuthority is outside the individual and reasoning is based on the physical consequences of actions. Stage 1. Obedience and Punishment Orientation. The child/individual is good in order to avoid being punished. If a person is punished they must have done wrong. Stage 2. Individualism and Exchange. At this stage children recognize that there is not just one right view that is handed down by the authorities. Different individuals have different viewpoints.

Level 2 - Conventional morality

Authority is internalized but not questioned and reasoning is based on the norms of the group to which the person belongs. Stage 3. Good Interpersonal Relationships. The child/individual is good in order to be seen as being a good person by others. Therefore, answers are related to the approval of others.

Stage 4. Maintaining the Social Order. The child/individual becomes aware of the wider rules of society so judgments concern obeying rules in order to uphold the law and to avoid guilt.

Level 3 - Post-conventional morality

Individual judgment is based on self-chosen principles, and moral reasoning is based on individual rights and justice. Stage 5. Social Contract and Individual Rights. The child/individual becomes aware that while rules/laws might exist for the good of the greatest number, there are times when they will work against the interest of particular individuals. The issues are not always clear cut. For example, in Heinzs dilemma the protection of life is more important than breaking the law against stealing.

Stage 6: Universal Principles. People at this stage have developed their own set of moral guidelines which may or may not fit the law. The principles apply to everyone. E.g. human rights, justice and equality. The person will be prepared to act to defend these principles even if it means going against the rest of society in the process and having to pay the consequences of disapproval and or imprisonment. Kohlberg doubted few people reached this stage.

Critical Evaluation

Criticism of Kohlbergs theory comes from Gilligan, who argues that the theory is androcentric (male bias) after Kohlberg reporting that most men were at stage 4 while most women were at stage 3. Gilligan (1982) claims that the female participants of Kohlbergs study were being judged using a male standard due to the gender bias of Kohlbergs original research, which was based solely on studying men. Gilligan reached the conclusion that Kohlbergs theory did not account for the fact that women approach moral problems from an ethics of care, rather than an ethics of justice perspective, which challenges some of the fundamental assumptions of Kohlbergs theory.

The fact that Kohlbergs theory is heavily dependent on an individuals response to an artificial dilemma brings question to the validity of the results obtained through this research. People may respond very differently to real life situations that they find themselves in than they do to an artificial dilemma presented to them in the comfort of a research environment. Further, the gender bias issue raised by Gilligan is a reminded of the significant gender debate still present in psychology, which when ignored, can have a large impact on results obtained through psychological research.The way in which Kohlberg carried out his research when constructing this theory may not have been the best way to test whether all children follow the same sequence of stage progression. His research was cross-sectional, meaning that he interviewed children of different ages to see what level of moral development they were at.A better way to see if all children follow the same order through the stages would have been to carry out longitudinal research on the same children. However, longitudinal research on Kohlbergs theory has since been carried out by Colby et al. (1983) who tested 58 male participants of Kohlbergs original study. She tested them 6 times in the span of 27 years and found support for Kohlbergs original conclusion, that we all pass through the stages of moral development in the same order.

Parenting Styles?How were you raised?If you had to describe your parents parenting style what would it be?Give 5 adjectives that describe it.What would you have changed?How do you hope to raise your children?Overly Permissive:

Little guidanceToo much freedomLow accountabilityRights but few responsibilitiesRules not enforcedSpoiled kids = poorly behaved child

Authoritarian:

Expectation to stay out of troubleRigid rules Strict obediencePut responsibilities on kidsKids have few rightsChildren- usually obedient, self controlledMust accept parent view of right and wrongEmotionally stiffWithdrawnHigher rates of drug abuse

AuthoritativeFirm consistent guidanceWith love & affectionNot harshNot rigidEncourage child:To act responsibilityTo thinkTo make good decisions

Children are competentIndependentSelf controlledAssertiveSummary

DevelopmentalChild Qualities & Parenting StylesAuthoritative Parentinglively and happy disposition self-confident about ability to master tasks. well developed emotion regulation developed social skills less rigid about gender-typed traits

DevelopmentalChild Qualities & Parenting StylesPermissive Parentingpoor emotion regulation (under regulated) rebellious and defiant when desires are challenged. low persistence to challenging tasks antisocial behaviorsDevelopmentalChild Qualities & Parenting StylesAuthoritarian Parentinganxious, withdrawn, and unhappy disposition Low self-esteem and prone to depressionpoor reactions to frustration (girls likely to give up and boys become hostile) do well in school (studies may show authoritative parenting is comparable) not likely to engage in antisocial activities (exp: drug and alcohol abuse, vandalism, gangs)

Kbler-Ross five stages

DenialAngerBargainingDepressionAcceptance

Pre-operational stage. [2-7 yrs. old]

Animistic thinking: inanimate object are alive. Disneys: Toy Story & CarsImagination and imaginary play explode. Some children have imaginary friends. Today, imaginary friends are seen as a sign of psychological health.Egocentric thought: self-focused. Lacking in perspective taking. Difficulty seeing the world through anothers eyes. Turn-taking and sharing are problematic during this age due to egocentric thinking

Pre-operational stage 2-7yrs. Intuitive thinkers: do not think things through logically. Children during this stage are lacking in conservation: a landmark skill in which a child is able to understand that mass is a constantSymbolic thought: children learn that letters, words, and pictures are symbols for actual objects in the real worldCentration: can only focus on one attribute of an object at a time [typically, the most prominent feature]

http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-9014865592046332725&q=Piaget&hl=en [Piaget video]

Developmental

DevelopmentalObject permanence is achieved during the pre-operational stageConservation is lacking or not present during the pre-operational stageDevelopmentalConcrete operational stage. Ages 7-11yrs.- logical thinking- conservation is present- lacking abstract thought everything is taken quite literally. Example: When Mom says to her 7 yr old son Give your sister a lick because he is eating an ice cream cone, what does he do? - lacking hypothetical or what if thinking

Developmental4. Formal operational stage. Ages 11+Abstract thinking is present: child is able to understand difficult abstract concepts such as love and prejudiceHypothetical or what if thinking is present for the first time. Children can think strategically- [planning ahead].Games to play?? Chess is great for developing this skill.

DevelopmentalFormal operational stage- imaginary audience and the spotlight effect- unrealistic optimism and the personal fable