developing through the lifespan
DESCRIPTION
Development Development involves the processes and stages of growth from conception across the life span. It encompasses changes in physical, cognitive, and social behaviors.TRANSCRIPT
Developing through the Lifespan Development Development involves
the processes andstages of growth from conception across thelife
span. It encompasses changes in physical,cognitive, and social
behaviors. Studying Development Longitudinal Studies: follow the
same group of peopleover a period of time from months to many years
toevaluate changes in those individuals over time. Costly to
conduct Take a long time to produce results Typically lose
participants over time which mayprevent generalization of results
Cross-Sectional Studies: assess the of developmentalchanges with
respect to a particular factors byevaluating different age groups
of people at the sametime. Cohort: group of people in one age group
Cohort effect: differences in the experiences of eachage group as a
result of growing up in differenthistorical times. Studying
Development (contd)
The cohort effect can render a cross-sectionalstudy invalid if one
age group is significantlydifferent in their experiences from other
agegroups. Cohort-Sequence Studies: used to minimize themajor
drawbacks of longitudinal & cross-sectionalstudies. In such
studies, groups are assessed at least twotimes over a span of
months or years (instead ofjust once). Results from one cohort are
compares withother cohorts of the same age to evaluate
theirsimilarity in an effort to separate age-relatedchanges from
cohort effects. Studying Development (contd)
Retrospective (Biographic) studies: case studiesthat investigate
development in one person at atime. Typically the researcher
interviews a persontoward the older end of the age span
beingstudied. The researcher reconstructs changes that haveoccurred
during the subjects life through self- reports and examination of
available data. Very detailed, but may not be correct asmemory is
often inaccurate and may not begeneralized to a larger population.
Fertilization The egg is fertilized by a single sperm toform a
zygote. The two nuclei fuse to form thecharacteristic species
number ofchromosomes. Prenatal Development Embryo: from two weeks
after fertilizationthrough the second month. Placenta: made of both
maternal and fetal tissue;transfer of nutrients, oxygen to the
fetus, carbondioxide, urea, and other wastes from the fetus tothe
mother for removal. Prenatal Development (contd)
Fetus: from 9 weeks to birth By the sixth month, organs such as the
stomach arefunctional to allow a premature born fetus achance of
survival. Environmental Birth Defects
Teratogens: chemicals and viruses that can reachthe embryo/fetus
during development and causeharm Although the placenta screens out
manypotentially harmful substances, some teratogensdo pass to the
fetus. Examples include alcohol, drugs, tobaccoingredients,
mercury, lead, and other poisons,bacteria and viruses. The specific
nature of the defect depends onwhich structures are developing at
the time ofexposure. Most birth defects develop during the
embryonicperiod and are usually more severe than problemsthat
develop later. Environmental Birth Defects (contd)
The critical period for development of eyes, ears,arms, legs, and
the heart is during the first trimester. The critical period for
the reproduction systemdevelopment is during the 1st & 2nd
trimesters andfor the nervous system, is all three trimesters.
Maternal smoking exposes the fetus to nicotine andlowered oxygen
levels which can lead to low birthweight, small head size,
underdevelopedlungs,premature delivery, & stillbirth.
Malnutrition and even certain nutrients taken inlarge amounts can
harm the developing fetus. Vitamin A in large amounts can cause
heart,nervous system, and facial defects. Environmental Birth
Defects (contd)
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) represents a clusterof abnormalities
that occur in infants of motherswho drink alcohol during pregnancy.
Children with FAS have low intelligence, smallhead size with flat
faces, misshapen eyes, flatnoses, and thin upper lips. Severe
mental retardation generally results fromalcohol exposure during
the first trimester. Heroin and cocaine maternal abusers most
oftengive birth to infants addicted to these drugs. These babies
often suffer from withdrawalsymptoms and may be distractible and
unable toconcentrate as the mature. Behavior of the Neonate
At birth neonates (newborns) are equipped with basicreflexes that
increase their chances of survival.Thelack of some reflexes can
indicate possible brain damage. Rooting Reflex: infants response,
when touched onthe cheek, to turn toward the touch, open
his/hermouth, and search for the nipple. Sucking: automatic
response of drawing in anything atthe mouth Swallowing: contraction
of throat muscles thatenables food to pass to the esophagus
withoutchoking. Grasping Reflex: when infants close their
fingerstightly around an object put into their hands. Moro
(startle) Reflex: loud noises cause infants toarch their backs,
fling their limbs out, and quicklyretract them Behavior of Neonates
(contd)
As an infant matures, developing voluntary controlover behaviors,
many of these reflexes disappear. Neonates are also born preferring
sights and soundsthat facilitate social responsiveness. Newborns
respond to the human face, voice, & touchand show a preference
for the mothers voice & odor. Their vision is best for objects
about the distance ofa caretakers face & they can track objects
with theireyes a few days after birth. When shown these two stimuli
with the same elements, infants stared about twice as long at the
facelike image. Understanding Infant Thinking
Habituation: a decreasein responding withrepeated presentationof a
stimulus. Researchers usedhabituation studies todetermine if
infants canperceive differences instimuli. For example,researchers
showed 4month infants a seriesof images of cats ordogs and then
wereshown a dog hybrid orcat hybrid image. They found that infants
stared longer at these hybrid images suggesting that like adults,
infants first focus on the face, not the body. Infancy &
Childhood Maturation: biological growth processes that
enableorderly changes in behavior, relative uninfluenced
byexperience. Brain Development At birth the neural networks have a
wild growthspurt. From the ages 3-6, the brains neural network
isgrown most rapidly in the frontal lobes, enablingrational
planning Infancy & Childhood (contd)
Motor Development Genes play a major role in motor development
inthe first year of life. Rapid development of the neural networks
in thecerebellum creates an infants readiness to walk. Babies
generally roll over before they sit, unsupportedand usually crawl
before they walk. Infancy & Childhood (contd)
Maturation and Infant Memory Infant Amnesia: inability to recall
events before theage of 3. Results from a change in the way the
brain organizesmemories starting at the age of 3 or 4. As the brain
cortex matures, toddlers gain a sense ofself and their long-term
storage increases. Young childrens preverbal memories are not
easilytransformed into language. However, given certain cues, we
unconsciously remember certain things from our earliest years.
Infancy & Childhood (contd)
The last parts of the brain to develop are theassociation areas of
the cerebral cortex. As this happens the childs cognitive abilities
increasedramatically. Jean Piaget famous developmental psychologist
Piaget began his work in Paris in 1920 Through his work, he became
convinced that thechilds mind is NOT a miniature model of an adults
His core idea was that children are active thinkers,constantly
trying to construct more advancedunderstandings of the world. As
children do this, their maturing brains buildschemas concepts or
framework that organizes andinterprets information. Infancy &
Childhood (contd)
By the time we are adults, we have built countlessschemas (mental
molds) that range form cats anddogs to the concept of love. When we
do not have a schema for an image itbecomes impossible to properly
conceptualize itsuch as the devils tuning fork below: Infancy &
Childhood (contd)
Piaget proposed two processes to explain how weuse and adjust our
schemas: Assimilation: interpreting new experiences interms of our
current schemas. Accommodation: adapting ones current schemasto
incorporate new information. Piaget: Cognitive Development
Cognition: all the mental activities associate withthinking,
knowing, remembering, andcommunicating. Sensorimotor Stage (birth
to age 2) Very young babies live in the present what is out ofsight
is out of mind. Experience the world mostly in terms of
theirsensory impressions and motor activities. By 8 months, babies
develop object permanence: theawareness that objects continue to
exist when notperceived. Piaget: Cognitive Development
Some researchers believe that Piaget & hisfollowers
underestimated childrens competenceduring the sensorimotor stage.
Infants appear to have a greater intuitive grasp ofthe simple laws
of physics that Piaget realized. Babies also appear to have a head
for numbers. Piaget: Cognitive Development
Preoperational Stage (2 to 6-7 years) Children learn language Do
not comprehend the mental elements ofcognitive logic. Lack
conservation: the principle that properties suchas mass, volume,
& number remain the same despitechanges in the forms of
objects. When asked which one has more liquid the childpicked the
taller container shows a lack ofunderstanding of conservation.
Piaget: Cognitive Development
Preschoolers are egocentric & have difficulty withanother
persons views. Egocentrism is consistent with animism: the
beliefthat all things are living as well as artificalism: thatall
objects are made by people. Parents who abuse their children
usually do notunderstand preschoolers greater sense ofegocentrism
Preschoolers lack theory of the mind:peoples ideasabout their own
and others mental states such asfeelings, perceptions, &
thoughts and the behaviorthese might predict. They also lack an
understanding of symbolism,usetrial & error to figure things
out, demonstrate magicalthinking (something happens because the
child wishesit to happen) and pretend play. Piaget: Cognitive
Development
Concrete Operational Stage (ages 7-12) Develop simple concepts
& master conservation. Recognizes mathematical
transformations(reversibility) Develop the skills to think
logically about concreteevents. Formal Operational Stage (age
12-adulthood) Develop the ability to think logically about
abstractconcepts. As children approach adolescence, they
startthinking hypothetically (if this then that) Have the potential
to develop moral reasoning Reflections on Piagets Theory
Current researchers agree with Piagets sequence ofcognitive
development steps and milestones. They fault his work for not
acknowledging thatchildren go through these stages at different
rates andoften more quickly than he predicted. They also fault
Piaget for not understanding thatchange is more gradual and
continuous. Critics also believe that formal logic plays a
smallerpart in cognitive development than Piaget believed. Autism
Autism is adevelopmental disorderthat generally appearsin the first
3 years oflife & is marked bydeficientcommunication,
socialinteraction, andunderstanding othersstates of mind. Autism
(contd) Autism is a continuum or spectrum disorder.
Autistic children also have difficulty reflecting ontheir own
mental states, and are less likely to usethe personal pronouns,I or
me. Aspergers Syndrome: considered a highfunctioning form of autism
characterized by fulllanguage development, normal intelligence,
oftenwith exceptional skill or talent in a specific area,with
deficiencies in social and communication skillsresulting in an
inability to form normal peerrelationships. Current research
indicate that genetic andenvironmental factors are responsible for
the onsetof this disorder. Sociocultural Theory of Cognitive
Development
Developed by Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky. Emphasized the role
of the environment (nurture)and gradual growth (continuity) in
cognitivedevelopment. (opposite to Piaget) Internalization:
believed that development proceedsmainly from observing the
interactions of othersand through their own interactions with
theenvironment. Vygotsky asserted that mentors (parents,
teachers,and other students) play a significant role incognitive
development. Sociocultural Theory of Cognitive Development
(contd)
Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD):keyconcept that a range exists
where the child cansolve the a problem alone with difficulty
(upperlevel) and the lower level where the child solves theproblem
with assistance from a mentor. When the child attains the goal by
solving theproblem alone, this goal becomes the lower limitfor the
next ZPD. Social Development Stranger Anxiety: the fear of
strangers that infantscommonly display from about 8 months of age.
Attachment: an emotional tie with anotherindividual based on body
contact & familiarity Demonstrated in young children by their
seekingcloseness with their caregiver(s) and exhibitingdistress on
separation. Body Contact: Harry and Margaret Harlow (1950s) Used
rhesus infant monkeys to research infantattachment. When raised
with two artificial mothers a wiremother with food and a cloth
mother withoutnourishment, the infant monkeys spent most of
theirtime with the cloth mother, only going to the wiremother for
food. harlows' experiments Social Development (contd)
Familiarity Critical Period: optimum period shortly afterbirth when
an organisms exposure to certainstimuli or experiences produces
properdevelopment Imprinting: the process by which certain
animalsform attachments during a critical period earlyin life
Common among ducklings, goslings, andchicks. Usually the first
thing after hatching a fowl sees isits mother. From then on, the
infant fowl follows itsmother only. Konrad Lorenz & his work
with ducklings was keyto understanding critical periods and
imprinting. imprinting Social Development (contd)
Attachment Differences Mary Ainsworth Secure Attachment: babies
& mothers are in astrange room the baby plays &
explorescomfortably in the moms absence, are distressedwhen she
leaves and seek contact when shereturns. Insecure Attachment:babies
explore less when inthe moms presence and may cling to her,
cryloudly when mom leaves, and remain upset or actindifferent when
mom returns. Other studies suggest that sensitive responsiveparents
tend to have securely attached children. attachment style Social
Development (contd)
Temperament may play a part in parentalresponsiveness,but parental
sensitivity is learned &does increase infant attachment to and
extent. The fathers love and the mothers love is a predictor ofa
childs health and well-being. Adult relationships tend to reflect
insecure or secureattachments styles of early childhood.
Deprivation of Attachment Babies reared in institutions without the
stimulation &attention of a regular caregiver or locked away at
homeunder conditions of extreme neglect or abuse are
oftenwithdrawn, frightened, and even speechless. If prolonged,
childhood trauma places a child at risk forphysical, psychological
& social problems and may alterthe brains production of
serotonin. Social Development (contd)
Children who are prevented or disrupted fromforming attachment
bonds by the age of 2 are at riskfor attachment problems. Although
quality day care in stimulating, responsiveand safe environments
does not appear to harmchildrens language & thinking skills,
some studies have linked extensive time in daycare with increased
aggressiveness and defiance. Social Development (contd)
Self-Concept Self-concept is a sense of ones identity andpersonal
worth. Starts to emerge around 6 months; by months the children
begin to recognize themselvesin the mirror By school age, they can
describe many of theirtraits. By 8 to 10 years, their self-images
are stable. Parenting Styles Authoritarian parents have strict
rules & usepunishment for wrongdoings. Permissive parents have
few guidelines & tend to bemore responsive than demanding.
Uninvolved parents make few demands, show lowresponsiveness, and
communicate little with theirchildren. Authoritative parents set
limits, but explain thereason for rules with their children &
makeexceptions when appropriate. Correlates with social competence
(does notestablish cause and effect) May be due to the interaction
of temperament(genes), parenting style, or a third outside factor.
Life between childhood (puberty to independence)
Adolescence Life between childhood and adulthood (puberty to
independence) Physical Development Puberty: period of sexual
maturation; individualbecomes capable or reproducing. Primary Sex
Characteristics: reproductive organs testes, ovaries, and external
genetalia develop rapidlyat this time. Secondary Sex
Characteristics: Females: estrogen influences development
widerhips, secondary hair, breasts Males: testosterone influences
the deepening voice,broader shoulders, secondary hair Menarche: the
first menstrual period Spermarche: the first ejaculation (usually
occurs as anocturnal emission). Physical Development (contd)
Sequence of physical changes during adolescenceare more predictable
than the timing. Others reactions to early or late maturation
caninfluence adolescents adjustments to changes. The brain
undergoes significant development atthis time The frontal lobe
matures & there is selective pruningof unused neurons and their
connections. Until the frontal lobe is fully developed,adolescents
typified rash and impulsive decisionsare generally under the
control of the amygdala. Cognitive Development
During the early years, adolescents are self-focusedand believe
their private experiences are unique. Most adolescents achieve
Piagets formaloperational stage of thinking and start usingabstract
logic. Their ability to reason hypothetically & deduce
consequences enables teens to detect inconsistences &
hypocrisy, which can lead to conflicts at home & school.
Kohlberg: Moral Development Morality Social intuitionist view or
morality believes thatmoral feelings precede moral thinking
andjudgments. Moral Action perspective focuses on socialinfluences
on decisions to do the right thing. Individualistic societies are
more likely todemonstrate Kohlbergs postconventional morality Those
who learn to delay gratification nowenable bigger rewards later.
Carol Gilligan Found that women rarely reach the higheststages of
morality they think more about theethic of caring than that of
justice. She asserted that women are not morallyinferior, just
morally different. Forming an Identity Identity: ones sense of
self
According to Erikson, the teens task is to solidify asense of self
by testing and integrating various roles. In Western cultures,
teens usually try out differentselves in different situations
Erikson noted that some teens forge their identitiesearly by
adopting their parents values &expectations (often seen less
individualistic cultures). Fewer teens reject values of parents and
society &take on the identify of their peers. Self-esteem
increases with identity achievement. Erikson also believed that
having a clear identity wasa precondition for developing intimacy.
Parents & Peer Influence
As teens in Western cultures form their ownidentities, they begin
to separate themselves fromtheir parents. Parent-adolescent
conflicts become temporarilymore intense during early adolescence
butprogressively less frequent with age. During this time peer
acceptance is paramount. Parents continue to influence their teens
in areas such as religiosity, & college & career choices.
Emerging Adulthood Emerging adulthood (extended adolescence) is
thetime from 18-to the mid 20s. No longer, adolescents, these young
people have notyet taken on adult-level responsibilities nor
aretotally independent. During this time, many young people attend
collegeor work, but continue to be dependent on parents. Today, the
average age of first marriage now extendsinto the mid 20s for both
men and women. Adulthood From the late 20s to the end of life
Physical Changes Middle Adulthood
Muscular strength, reaction time, sensory abilities, &cardiac
output begin to decline in the late 20s. Menopause: ending of the
menstrual cycle, usuallybeginning with a few years of 50. Reduction
in estrogen, some women experience hotflashes, but incidence of
depression no differentfrom non-menopausal women. Men do NOT
undergo a similar drop in hormones orfertility. Men do experience a
more gradual decline in spermcount, testosterone level, speed of
erection, &ejaculation. If testosterone levels plummet too fast
and far,symptoms may include depression, irritability,insomnia,
impotence or weakness can be treatedwith testosterone replacement
therapy. Physical Changes (contd)
Later Life Worldwide the life expectancy has increased from 49to 67
in the last 100 years, and exceeds 80 years insome developed
countries. Women outlive men at most ages past early infancy. After
the age of 70, hearing, distance perception, ,smell, muscle
strength, reaction time, & stamina alldecrease. As the immune
system weakens, the elderly becomemore susceptible to diseases such
as cancer &pneumonia, but have less short term illnesses
becauseof a build-up of antibodies. Neural processes slow,
especially for complex tasks. By age 80, the brain shrinks by about
5%. Physical Changes (contd)
Physical exercise can stimulate development of somenew brain cells
and connections. Although dementia is NOT a normal part of
aging,the incidence of dementia doubles every five yearsfrom the
early 60s on. Alzheimers disease: a progressive &
irreversibledisorder characterized by the gradual deteriorationof
memory, reasoning, language, & finally physicalfunctioning.
Underlying the symptoms of Alzheimers is a lossof brain cells &
deterioration of neurons thatproduce acetylcholine. Deprived of
Ach, memory & thinking suffer. Cognition The ability to recall
new information declines duringearly & middle adulthood, but
the ability torecognize new information does not. Older adults
recall more meaningful informationmore easily, but may take longer
to produce thewords describing what they know. Prospective memory
(remember to) remainsstrong if cues are available, buy without
cues, time based & habitual tasks are vulnerable to memory
loss. Aging & Intelligence Cross-Sectional Studies
Researchers find that older adults give fewer correct answers than
younger adults on IQ tests. Failed to consider generational
differences in education & life experience. Longitudinal
Studies Researchers found thatuntil late in life, intelligence
remains stable. Did not take into account dropouts from study who
may have been less intelligent than survivors or in poor heath,
leaving an above average group of participants later in life. Aging
& Intelligence (contd)
Whether intelligence increases or decreases reallydepends on the
type of intellectual performancebeing measured. Crystallized
Intelligence: ones accumulatedknowledge & verbal skills tends
to increase with age. Fluid Intelligence: ones ability to reason
speedily &abstractly tends to decrease during late adulthood.
These cognitive differences explain whymathematicians &
scientists produce much of theirmost creative work in the 20s and
30s. Those in literature, history, & philosophy tend toproduce
their best work in their 40s and beyond. Social Development Midlife
Transition (Crisis): a time of great struggle,regret, or even a
feeling of being struck-down in life. Research indicates that
unhappiness, jobdissatisfaction, divorce, anxiety, and/or suicide
do NOTsurge during the 40s ages of life. Social Clock: the cultural
prescription of the righttime to leave home, get a job, marry,
& have childrenvaries from culture to culture as well as era to
era. Love & work are the defining themes of adult life.
Evolutionary psychologists believe that commitmenthad survival
value for our ancestors. Parents who stayed together, cooperated
& raisedchildren to a child-bearing age had a greater chanceof
passing their genes to future generations. Social Development
(contd)
The likelihood of divorce has doubled over the last40 years. This
is partly due to womens economicindependence & to mens &
womens expectations ofacceptable qualities in a life partner.
Cohabitation before marriage is correlated with higherrates of
divorce & marital dysfunction. Most people expect to marry
& are generallyhappier than their single counterparts. Children
are welcome additions into the family unit,but can cause strain on
finances and emotionalresources. Work satisfaction correlates with
life satisfaction. Well-being & feelings of satisfaction are
stable acrossthe life span. Social Development (contd)
There is no normal reaction of series of grief stepsafter the death
of a loved one. Grief for a loved one is most severe when thedeath
is sudden or before its expected time. People in old age who
achieve a sense of integritymay meet death by affirming that their
own lifewas meaningful & worthwhile. Researcher Elisabeth
Kubler-Ross studies ofdeath & dying suggest that terminally
illpatients pass through 5 stages of coping: denial,anger,
bargaining, depression and acceptance. Other research indicates
that not all patientspass through all the stages nor do
theynecessarily go through the stages in the orderKubler-Ross
suggests.