developmental history of christian worship 1
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Readings• Wainwright & Tucker (2006). The Oxford History of Christian Worship. Chapters 2–6 (pp. 32–253) • Webber (1994). Worship: Old and New. Chapters 9–10 (pp. 93–120) • White (1993). A Brief History of Christian Worship. Chapters 2–4 (pp. 40–141)Developmental History of Christian Worship: Early Church to Reformation Objectives: 1. Sketch a historical timeline from the early church to the Reformation 2. Identify key historical occurrences and figures 3. Briefly discuss significantTRANSCRIPT
Page 1 Developmental History of Christian Worship: Early Church to Reformation
© 2012 Dr Daniel K. Robinson
Developmental History of Christian
Worship: Early Church to Reformation Objectives:
1. Sketch a historical timeline from the early church to the Reformation
2. Identify key historical occurrences and figures
3. Briefly discuss significant theological developments
Outcomes:
At the end of the session the student will be expected to know some1 of the key historical occurrences
and the people who helped to shape them. Broadly, the student should understand the manner in
which this period of developmental history has influenced today’s Christian worship.
1. TheEarlyChurch:–AD500
The birth of the Christian church and the manner in which it developed over the first five centuries still
receives considerable debate from biblical scholars and historians. Specifically, discussions around what
caused the followers of ‘the Way’ (Acts 9:1‐2) to separate from the practice of attending the synagogue
has received a great deal of attention. Regardless of the reasons, synagogue worship had a distinct
influence on Christian worship; perhaps for the first four centuries after Christ.
1 The scope of this historical overview is limited by the sheer expanse of history being covered against the allotted time for the lecture (1½hrs). Accordingly, for the most part this review will be confined to the Western Church’s historical trajectory. This intentional design, which does not follow the Eastern Church’s history, acknowledges the overarching aims of the unit which seeks to empower the student with understandings for today’s Australian context; through reflection upon the historical background and theological assumptions.
Readings
•Wainwright & Tucker (2006). The Oxford History of Christian Worship. Chapters 2–6 (pp. 32–253)
•Webber (1994). Worship: Old and New. Chapters 9–10 (pp. 93–120)
•White (1993). A Brief History of Christian Worship. Chapters 2–4 (pp. 40–141)
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“If we understand the experiences of the church’s first four centuries, we have gained the heart of
the matter” (White, 2000, p. 67).
The First Century Religious Environment
Larry Hurtado (1999) details a number of important points to consider when surveying the first century
of the early church; recognising that “early Christian worship did not take place in a religious vacuum”
(p. 7):
1. Ubiquity: The integration of religion with every aspect of life was almost universal for people in the
Roman world; both pagan and Judaism.
2. Salience: Religion in the Roman period was highly visible, with great attention given to temples and other
religious buildings. Religious ceremonies (during the Roman era) were a largely ceremonious activity
which engaged the entire community.
3. Diversity: Roman paganism worshipped many gods. This was a
key difference separating both Jews and Christians who only
worshipped one deity. It has been argued that it was the very
allowance of diversity that permitted the establishment of the
Jewish synagogue and the emergence of the Christian church.
Official Roman imperial policy was to recognise and even to
support the traditional religious devotion of all subject
peoples…This Roman policy even extended to Jewish
religion, with its refusal to reverence other gods and its
polemic against other religious traditions as idolatry. (p. 13)
4. Sacred Places: The temples and religious buildings were central to Roman community life; not only as
places of worship but also as gathering spaces for social activities.
5. Images: The use of cult images depicting gods was used widely in Roman pagan temples. While the Jewish
and Christian prohibition against cult images distinguished the two faiths from the surrounding culture
they were not completely void of visual representations. Indeed the religious climate might help us to
better understand and “appreciate the significance of the honorific references to Christ as the image
(eikon) of God (e.g., 2 Cor. 4:4; Col. 1:15)” (p. 23).
6. Rituals: Cultic practices such as initiation rituals and animal sacrifices where common activities for the
pagan religions. The events where often elaborate and accompanied by festive celebrations. The
‘unadorned’ worship of Christians, whether it be the simple water baptism (initiation) or the house‐
worship sessions, posed as an obvious and apparently unique expression comparative to that of the first
century religious environment.
The Pantheon in Rome, built in the first century A.D., was the first large dome ever built.
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The influence of the Synagogue on
Christian Worship
It is important to not assume a singularity of
worship when reviewing the influence of the
synagogue on the early development of Christian
worship. Grant Sperry‐White (1994) writes, “Even
after the separation of the Christian movement
from Judaism, the relationship between Christian
communities and their Jewish neighbours was
complex and varied greatly according to
geographical locale” (p. 11). Key influences include:
1. The New Testament Period: We know that Jesus frequented the synagogue and the disciples
continued to attend synagogue worship after Jesus resurrection and ascension (Matt. 9:35; Lk. 10:13–27;
Acts 2:42, 46–47). We know little of the content of these Jewish services, but what is clear is that there
was readings (taken from the Torah, the prophets and the Shēma) and prayer.
2. The Passover and the Eucharist: We cannot ascertain to what extent the
Passover influenced the development of the Eucharist (aside from Jesus
conducting the Lord’s Supper on the night of the Passover feast). This being
said, there is considerable evidence to show that first century Christians
gathered for the agape meal (1 Cor. 11:33–34) which was then followed by
the Eucharist. It is also important to note that most homes at this time
could only seat 8‐10 guests for a meal.
3. The Didachē: The Didachē, also known as the Teaching of the Twelve
Apostles, stood as a complete set by the end of the first century, though
some portions may have been written as early as the 50s and 60s.
Chapters 9 and 10 [of the Didachē] describe a ritual meal that consists
of: (a) a prayer over cup and bread (chapter 9); (b) a meal; and (c) a
thanksgiving after the meal (chapter 10). The thanksgiving after the
meal of Didachē 10 is very similar in content and structure to the
Jewish blessing after the meal, or Birkat hammazon, and appears to be
a Christian version of that prayer, a form of which appears as early as
Jubilees 22 (second century b.c.e.). (p. 12)
4. The Christian Calendar: Early documents attest to the debate surrounding the timing of Easter and its
direct connection to the Jewish Passover. “Some have also suggested that the Christian appropriation of
Wednesday and Friday as special liturgical days (cf. Didachē 8) may be related to an Essene solar calendar
that highlighted those particular days of the week” (p. 13).
5. Borrowing of Jewish Prayers: There are a number of Jewish prayers in the Apostolic Constitutions; a
document compiled around AD 380.
Interesting Fact: First century Pagans
believed that Christians were guilty
of flagitia (e.g. cannibalism) due in part to their religious
practice of the Eucharist.
First Century Synagogue (Smith et al., 1993, p. 150)
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In his review of Jewish influences (and that of the synagogue) on the early developments of Christian
worship Sperry‐White concludes:
We should not expect direct verbal or structural parallels between first‐century Jewish and Christian
worship. In the first century, both liturgical traditions were diverse, not yet committed to writing, and in
flux. To be sure, first‐century Christians and Jews drew from a fund of liturgical structures, terminology,
and imagery that each group used in increasingly divergent ways in subsequent centuries. Therefore, the
Christian and Jewish liturgical traditions that emerged after the first century were more nearly cousins
than siblings, descendants of liturgical ancestors that in the first century may have been closer relatives
(p. 14).
Key Historical Events (AD 200–500)
There are many significant developments that happened during the historical period spanning the first
to fifth centuries; typically known as the era of the Ancient Church or The Age of Catholic Christianity.
The first century church commences as a ‘home church’ movement and arrives at the doorstep of the
Middle Ages completely separated from their Jewish connections; and with a defined theology.
The following list highlights some of the key historical events and their influences on Christianity during
this time:
Justin’s Apologies (ca. AD 100–165): Among a number of early apologists (including Irenaeus and
Origen), Justin Martyr’s writings have given us some insight into Christian worship alongside his defence
of the Old and New Testaments authority. Written circa. AD 140, Justin’s Apology references the reading
of scripture, public address, prayer, celebration of the Eucharist and tithing. Justin earned the name
‘Justin Martyr’ because of his refusal to recant the Christian faith resulting in his beheading (along with six
other Christians).
“Caesar is Lord!” (AD 249–251): Attesting to political alliance, Roman citizens where required to attend
the Temple of Caesar’s once a year, burn a pinch of incense and proclaim Caesar as Lord. As Bruce Shelley
(2008) notes, “The one thing that no Christian would ever say was: ‘Caesar is Lord’. For the Christian,
Jesus Christ and he alone was Lord” (p. 44). Thus began a conflict of persecution by Emperor Decius which
is estimated to have claimed 3000 Christian martyrs.
Conversion of Constantine (AD 313): With the conversion of the Roman Emperor, Constantine the
Great (306–337 AD), Christianity was afforded freedoms never before experienced. John Sweetman
(2012) writes:
Christianity became a legal religion. This removed penalties for confessing Christianity and
returned confiscated church property. Constantine supported the church financially, built
churches, granted privileges to clergy and promoted Christians to important offices….[In AD 380]
Christianity became the official religion of the Empire as its amazing growth was recognised by
the State. Pagan practices were punished severely by the Emperor…There were huge changes
including the tendency to move from freedom to formula in worship. (p. 2)
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Key Developments in Worship (AD 200–500)
We have limited remaining sources which outline worship during this period. Two of the most important
documents, The Apostolic Tradition (ca. 220) and the Didascalia (ca. 240), provide us with an insight into
the design of liturgies during this time. Webber (1994, pp. 96–98) outlines two liturgies from this era:
Liturgy of the Word
Lections: Scripture readings and Letters from Bishops
Psalms sung by cantors
Alleluias
Sermon
Deacon’s litany for catechumens (preparing for baptism) and penitents (those confessing sin)
Dismissal of all but the faithful (or baptised)
Liturgy of the Upper Room
Deacon’s litany for the faithful
Kiss of Peace
Offering
Presentation of Elements: Communion
Preparation of Elements
Presentation of Elements and participation in communion
Psalms 43 and 34 sung by cantor
Thanksgiving
Prayer
Reservation of bread for sick and absent
Dismissal
These two liturgies reveal the central focus of both Word and Table. Whilst the informality of the first
century Christian worship has all but ceased Webber highlights that “the prayers were not fixed and the
liturgy was not so completely structured that free worship could not be contained within the generally
accepted order” (p. 98).
The two rites instituted by Jesus, Baptism and the Lord’s Supper, both
undergo significant development during the second to fifth centuries. John
D. Hannah (2001) presents the development of these sacraments in the
following way:
Baptism in the Early Church (p. 39)
o Second Century
110: Barnabas – “Those who place their hope in the
cross” (Epistle of Barnabas 11.8)
160: Justin Martyr – “Those who are persuaded and
believe” (First Apology, Ch. 61)
o Third Century
220: Tertullian – opposed infant baptism (On Baptism 18) An early church baptism
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220: Hippolytus – only believers (The Apostolic Tradition v. 13)
220: Irenaeus – earliest reference to infant baptism (Against All Heresies II 22.4)
230: Origen – earliest to claim apostolic custom (Homily on Luke 14.5)
250: Cyprian – earliest explicit defence for newborn babes (Epistle 58)
o Fourth Century
350: Apostolic Constitutions – the first explicit command (VI. 15)
o Fifth Century
430: Augustine – used as an argument for original sin against Pelagius
By the end of the 5th century infant baptism is general practice.
The Lord’s Supper in the Early Church (p. 41)
o Second Century
100: Clement of Rome – “sacrifice of praise” (The first Epistle of Clement to the
Corinthians 35.12)
120: Didachē
o Third Century
220: Irenaeus – “new oblation” (Against All Heresies IV 7.5)
250: Cyprian – uses the term ‘priest’ for bishop, ‘altar’ for the place of celebration, and
‘sacrifice’ for the observance.
o Fourth Century
340: Cyril of Jerusalem – “we offer up the Christ who was sacrificed for our sins.”
340: Apostolic Constitutions (VIII. 2:12) – “we offer to you…the bread and cup.”
A final observation can be made of worship’s development during this early period of Christianity: the
difference between the East and the West. Driven by the division of the Roman Empire, Christian
worship developed geographical nuances. Webber (1994) explains:
The Eastern worldview was informed by the
Hellenistic love for aesthetic. The great
contributions of this culture were poetry,
literature, art, and philosophy. All of these
interests aided the development of a poetic
mind and a sense of imagery and artistic
expression…Byzantine worship was highly
ceremonial, gloriously beautiful, and deeply
mystical. (p. 99)
By contrast Western worship had a tendency
towards simplicity in both its order and its
use of symbols. “There was great beauty, a
sense of God’s presence, and a feeling of
awe and reverence provoked by the simple
majesty of the Roman rite” (p. 101).
While we commonly speak of the church in the East and the West because of a later schism, there was only one church until the eleventh century. Although there were differences between the East and the West, such as language and philosophical orientation, there was one Catholic Church without a singular earthly head. (Hannah, 2001, p. 54)
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Before continuing take a moment to contemplate what might have happened if
Christianity had not been registered as the state religion of Rome in AD 380.
Hypothetically, how do you think this would have affected the development and spread
of Christianity and its worship?
2. TheMiddleAges:AD500–1500
The Middle Ages, by all accounts, is a vast stretch of time covering some 1000 years. James White (1993)
quotes Hobbes’ famous description of this period when we describes medieval life as “nasty, and
brutish, and short” (p. 76). Life during this time was nasty because of poor nutrition and considerably
low living standards; which in turn led to the short life span of many (approx. 35yrs). The infamous
brutality of the era also led to lives being cut short; due in part to the “invasion of Norsemen or warring
neighbours” (p. 77), imperial and national wars (e.g. the crusades), and massive plagues (e.g. the black
death of AD 1353).
For the vast majority, life was spent in small village communities. Each local region centred around their
parish church “served by a priest or two and several men in minor orders” (p. 77).
The Middle Ages can be divided into three periods (Schaff & Schaff, 1910; Sweetman, 2012):
PERIOD I: The missionary period from Gregory I. to Hildebrand or Gregory VII. (AD 590–1073)
o The conversion of the northern barbarians
o The origin and progress of Islam
AD 570–631: The lifetime of Mohammed who recorded his revelations from God in the Koran.
By the end of his life all Arabia was Muslim.
AD 732: The Muslim advance was stopped after invading Spain. From 638 Muslims had taken
Jerusalem, Persia, Alexandria, Carthage, and besieged Constantinople.
o Some subdivide this period by Charlemagne (AD 800), the founder of the German‐Roman Empire
o The separation of the West from the East
AD 1054: After much infighting on issues like what bread
should be used in the Eucharist and the Pope’s claim to
universal jurisdiction, the Great Schism permanently divided
the churches of East and West into Eastern Orthodoxy and
Western Catholicism.
PERIOD II: The palmy period of the papal theocracy from Gregory
VII. to Boniface VIII., (AD 1073–1294)
o The conflict between the Pope and the Emperor
AD 1077: The Holy Roman Emperor stood barefoot in the
snow to beg forgiveness of the Pope. This marked the
establishment of the Pope’s power over European heads of
state for 450 years.
Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV, along with his wife and young son, spent three days barefoot in the
snow at Canossa
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o The height of the papacy, monasticism and scholasticism.
o The Crusades
AD 1095–1289: Beginning in 1095, some Christian Europeans heeded the call of the
papacy to launch a series of “holy wars” aimed at gaining control of Jerusalem from the
Muslim Arabs and Seljuk Turks. In all, eight crusades were carried out.
PERIOD III: The decline of medieval Catholicism and preparation for modern Christianity, from
Boniface VIII. to the Reformation (AD 1294–1517)
o Scholasticism
AD 1100–1300: Focused on theology with all truth attached to the church.
o The Renaissance (Humanism)
AD 1300–1500: A cultural movement, the Renaissance saw a flowering of literature,
science, art, religion and politics; accompanied by a resurgence in learning. The
Renaissance humanists did not reject Christianity, but they valued human pursuits as
well. Many ancient works were rescued from the crumbling Byzantine Empire and taken
to the West for scholars to study. This led to more sophisticated theological definitions.
o The papal exile and schism
AD 1378: Three claimant Popes were elected simultaneously. It was not sorted out until
AD 1417. This exposed the corruption and power‐plays at the centre of medieval
Catholicism with money playing a key role in the corrosion of spiritual leadership for the
church.
o Forerunners of Protestantism & the dawn of the Reformation
John Wycliffe (AD 1329‐1384): Denied transubstantiation
John Huss (AD 1373‐1415): Defined church by Christ‐like living rather than by sacraments
Desiderius Erasmus (AD 1466‐1536): Attacked inconsistency and hypocrisy in the church
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Medieval Worship: Mystery and Devotion
The expression of Christian worship during the medieval period orientated
around two major strands: mystery (led by priests) and devotion (led by
monks). Both of these strands had a significant impact on the
development of the church and its worship. Webber (1994) reiterates:
We can trace the beginning of this change from the fourth and fifth
centuries to the early medieval period, the time when two distinct lines of
development become discernible. The established church increasingly
emphasised worship as a mystery, while the monastic movement stressed
the devotional character of worship. (p. 102)
Sweetman (2012) identifies a number of important factors that led to the
development of (and differentiated) both strands:
Worship as Mystery (pp. 6–7)
o The Hardship of Life: This was a time when life was primitive and hard. At a time when people felt
disconnected from God a weekly cleansing through the worship service became very attractive. The
spiritual people (the priests) could do something with God that would avert God’s anger and make
things right. This was later supplemented by the buying of indulgences and possession of relics that
could mysteriously similarly offer forgiveness and salvation.
o State Religion: Because the Roman Empire was Christian (by decree) many compromises were
made in order to accommodate pagan ‘mystery’ religions; including the retaining of pagan festivals
under a Christian mantle. As a result, many practices of the mystery cults (including sympathetic
magic) where not completely abandoned. This in turn led to many Christians believing in a
syncretistic combination of Christianity and mystery religion.
o Low Levels of Education: The people (and sometimes the priests) were poorly educated. The service
was in Latin; so many worshippers did not understand what was happening. All they saw and
understood were the actions of the priests. Consequently theology was rarely subjected to
constructive reflection.
o Separation of Clergy and Laity: The priests
became more separated from the laity and
from the worship service. Eventually the clergy
(priests) took over the whole; i.e. the priests
were the singers, the readers, the congregation
and the celebrant. Specifically, they believed
that the service was a holy act and could not
afford to be spoiled by ‘unholy’ people. The
congregation became observers and screens
were erected to separate the clergy from the
laity in order to ‘quarantine’ the holy act.
Medieval Priest
The people were restricted to the nave (area shown as red)
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o The Eucharist: The separation and resulting mystery finally led to the adoption of the doctrine of
transubstantiation (the belief that the bread and wine actually turn into Christ’s body and blood
during the service).
o Reduction of the Word: The significance of the service centred on the sacrifice of Christ and
preaching was not integral to this. The decline of preaching suited many of the clergy who
themselves were poorly educated.
o Ungodly Lives: Because the priest’s job was performing the right actions and saying the right words
the character of the players became irrelevant; and the higher echelons of priestly power became
known for their corruption. Similarly, the people’s part in the pageantry was to get the right words
and actions done for them so that they could be right with God; character was a lesser issue.
Of course these comments are generalized observations with many godly clergy and laity engaging
in a number of reform movements, but overall the church deteriorated in its spiritual influence and
encouraged the superstition of Christians.
Worship as Devotion (p. 8)
o Protest Movement: Originally a protest movement against the growing worldliness of the church,
groups started to separate themselves (from community and religious life) to focus on obeying and
serving God. “Anthony, whom many regard as the first monk, was born about 250 in the village of
Koma” (Shelley, 2008, p. 118) but it was not until the fourth and fifth centuries that the monastic
way of life started to influence every level of the Christian population.
o Prayer as Central: The monastic life revolved around prayer. Webber
(1994) writes, “prayer had always been important in the Christian
tradition, but the new attitude saw prayer as the sole content of
life…everything in life became subordinated to prayer” (p. 105).
o Piety: The monastic movement sought a depth of relationship with
God which was not apparent in the church. However the rigid
emphasis on the discipline of prayer easily turned into excessive piety
at best and legalism at worst. The devotional life of the monastery
became the standard of true spirituality that lay people could not
hope to emulate. Shelley (2008) cites Williston Walker when he writes
’To enter a monastery was to separate from the world, to
abandon the ordinary relationships of social life,’ to shun
marriage and all that the Christian home signifies. And
supporting the whole endeavour was an erroneous view of
man. The soul, said the monk, is chained to the flesh as a
prisoner to a corpse. That is not the biblical view of human life,
and it created a fundamental flaw in monasticism. (p. 123)
o An alternative Path: Monasteries offered an alternative path to
eternal life. People could get to heaven by participating in the mass
(priestly way) and progressing through purgatory, or by the better
way of living a life of devotion (way of the monk).
Interesting Fact:
The organ appeared in the 500s and although initially rejected as
pagan, by the 700s and 800s had emerged in the church, and by the 900s
in the Benedictine monasteries. Initially, the organ was used to sound out the note to start off the chant, but eventually it came to accompany the singing and increase its complexity. By 1300, every significant church possessed an organ and polyphonic music (many sounds) had become
popular.
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What are the main aspects of worship that ‘stick out’ to you from the first 1500
years of development? Highlight three major points and comment on their
difference/similarity to 21st century worship.
3. TheReformation:AD1500–1750
Renowned as the birth of Protestant Christianity, the “Reformation delivered essential spiritual and
theological benefits, of course, in the recovery of the biblical gospel of justification by faith through faith
in Christ alone, the translation of the Scriptures into the vernacular, administration of the Eucharist in
both kinds, congregational singing and so forth” (Davis, 2010, p. 79).
As with the previous two periods (the Early Church era and the Middle Ages) the Reformation does not
take place in a historical vacuum. In his book, Exploring Church History, Eckman (2002) writes,
The sixteenth‐century world was one of astounding change. Medieval civilization dominated by
institutionalized Catholicism was disappearing. Modern nation‐states challenged the church for
supremacy, and the voyages of discovery made the world appear smaller. In addition, the Renaissance of
northern Italy had caused many to turn from Catholicism toward the glories of ancient Greece and Rome.
(p. 46)
Within the context of this study, the following historical events are worthy of note:
Printing Press (AD 1440): Invented by Johannes Gutenberg, the printing press facilitated the wide
distribution for information and thought. This in turn challenged the power of political and religious
authorities. By AD 1500 printing presses had already produced an estimated 20 million volumes.
Luther’s 95 Theses (AD 1517): Nailed to the church door at
Wittenberg, Martin Luther’s document of challenge was not
seeking a reformation per se. Moreover Luther was intent on
bringing about renewal from within the established Roman
Catholic Church.
Sola Fide, Sola Scriptura (AD 1520): Ulrich Zwingli adopts
Luther’s doctrines of Sola Fide (by faith alone), Sola Scriptura
(by Scripture alone) to be the heart of his theology.
Diet of Worms (AD 1521): Luther, having burned the papal
bull (issued in response to Luther’s Theses) outside the walls
of Wittenberg, is called before the Diet of Worms but refuses
to recant and is consequently excommunicated by the pope
who declared him a heretic.
Luther's 95 propositions (theses) were motivated by the preaching of John Tetzel
who taught in favour of indulgences.
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Vernacular of the People (AD 1522): After hiding at Wartburg castle following his ban from the
empire, Luther returns to Wittenberg and publishes a German translation of the New Testament.
With the aid of the printing press, Luther’s bible translation became a prized book in the homes of
most protestant Christians.
Act of Supremacy (AD 1534): King Henry VIII, having been excommunicated from the Roman Catholic
Church a year earlier, is granted the title “the Only Supreme Head in Earth of the Church of England,
Called Anglicana Ecclesia.” Consequently, the Church of England separates from Rome.
Institutes of the Christian Religion (AD 1536): John Calvin writes one of the most influential books of
the Reformation, Institutes of the Christian Religion. A systematic theology (from the Protestant
perspective), its two main sources of authority are the Bible and (a distant second, but far ahead of
any other source) Augustine. The volume is published when Calvin is 26 years old.
Congregation of the Inquisition (AD 1542): Largely in response to the Protestant threat, Pope Paul III
establishes the Roman Inquisition (Congregation of the Inquisition); also known as the Holy Office.
Empowered to discover, try, and judge heretics, the Holy Office was the final court of appeal in cases
of heresy.
Council of Trent (AD 1545–1563): The Council of Trent (Roman Catholic) declares the Old Testament,
New Testament, Apocrypha, and unwritten traditions passed through those in line of the apostles to
be authoritative. In so doing it launches what is known as the Counter‐Reformation.
The Peace of Augsburg (AD 1555): Recognizing both Lutheranism and Catholicism in the German
Empire, The Peace of Augsburg, states that Cuius region, eius religio: the doctrinal preferences of the
sovereign dictates that of the region.
In the sixth century, the debate concerning the relationship of the divine and human capacities in Christ divided Christendom. The Chalcedonian Churches experienced schisms in the eleventh century. The Western Church in turn was rent in the sixteenth century over questions concerning salvation, although the roots of the schism go back to the thirteenth century. The Protestant movement very soon gave birth to a number
of Protestant groups divided over doctrine and church government. (Hannah, 2004, p. 1)
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The Fourth Reformer (AD 1559): Due to a disagreement with the Lutherans over sacraments and
church government, John Knox (often referred to as the ‘Fourth Reformer’) returned to homeland to
lead the Scottish reformation. Among
his notable works are The Book of
Discipline (AD 1560) and Book of
Common Order (AD 1562).
Birth of the Baptists (AD 1609):
Founded by John Smyth (an ex‐
Anglican Priest), the hallmarks of these
churches are believers’ baptism by
immersion and local government. Early
Baptists are influenced by Mennonites
and Anabaptists. Baptists distinguish
them as being separate from both
Catholics and Protestants.
The Great Migration (AD 1629–1642): The persecution of Puritans in England led to The Great
Migration of immigrants from Europe to America. Religious immigrants (including Puritans, Quakers,
Baptists; as well as German and Swiss Protestants) flocked to Pennsylvania which practiced freedom
of religion. Before it is over, more
than 65 million Europeans will
have moved to North or South
America.
Pietism (AD 1675–): Emphasizing
conversion, individual spiritual
responsibility, practical holiness,
and a relationship with God that
entails emotional involvement, the
Pietistic movement started among
Lutherans but had a great
influence on Protestantism
spawning both the Methodist and
Brethren movements. The focus on the spiritual life of Christians arose as a response to the
increasing worldliness of organized religion, both Catholic and established Protestant.
“What is Protestantism? The best description is still that of Ernst Troeltsch, who early in the
twentieth century called Protestantism a ‘modification of Catholicism’ in which Catholic
problems remain, but different solutions are given” (Shelley, 2008, p. 238).
(Galli & Olsen, 2000, p. 169)
The Great Migration
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Key Developments in Worship (AD 1500–1750)
While Luther has been identified and recognised as the instigator and initial catalyst of the reformation,
he was reluctant to direct liturgical change. “In the midst of growing enthusiasm for reformation, he was
afraid that any liturgical dictum from his hand would be quickly snatched up, widely printed, and applied
as a new law. He did not want anyone saying, ‘This proposal Luther writes is the only true way to do
Christian worship’” (Lathrop, 1994, p. 188). In fact, six Protestant traditions contributed to the reform of
liturgy during this era (Sweetman, 2012, p. 11):
i. Lutheran (most conservative)
ii. Reformed (cerebral and didactic)
iii. Anabaptist (anti‐clerical, emphasised freedom)
iv. Anglican (reinterpretation of Roman Catholic rites)
v. Puritan (scripture based, strong on preaching)
vi. Quaker (removal of liturgies, sermons, music, clergy and sacraments)
A Family Tree of Protestant Denominational Groups (Walton, 2005, p. 73)
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Considering your current denominational affiliation, what is your liturgical genealogy?
Are you surprised by your religious heritage? If so, what aspects of your reformational
forefather’s worship (liturgy) do you most resonant with? Furthermore, what areas of
your current church’s worship would you reform?
The following quote from Segler and Bradley (2006) distills the differences further between each of the
reformation groups:
During the Reformation, worship took three main forms. The most conservative reform efforts were the
Lutheran and Anglican. The second was more moderate and produced the Presbyterian or Reformed
patterns. The third and most radical form came in the independent churches of Puritan traditions, such as
the Anabaptists and Quakers. These are the forbearers of the patterns of worship among Baptists,
Congregationalists, and other Free Church groups. (p. 32)
Despite the significant differences between the groups there were a range of theological and practical
matters that Protestants collectively agreed upon. Sweetman (2012, p. 11) notes that with the focus on
the rejection of Roman Catholic Church excesses, the protestant reformers held similar views regarding
worship:
They did not hold to the re‐sacrifice of Christ in the Mass. Luther argued that Mass should be for
the thanksgiving not for propitiating God. They agreed that the idea of a priest saying a Mass to
set people free from sin was a direct contradiction of the gospel of grace.
They rejected the doctrine of transubstantiation. They did not hold to the bread and wine
actually turning into the body and blood of Christ.
They believed that the Word was an essential component of the worship service and should not
be subsumed in the Table. They emphasized the need for Scripture and preaching as essential
aspects of worship.
The reformers held that worship should be relevant and accessible to
the worshippers. It should be conducted in the language of the people
and should be simple enough for the worshippers to understand and
participate fully in the service.
Significantly, the major structural change of the liturgy was its focus: moving
from Table (Eucharist) to Word (preaching). We are now starting to realize a
balance is required. In his book, Christ‐centered Worship, Bryan Chapell (2009)
writes “Just as preaching represents the gospel in word, and as the sacraments
represent the gospel in symbol, so also the liturgy represents the gospel in
structure” (pp. 118–119).
Word and Table
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References
Chapell, B. (2009). Christ‐centered worship: Letting the gospel shape our practice. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker
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