development 1: cognitive development josée l. jarry, ph.d., c.psych. introduction to psychology...
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Development 1: Cognitive Development
Josée L. Jarry, Ph.D., C.Psych.
Introduction to Psychology
Department of Psychology
University of Toronto
July 7, 2003
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Developmental Psychology
• The study of changes that occur in people's abilities and disposition as they grow older
• Most studies of development focus on changes that occur in infancy and childhood
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Universal Constructivism
• Jean Piaget (1896-1980)– the pioneer in early research in
developmental psychology– Piaget built his theory from the
observation of his own children's successes and failures in exploring the physical world
– primary method was to ask children to solve specific problems and to question them about the reasons for the solutions they offered
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Children as Scientists– Mental development derives from the
child's own actions on the environment– At first, infants react towards events in
the environment only through automatic, wired in reflexes
– Later, they gradually gain voluntary control of their actions as they develop internal, mental representations of the kind of actions they can perform on particular categories of objects
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Schemes
• Mental blueprints for a class of actions that can be performed upon entities in the environment
• The earliest schemes are closely tied to specific objects and are called forth only by the objects’ immediate presence
• As children grow older, new, more sophisticated and abstract schemes develop
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Assimilation & Accommodation
• Assimilation– the process by which new experiences
are incorporated into existing schemes
• Accommodation– the process by which existing schemes
expand or change to accommodate new objects or events
• Infants are most fascinated by experiences that require moderate accommodation
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Sensorimotor Stage
• 0 to 24 months– sensorimotor schemes provide a
foundation for acting on objects that are present only
– thoughts and overt physical actions are one and the same
– an important task of this stage is to develop classes of schemes specific for different categories of objects
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Object Permanence
• The principle that objects continue to exist even when out of view
• The understanding of the physical properties of objects
• Achieving object permanence is the major task of the sensory motor stage
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Simple Hiding Problem
• 0-5 months– an attractive toy is shown to the baby
and then is placed under a napkin as the baby watches
– children typically follow the toy with their eyes as it disappears under the napkin
– but no active search
• Mastered between 6 and 9 months
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Changed Hiding Place• 8-12 months
– the toy is first placed under napkin A for a series of trials and the baby retrieves it each time
– then the toy is a hidden under napkin B, next to the first, in plain view of the child
– despite having watched the object disappear under the new napkin, the baby reaches under the original napkin
• Mastered between 10 and 12 months
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Invisible Displacement• 12-18 months
– the infants watches as the researcher's hand closes around the toy, hiding it from view
– the researcher's closed hand then moves under a napkin and deposits the toy
– when the hand is brought back into view, the infant looks in and under the hand, but not under the napkin
• Mastered by 18 months
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Preoperational Stage• 2 to 7 years
– preoperational schemes emerge from sensory motor schemes and free the child's thoughts from strict control by the here and now
– allow the representation of absent objects
– but no mastery of reversibility– exemplified in conservation problems
• Operations are mastered by approximately 7 years of age
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Egocentrism & Precausal Reasoning
• Egocentrism– refers to the incapacity of the child to see
or adopt others' perspective
• Precausal reasoning– the absence of true mental operations
precludes cause and effect reasoning– preoperational children think
transductively, from one particular to another, rather than inductively or deductively
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Concrete Operational Stage
• 7 to 12 years– concrete operational schemes allow
reasoning about the reversible consequences of actions
– provide the basis for understanding physical principles such as conservation of substance and cause and effect links
– these schemes are still tied closely to the child's actual experiences in the world
• Do not allow abstract reasoning
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Formal Operational Stage
• From adolescence onward– formal operational schemes represent
principles that apply regardless of the specific situation
– allow the person to think theoretically and to apply principles even to actions that cannot actually be performed
– formal operational thinkers can extend principles into hypothetical realms that neither they nor anyone else has actually experienced
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Criticism to Piaget's Theory
• Early object permanence• Non-egocentric reasoning in the
preoperational stage• Overestimation of age differences
in ways of thinking• Vagueness about the process of
change• Underestimation of the role of the
social environment
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Information Processing Perspective
• the mind is a system, analogous to a computer, written for analyzing information from the environment
• basic machinery includes attention mechanisms for bringing information in, working memory for actively manipulating the information, and long-term memory for passively holding information so that it can be used in the future
• the mind contains specific strategies and rules for analyzing particular types of information or solving particular types of problems
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Information Processing Limitations
• Attention– young children's attention is easily
captured by external stimuli which interrupts information processing
• Limited memory– younger children have more limited
memory than do older ones• Limited strategies
– a strategy is a deliberately selected action performed for the purpose of attaining a particular goal
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Information Processing Limitations
• Attention– young children's attention is easily
captured by external stimuli which interrupts information processing
• Limited memory– younger children have more limited
memory than do older ones• Limited strategies
– a strategy is a deliberately selected action performed for the purpose of attaining a particular goal
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Memory Strategies• Rehearsal
– consists of repeating the material that one is trying to memorize
• Memory organization– consists of mentally grouping the
material to be remembered in meaningful clusters of closely associated items
• Metacognition– consists of knowledge about one’s own
cognition or memory
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Acquiring Specific Rules to Solve Problems
• mental development occurs not just through improvements in the all-purpose mental machinery
• also through the acquisition of particular rules and strategies for solving particular categories of problems