developing mental toughness

168

The Sport Psychologist, 2010, 24, 168-193 © 2010 Human Kinetics, Inc.

Connaughton and Hanton are with the Cardiff School of Sport, University of Wales Institute, Cardiff, UK. Jones is with Lane 4 Management Group Ltd., Buckinghamshire, UK.

The Development and Maintenance of Mental Toughness in the World’s Best

Performers

Declan Connaughton and Sheldon HantonUniversity of Wales Institute

Graham JonesLane 4 Management Group Ltd.

Eleven superelite participants (7 performers, 2 coaches and 2 sport psycholo-gists) were interviewed regarding the development and maintenance of mental toughness. Findings revealed that this process occurred over four distinct career phases: three developmental phases, and one maintenance phase. Factors influ-encing development and maintenance included: skill mastery, competitiveness, successes, international competitive experience, education and advice, the use of psychological skills, access to an understanding social support network, and reflec-tive practice. In addition, positive and negative critical incidents were perceived by participants to act as catalysts in initiating or enhancing specific components of mental toughness. Practical implications highlight the importance of a mental toughness attitude/mindset to development, while future directions are discussed in relation to measurement and intervention strategies.

For many years the term mental toughness has been associated with sporting excellence and highlighted as an important psychological contributor to successful performance (Gould, Hodge, Peterson, & Petlichkoff, 1987) and winning Olympic titles (Gould, Dieffenbach, & Moffett, 2002). Despite such reports, the majority of mental toughness explanations have emanated from anecdotal evidence, and only recently have researchers investigated the concept of mental toughness using empirical methods (for reviews, see Connaughton & Hanton, 2009; Connaughton, Hanton, Jones, & Wadey, 2008).

Jones et al. (2002) were the first researchers to address mental toughness from such a standpoint. Adopting Personal Construct Theory (Kelly, 1955) and performance profiling as guiding frameworks, they defined mental toughness as a natural or developed psychological edge that enables mentally tough performers to generally cope better than their opponents with the demands and related pres-sures that occur at the highest level in sport. Jones et al. (2002) also identified 12

Mental Toughness Development and Maintenance 169

essential characteristics that related to self-belief, desire and motivation, focusing, coping with anxiety, and also dealing with pain and hardship. Encouragingly, the findings from this study have been supported, with subtle differences in specific single sport investigations (e.g., Bull, Shambrook, James, & Brooks, 2005; Guc-ciardi, Gordon, & Dimmock, 2008; Thelwell, Weston, & Greenlees, 2005). Although these investigations enhanced understanding, mental toughness research was still deemed to be in its infancy, and a number of recommendations were offered. Bull et al. (2005), Jones et al. (2002), and Thelwell et al. (2005) suggested the inclusion of coaches and sport psychologists to glean a more holistic understanding of mental toughness. In addition, the definition and attributes proposed by Jones et al. (2002) suggested an outcome component to mental toughness. Specifically, the wording of the definition involved comparisons that resulted in successful outcomes (e.g., cope better than your opponents), while the attributes described the achievement or suc-cessful completion of an action rather than having the ability to do so (e.g., thriving on the pressure of competition rather than having an ability to thrive on pressure).

In response to these suggestions, Jones et al. (2007) investigated mental toughness in a sample of performers, coaches, and sport psychologists who had achieved the outcome component criteria of Olympic or World Champion or had been a coach or sport psychologist to such performers. The participants were classed as superelite and confirmed Jones et al.’s (2002) definition of mental toughness. Interestingly, the superelite participants identified 30 distinct attributes compared with the 10 and 12 attributes reported by Thelwell et al. (2005) and Jones et al. (2002), respectively. This difference suggested that while elite and superelite indi-viduals may agree on what mental toughness is (i.e., the definition), the superelite appeared to possess a greater understanding of its precise make-up (Jones et al., 2007). Jones et al. (2007) then developed a framework of mental toughness, which categorized the 30 attributes under 13 subcomponents within 4 overall dimensions (attitude/mindset, training, competition, and postcompetition: see Table 1). From an applied perspective, this framework provides the context in which the attributes and subcomponents are applicable, and could contribute to the description of how, and under what conditions, mental toughness may be developed and maintained.

The acknowledgment that mental toughness could be acquired (i.e., Bull et al., 2005; Jones et al., 2002, 2007; Thelwell et al., 2005) strengthened the call for researchers to investigate the mechanisms by which it is developed. Previous stud-ies examining the psychological factors of outstanding individuals and the means by which they have obtained such characteristics have used in-depth interviews (e.g., Bloom, 1985; Côté, Baker, & Abernethy, 2003; Csikszentmihalyi, Rathunde, Whalen, & Wong, 1993; Durand-Bush & Salmela, 2002; Gould et al., 2002; Hanton & Jones, 1999). Three of these studies were conducted within a sporting context, investigating the development and maintenance of: facilitative interpretations of competitive anxiety-related symptoms (Hanton & Jones, 1999), factors perceived to be important to expert performance (Durand-Bush & Salmela, 2002), and the psy-chological characteristics responsible for the development of Olympic Champions (Gould et al., 2002). Overall, these studies revealed that athletes’ sporting careers progressed through three main phases of development, followed by a maintenance phase, and a variety of factors, individuals, and institutions influenced this process, either directly or indirectly.

170 Connaughton, Hanton, and Jones

Table 1 Mental Toughness Framework Dimensions and Subcomponents (Jones et al., 2007)

Dimension Subcomponent

Attitude/Mindset • Belief

• Focus

Training • Using long-term goals as the source of motivation

• Pushing yourself to the limit

• Controlling the environment

Competition • Controlling the environment

• Belief

• Regulating performance

• Staying focused

• Awareness and control of thoughts and feelings

• Handling pressure

Postcompetition • Handling failure

• Handling success

Within the area of mental toughness, Bull et al. (2005) was the first study to highlight factors perceived to influence its development. They focused on cricket and categorized global themes under 4 locations relating to environment, character, attitudes, and thinking. The category locations were suggested to provide a reference point for the development of mental toughness and a ‘winning mind’, but specific details of how mental toughness actually developed were absent. More recently, Connaughton et al. (2008) investigated mental toughness development and main-tenance in elite performers. Based on Jones et al.’s (2002) definition and 12 attri-butes, findings revealed that mental toughness developed over three distinct career phases (early, middle, and later years) and was influenced by differing underlying mechanisms. Specifically, during the early years, effective leadership, observing elite performers in training and competition, and advice from parents and coaches provided the knowledge, inspiration, and correct motivational climate to begin the process of mental toughness development. The middle years were influenced by competitive rivalry, rationalization of successes and failures, and receiving guid-ance from an understanding social support network. In the later years, competitive experience, simulation training, positive experiences, and rationalization of setbacks contributed to the development of mental toughness to its highest perceived levels. Connaughton et al. (2008) also suggested that once acquired, mental toughness needed to be maintained with a variety of psychological skills. Finally, perceived critical incidents (e.g., disruptions at school, loss of a peer, parental divorce) were identified as having a crucial role in the development of mental toughness.

While Connaughton et al. (2008) investigated the development and mainte-nance of mental toughness, the study was based on elite performers’ perceptions of Jones et al.’s (2002) definition and 12 attributes of mental toughness. Jones et


al. (2007) has since proposed as a more detailed framework of mental toughness using superelite performers, coaches, and sport psychologists. Therefore, a more holistic insight into the underlying processes involved in the development and maintenance of mental toughness may be achieved by using Jones et al.’s (2007) findings and participant criteria.

The purpose of this study was to examine the development and maintenance of mental toughness in a sample that met Jones et al.’s (2007) outcome component criteria and included the insights and unique contributions of performers, coaches, and sport psychologists. To assist in the overall understanding and articulation, Jones et al.’s (2007) framework was used as a guide for when and how each of the four dimensions and 13 subcomponents were developed and maintained.

MethodParticipants

The respondents from Jones et al.’s (2007) original sample were recontacted as they possessed a comprehensive understanding of the mental toughness framework. They were informed of the purpose, and 11 of the 15 participants (7 performers, 2 coaches, and 2 sport psychologists) agreed to contribute their views and experi-ences once more, while the remaining four were unable to participate due to time constraints. At the time of interviewing, the coaches and sport psychologists were working with superelite performers, while the seven performers were retired. The criteria for these superelite individuals were: at least one Gold medal at an Olympic Games or World Championships (performers), while coaches and sport psycholo-gists had to have coached or consulted with Olympic or World Champions on a long-term basis (see Jones et al., 2007). The sports represented were swimming, athletics, judo, rowing, pentathlon, squash, and rugby union, while nationalities included Australia, England, Canada, and Wales.

At the time of investigation, the superelite performers (4 males and 3 females, aged between 25 and 48) laid claim to seven Olympic gold medals and 10 World-Championship titles, and an average of seven years’ experience at the highest level. The coaches (2 males; aged 40 and 62), and sport psychologists (2 males; aged 40 and 47) had worked with superelite performers during their careers (between 7 and 20 years). None of the coaches or sport psychologists in this study had worked with superelite performers in the early stages of their sporting careers; therefore, the authors deemed it necessary to develop two interview guides (one for perform-ers and one for coaches/sport psychologists) and present their findings separately.

Instrumentation

Interview Guides. The two interview guides were developed to elicit the relevant data and to facilitate the interview process. Both guides outlined the aims of the study, the interview process, participants’ rights, and issues relating to data confidentiality and anonymity. Questions were primarily open-ended, with probes used to clarify any discussion points of confusion. The participants were encouraged to elaborate and expand upon any information they thought relevant when discussing mental toughness development and maintenance (cf.


Patton, 2002). The design of both guides were based on the four dimensions and 13 subcomponents contained within Jones et al.’s (2007) mental toughness framework (see Table 1), and studies that have employed interview guides in the development and maintenance of expert performance in sport (Durand-Bush & Salmela, 2002), psychological characteristics of Olympic Champions (Gould et al., 2002), and mental toughness in elite performers (Connaughton et al., 2008).

Unique to the performer’s guide was an involvement progression questionnaire, adapted from Bloom’s (1985) and Côté et al.’s (2003) three career phases of talent and expertise development. The development and maintenance of mental toughness was divided into four specific career phases, three developmental phases termed as: (a) initial involvement to intermediate level, (b) intermediate to elite level, (c) elite to Olympic/World Champion status, and (d) one maintenance phase. The guide for coaches and sport psychologists did not contain an involvement progression ques-tionnaire but drew on their experiences of working with superelite sports performers to glean their views and beliefs of how the dimensions and subcomponents of mental toughness were developed and maintained in performers. The final section for both guides concluded with recommendations sought for developing future mentally tough performers and participants’ appraisal of the interview process. Copies of the interview guides are available from the corresponding author.

Procedure

In line with the lead author’s university ethical research procedures, voluntary informed written consent was obtained from each participant. To help establish the parameters of the study and allow participants time to reflect on and refresh their experiences, and for performers to reflect on experiences within each spe-cific career phase, the relevant interview guide was sent to each participant two weeks before interviewing (Jones et al., 2007). To enhance the interview process and before being interviewed, participants were asked to write down comments that they felt were important to mental toughness development and maintenance. Finally, performers were reminded to maintain perspective to the specific career phases that questions related to.

All interviews were conducted face-to-face by the same researcher, who was trained in qualitative techniques and was previously an elite sports performer. Interviews were recorded in their entirety and transcribed verbatim, lasting between 120–180 min (performers) and 90–120 (coaches/sport psychologists), collectively yielding over 500 single-spaced typed pages. The transcripts and researchers’ inter-pretations of the data were then sent to participants and comments regarding their accuracy solicited via follow-up phone calls. Each participant confirmed that the information provided accurately reflected their experiences and thoughts regarding mental toughness development and maintenance.

Analysis

The data analysis procedures adopted in this study incorporated seven steps: (a) transcripts were independently and then collectively studied in detail by the research team to ensure content familiarity. Regular meetings were held to ensure a complete understanding of the textual material; (b) the data were coded in relation to framework


dimensions and subcomponents, and analyzed to identify common themes from the tran-scripts. This coding involved deductively analyzing the transcripts in accordance with Jones et al.’s (2007) mental toughness framework; (c) any disagreement resulted in all three researchers rereading and discussing the transcripts until consensus was reached; (d) two external researchers, knowledgeable in qualitative research and familiar with the subject matter, provided feedback with regard to the data analysis; (e) participant feedback further verified the interpretation of the data; (f) direct quotations from the transcripts were selected and presented to allow the reader the opportunity to interpret the data in a more meaningful way (Sparkes, 1998); and finally; (g) trustworthiness characteristics relevant to this study were met through thick description, recording and transcribing all interviews, peer-debriefing, and member-checking (cf. Hanton, Cropley, Miles, Mellalieu, & Neil, 2007; Jones et al., 2002, 2007).

ResultsThis study was concerned with the development and maintenance of mental toughness, and findings are presented in relation to the four dimensions and 13 subcomponents of Jones et al.’s (2007) mental toughness framework.

Performers’ Perspectives on Mental Toughness Development and Maintenance

Presented in Table 2, the performers’ description of the underlying themes account-able for the development and maintenance of mental toughness are categorized in to four distinct sections: three development phases (initial involvement to intermediate level, intermediate to elite level, elite to Olympic/World Champion status), and one maintenance phase (maintenance years).

Initial Involvement to Intermediate Level. This phase varied from 6 to 10 years with performers indicating that they were not mentally tough at the beginning of their sporting careers. Individuals engaged in various sports and activities for enjoyment, a means of socialization, and skill mastery. Development began within the attitude/mindset dimension, namely the subcomponents, ‘belief’ and ‘focus’, and was followed by two of the three training dimension subcomponents, ‘using long-term goals as the source of motivation’, and ‘pushing yourself to the limit’. Mastering the various sports skills that the participant engaged in, and deriving pleasure and a sense of achievement further enhanced ‘belief’ and ‘focus’. Participants reported being competitive, learning new skills faster, and performing to a higher level than their peers. This skill mastery created a, “perceived superiority, compared to my peers” and initiated the belief that they were talented and “special”, thus motivating them to practice more and increasing their focus to strive to be better. One performer commented:

I think I was sporty and enjoyed being active . . . The idea of learning initially . . . do one skill and then do the next skill . . . I guess mastery of a skill . . . I liked racing against other kids . . . having success raised my self-esteem and I felt good about myself . . . so I liked beating other people . . . it was about achievement and being the best I could. (Performer 4)

174

Tab

le 2

P

erfo

rmer

s’ P

ersp

ecti

ves

on

th

e C

aree

r P

has

es o

f M

enta

l To

ug

hn

ess

Dev

elo

pm

ent/

Mai

nte

nan

ce

Initi

al In

volv

emen

t to

Inte

rmed

iate

Lev

elD

imen

sion

and

Sub

com

pone

ntU

nder

lyin

g th

emes

Atti

tude

/Min

dset

• B

elie

f•

Soci

aliz

atio

n

• Fo

cus

• Sk

ill m

aste

ry

• B

eing

com

petit

ive

• L

earn

ing

new

ski

lls f

aste

r th

an p

eers

Tra

inin

g•

Usi

ng lo

ng-t

erm

goa

ls a

s th

e so

urce

of

mot

ivat

ion

• D

eriv

ing

plea

sure

fro

m s

kill

mas

tery

• Ach

ieve

men

t of

perf

orm

ance

gai

ns

• Pu

shin

g yo

urse

lf to

the

limit

• B

eing

com

petit

ive

• C

ontr

ollin

g th

e en

viro

nmen

t (no

t dev

elop

ed in

this

car

eer

phas

e)

Com

petit

ion

• C

ontr

ollin

g th

e en

viro

nmen

t (no

t dev

elop

ed in

this

car

eer

phas

e)

• B

elie

f (n

ot d

evel

oped

in th

is c

aree

r ph

ase)

• R

egul

atin

g pe

rfor

man

ce (

not d

evel

oped

in th

is c

aree

r ph

ase)

• St

ayin

g fo

cuse

d (n

ot d

evel

oped

in th

is c

aree

r ph

ase)

• Aw

aren

ess

and

cont

rol o

f th

ough

ts a

nd f

eelin

gs (

not d

evel

oped

in

this

car

eer

phas

e)

• H

andl

ing

pres

sure

(no

t dev

elop

ed in

this

car

eer

phas

e)

Post

-Com

petit

ion

• H

andl

ing

failu

re (

not d

evel

oped

in th

is c

aree

r ph

ase)

• H

andl

ing

succ

ess

(not

dev

elop

ed in

this

car

eer

phas

e)

(con

tinu

ed)

175

Inte

rmed

iate

to E

lite

Leve

lD

imen

sion

and

Sub

com

pone

ntU

nder

lyin

g th

emes

Atti

tude

/Min

dset

• B

elie

f•

Skill

mas

tery

• Fo

cus

• C

ompe

titiv

enes

s

• E

xper

t coa

chin

g /s

truc

ture

d re

gim

en

• O

bser

vatio

n of

old

er, e

lite

perf

orm

ers

• In

crea

sed

expe

ctat

ion

of s

ucce

ss

• In

crea

sed

belie

f an

d fo

cus

whi

ch e

nhan

ced

all 3

T

rain

ing

subc

ompo

nent

s

• Ach

ieve

men

t of

goal

s in

trai

ning

fur

ther

enh

ance

d th

e A

ttitu

de/m

inds

et s

ubco

mpo

nent

s, ‘

belie

f’ a

nd

‘foc

us’

Tra

inin

g•

Usi

ng lo

ng-t

erm

goa

ls a

s th

e so

urce

of

mot

ivat

ion

• Pu

shin

g yo

urse

lf to

the

limit

• C

ontr

ollin

g th

e en

viro

nmen

t

Com

petit

ion

• C

ontr

ollin

g th

e en

viro

nmen

t• A

dapt

ion

of A

ttitu

de/m

inds

et &

Tra

inin

g su

bcom

-po

nent

s to

com

petit

ive

setti

ngs.

• B

elie

f

• R

egul

atin

g pe

rfor

man

ce•

Edu

catio

n fr

om c

oach

es a

nd m

ore

expe

rien

ced

athl

etes

• St

ayin

g fo

cuse

d•

Psyc

holo

gica

l ski

ll us

age

• Aw

aren

ess

and

cont

rol o

f th

ough

ts a

nd f

eelin

gs

• H

andl

ing

pres

sure

Post

-Com

petit

ion

• H

andl

ing

failu

re•

Refl

ectiv

e pr

actic

e

• H

andl

ing

succ

ess

• Ps

ycho

logi

cal s

kill

usag

e

Tab

le 2

(co

nti

nu

ed)

(con

tinu

ed)

176

Elit

e to

Oly

mpi

c/W

orld

Cha

mpi

on S

tatu

sD

imen

sion

and

Sub

com

pone

ntU

nder

lyin

g th

emes

Atti

tude

/Min

dset

• B

elie

f•

Com

petit

ive

desi

re to

win

• Ach

ievi

ng s

ucce

sses

in im

porta

nt c

ompe

titio

ns o

r gam

es

• Fo

cus

• In

tern

atio

nal c

ompe

titiv

e ex

peri

ence

• U

nder

stan

ding

of

wor

ld c

lass

trai

ning

reg

imes

and

pr

epar

atio

n sc

hedu

les

• Sp

ortin

g su

ppor

t net

wor

k

• N

onsp

ortin

g su

ppor

t net

wor

k

• K

now

ledg

e of

a w

ide

repe

rtoi

re o

f ps

ycho

logi

cal

skill

s an

d st

rate

gies

• Adv

ance

d ps

ycho

logi

cal s

kill

usag

e

• R

eflec

tive

prac

tice

• R

atio

naliz

atio

n of

suc

cess

es a

nd fa

ilure

s in

com

petit

ion

Tra

inin

g•

Usi

ng lo

ng-t

erm

goa

ls a

s th

e so

urce

of

mot

ivat

ion

• Pu

shin

g yo

urse

lf to

the

limit

• C

ontr

ollin

g th

e en

viro

nmen

t

Com

petit

ion

• C

ontr

ollin

g th

e en

viro

nmen

t

• B

elie

f

• R

egul

atin

g pe

rfor

man

ce

• St

ayin

g fo

cuse

d

• Aw

aren

ess

and

cont

rol o

f th

ough

ts a

nd f

eelin

gs

• H

andl

ing

pres

sure

Post

-Com

petit

ion

• H

andl

ing

failu

re

• H

andl

ing

succ

ess

Tab

le 2

(co

nti

nu

ed)

(con

tinu

ed)

177

Mai

nten

ance

Dim

ensi

on a

nd S

ubco

mpo

nent

Und

erly

ing

them

es

Atti

tude

/Min

dset

• B

elie

f•

Bel

ief

from

win

ning

Oly

mpi

cs /

Wor

ld C

ham

pion

-sh

ips

• Fo

cus

• Se

tting

new

cha

lleng

ing

targ

ets

and

goal

s

• D

evel

opin

g tr

aini

ng a

nd c

ompe

titio

n ro

utin

es

• M

aint

aini

ng b

alan

ce w

ith r

egar

d to

spo

rt a

nd li

fe

• Adv

ance

d ps

ycho

logi

cal s

kill

usag

e

• R

eflec

tive

prac

tice

• C

ontr

ollin

g ne

gativ

ity a

nd e

xpec

tatio

ns

Tra

inin

g•

Usi

ng lo

ng-t

erm

goa

ls a

s th

e so

urce

of

mot

ivat

ion

• Pu

shin

g yo

urse

lf to

the

limit

• C

ontr

ollin

g th

e en

viro

nmen

t

Com

petit

ion

• C

ontr

ollin

g th

e en

viro

nmen

t

• B

elie

f

• R

egul

atin

g pe

rfor

man

ce

• St

ayin

g fo

cuse

d

• Aw

aren

ess

and

cont

rol o

f th

ough

ts a

nd f

eelin

gs

• H

andl

ing

pres

sure

Post

-Com

petit

ion

• H

andl

ing

failu

re

• H

andl

ing

succ

ess

Tab

le 2

(co

nti

nu

ed)

(con

tinu

ed)


Mastering skills and outperforming peers enhanced the belief that the performers could achieve their goals, and motivated them to focus on mastering more advanced skills. This increase in belief and focus triggered the development of the subcom-ponents ‘using long-term goals as the source of motivation’ and ‘pushing yourself to the limit’ (training dimension). A typical comment was:

I didn’t really train properly then . . . I did it because I wanted to be good . . . I saw it as a challenge . . . an enjoyable one . . . I had that drive of wanting to be better. It starts off as an enjoyable thing but when you know you can do well, you train to do the best you can . . . that motivated me to try to achieve . . . it gave me an awareness of what I had to do to get to the next level . . . because in new levels you get to learn a new set of skills . . . and that motivated me to push myself hard so I could get to learn a new set of skills. (Performer 7)

The successes achieved enhanced motivation and work ethic in training, and further strengthened belief and focus. Perceived critical incidents were common throughout this phase, and positive incidents were reported to increase belief, while negative experiences resulted in enhanced focus. For example:

The PE teacher recognized my talent and suggested I go to (named elite sports school) . . . I didn’t realize people recognized my talent, that gave me a lot of belief . . . I began to believe in myself, I tried harder, took more interest in what I was doing and why. (Performer 3)

My focus was low really especially in the beginning . . . I was bullied and isolated at school . . . (sport named) was something that I could be good at . . . that drove me to focus on the things that I was good at . . . on trying to be the best performer I could be. (Performer 1)

Intermediate to Elite Level. This phase varied in length from 3 to 6 years with participants describing it as the time where the majority of mental toughness subcomponents developed. First was the final subcomponent within the training dimension, ‘controlling the environment’, followed by four of the six subcomponents within the competition dimension, ‘belief’, ‘staying focused’, ‘regulating performance’, and ‘controlling the environment’. The two remaining competition subcomponents, ‘handling pressure’, and ‘awareness and control of thoughts and feelings’ developed later in this phase and in conjunction with the development of the two subcomponents within the postcompetition dimension, ‘handling success’ and ‘handling failure’.

Development of the subcomponent, ‘controlling the environment’ (training dimension), was achieved in one of two ways: being promoted to a more advanced training squad with “expert coaching”, or purposely relocating to a club or team that had a more structured regimen. Being part a more structured program increased performers’ perceived control of the training environment as, “this was the structure and discipline I needed to achieve my goals”. Observing older, elite performers in such teams was described as having an influence on attitude/mindset and training dimensions. Specifically, they saw these successful athletes for the, “real people they were, how they trained, and


how they reacted to pressure” thus increasing the belief that they too, “could achieve what these older performers were doing”. Being in such an environ-ment enhanced the expectation of future success and the, “proven track record of the coach and training” increased their belief and motivated them to strive harder in training to achieve their long-term goals. Mastery was still a factor for development, however, competitiveness and, “doing what was necessary to achieve success” became the biggest influenceBeing in a better (sport named) environment and having better people around me . . . better coaches, facilities . . . we watched and copied older performers . . . I saw them working hard and how they did it . . . it had a big impact on me . . . I felt I could achieve that . . . so I decided I would work harder to get there. My expectations of success increased. (Performer 6)

The development of subcomponents within the attitude/mindset and training dimensions were reported to have a positive and reciprocal impact upon each other. Specifically, development of the attitude/mindset subcomponents, ‘belief’ and ‘focus’ strengthened all three training dimension subcomponents, while achiev-ing successes and goals in training, and the recognition of these achievements by coaches, further impacted on ‘belief ‘and ‘focus’. One performer stated:

Because of my belief and focus I worked harder in training, set more goals and tried harder . . . success and achieving these goals meant I was right, my program was right . . . the more I focused on my work the better I got . . . I was as good as I believed. (Performer 7)

During this career phase, all six subcomponents within the competition dimen-sion began to develop, but not all at the same time or rate. Performers believed they could directly transfer or adapt the five subcomponents within the attitude/mindset and training dimensions into the four subcomponents of ‘belief’, ‘staying focused’, ‘regulating performance’, and ‘controlling the environment’ (competition dimension). Specifically, previous experience of successes in training enhanced performers’ beliefs that they could regulate their performance in competitions, control the environment, and succeed in competition. This enhanced belief enabled them to stay focused and increase their commitment to achieving competition goals, despite distractions:

My strength in competitions was around belief and focus . . . and regulating my performance . . . probably mainly from training . . . knowing that I could tap in to something when I need a little bit extra. I could focus on what I had to do . . . to win. (Performer 3)

To develop the two remaining subcomponents within the competition dimen-sion, ‘handling pressure’ and ‘awareness and control of thoughts and feelings’ per-formers searched for ways to educate themselves on how to recognize inappropriate thoughts and feelings, and then implement strategies to control and change these thoughts and feelings. Trial and error, advice from more experienced performers and coaches, and reflective practice enabled the performers to, “develop strategies that enhanced decision making, coping abilities, and control over pre-competition thoughts and feelings”.


Toward the end of this career phase, the two subcomponents within the postcompetition dimension, ‘handling success’ and ‘handling failure’ began to develop. Reflective practice was an influence and performers reported having formal meetings with coaches to analyze why they were successful or had not performed optimally. This process positively impacted upon all the subcomponents in the attitude/mindset, training, and competition dimensions. Success increased belief in themselves, their training program, competition preparation, their coach, and perceived control over the environment, and consequently, motivated them to push themselves to the limits of their capabilities. Alternatively, failures enhanced focus, as they were rationalized as learning experiences and a means of providing information on how to improve identified weaknesses in training and competition:

I always reviewed what I did with (coach named), what I did well and what didn’t work. It was a structured session rather than just a chat. It was something to learn from. We internalized successes and this helped us increase belief. We didn’t have failures, if things went wrong, we took that knowledge back into training . . . change something I was doing or how I prepared . . . so we would be better the next time. (Performer 2)

Perceived critical incidents also had an impact upon mental toughness develop-ment in this career phase. Negative incidents included parental divorce, negative peer influence, injury, car accidents, and the death of a peer. Such unforeseen problems were retrospectively viewed as a means of enhancing overall mental toughness. Performers described the impact of such experiences as contributing to balancing life and sport, and developing a clearer perspective on what they were doing and why, and how they could ultimately achieve their goal. One performer described the death of a friend:

I realized that this sort of thing could happen and you need to take control of your own life . . . so you got to go for it as you never know what will happen tomorrow . . . the other thing was that you can not rely on other people . . . you need to take responsibility for your own stuff and get on . . . It made me more determined to achieve something and I knew I had to do it for myself as no one else can do it for you. (Performer 5)

Positive critical incidents included valued or prestigious successes, beating respected opponents, and being selected for national squads. These incidents were perceived as an indication that their potential could be achieved, “it reassured my belief that I was good enough to achieve my goals” and this belief had a positive impact on mental toughness.

By the end of this career phase all 13 subcomponents had developed to vary-ing degrees. Development in this career phase coincided with many successes, and performers linked moving into the elite to Olympic/World Champion status phase with being selected for their country, making an Olympic/World/European/Commonwealth final, or being successful at recognized events.

Elite to Olympic/World Champion status. The final development phase involved the enhancement of all 13 subcomponents to what was described as, “their highest levels”. Several factors influenced this enhancement during a 2–4 year period,


including: competitiveness, a great desire to compete against and beat world ranked performers, experience of international competition/games, an awareness of the capabilities of world class peers, and knowledge of training regimes and preparation schedules of competitors. Performers reported that the experience of competing at the very highest levels, and observing and talking to world class athletes and coaches, enhanced their knowledge of world class training schedules, preparation, and coaching styles. This knowledge and their, “competitive desire to win” enhanced overall mental toughness:

I traveled a lot and met other world (class) performers in my event, and even the world record holder . . . from talking to these and watching them in training and warming up . . . I tried to experience and learn from the different methods to make sure my method was the best it could be. I got bits from everywhere which enhanced my belief in what I was doing, my attitude to training, com-petition, and life really. (Performer 1)

During this career phase, subcomponents in the competition and postcompe-tition dimensions developed considerably. Successes such as winning important competitions or games, “gave me more and more belief... winning meant my train-ing, decisions, preparation was correct . . . I used competitions as stepping stones to increase my belief, focus, awareness and control”. A wide ranging support network (i.e., family, friends, coaches, sport psychologists) was reported to enhance all of the subcomponents within the competition and postcompetition dimensions. One participant stated that, “family and friends contributed to my balance in life . . . to get away from the sport and switch off . . . to use other people to help take pressure off me . . . to stay in control”. Working with a sport psychologist was reported as, “giving me the tools to deal with games . . . to develop the focus on/off switch . . . imagery enhanced my self-belief . . . to recognize what I had done and what I could do”. Knowledge of sport psychology and the use of mental skills allowed participants to interpret pressure, expectations, and anxiety in a more facilitative way, and this knowledge increased focus and belief, and enhanced the performer’s ability to control thoughts and feelings under pressure. Finally, sport psychologists were perceived to aid development of the two postcompetition subcomponents, ‘handling success’ and ‘handling failure’, by assisting in reframing goals, rational-izing good and bad performances, and attributing successes to ability and failures to poor preparation:

The psychology support really helped . . . setting goals . . . analyzing how I was feeling and how I should feel about training, coaches. Everything was more organized. He (sport psychologist) helped develop an awareness of what needed to be done . . . It wasn’t just general guidance but specific detail of what you needed to do . . . when . . . by how much, that made you aware of how each thing led to the ultimate goal. (Performer 4)

Performance failures caused temporary fluctuations in mental toughness, and were explained by changes in personal circumstances (e.g., moving to a different team), how performers defined their sporting career within their life, and perfor-mance expectations. These fluctuations enhanced the subcomponent, ‘handling failure’ (postcompetition dimension) and in combination with their social support


mechanism, positively impacted on all six subcomponents within the competition dimension. Specifically, these fluctuations assisted in creating the awareness, bal-ance, and control to, “love the pressure” of high level competition:

Before (Olympics identified) I had the top ranking and that put a lot of unwanted pressure on me . . . I wasn’t sleeping… I couldn’t cope with the expectations . . . I felt trapped . . . I didn’t have anything else in my life. It took me 5 months to get over it (failure) . . . I decided to see if I could enjoy (named sport) . . . train for 4 months better than I had done before . . . so I felt in total control of it . . . training came easier because I had released myself . . . I built back my belief from feeling in control and from small successes. I had balance in my life and sport . . . I took control regarding my training and used my awareness to understand what I should be doing . . . to enjoy it, to love it, pressure and all. (Performer 6)

Perceived critical incidents, both negative (e.g., family illnesses, being beaten by more junior athletes, injury) and positive (e.g., academic achievement, winning major competition, out-performing significant individuals such as World Cham-pions) were reported to result in increased belief, control, and balance in life, an enhanced ability to handle pressure and expectation, and a greater awareness of capabilities:

Mum got ill . . . really ill (condition named) . . . I realized that (sport named) wasn’t everything any more . . . I was too intense . . . I vowed to be more relaxed . . . get a life . . . get balance in my life so that I could get away from (sport named) when I needed to. (Performer 2)

I was competing against (competitor named) and I beat him . . . This was a huge boost for me . . . he was my hero. It made me realize that even though on paper this guy was the best, I beat him. Suddenly he was human, beatable . . . I was able to beat him. (Performer 1)

Finally, winning an Olympic or World title coincided with the end of the elite to Olympic/World Champion status phase, and the beginning of the mainte-nance years.

Maintenance Years. During this time, lasting 2–5 years, no participant reported any of the 13 subcomponents developing beyond those previously stated; it was also believed necessary to continue to work on mental toughness or it would diminish. Maintenance was achieved through the use of mental skills and strategies, “to keep mental toughness high, you need to constantly work on it . . . in training, competitions . . . you formulate routines in training and competitions so it is at its highest level for that important competition”. Winning the Olympics/World Championships was perceived to contribute greatly to the maintenance of mental toughness, “especially in the first two years after winning”. Achieving this status reinforced their belief that they had all the qualities necessary to be, “the best in the world”, and this assisted in maintaining mental toughness:


Winning the Olympics validated everything . . . it confirmed my belief . . . now you know your preparation is good enough to win . . . you know how to win . . . you know how much time you need to get in to that state to win, so you are relaxed about your preparation and you believe in your program much more than before . . . You know how to handle the pressure and that you can overcome it . . . use it . . . in fact my levels of mental toughness remained that high for about 2 years because of winning the Olympics. (Performer 3)

Strategies to maintain mental toughness involved: setting new goals that challenged the performer (e.g., “adding European and Commonwealth gold to my Olympic gold”); developing routines for training and competition; maintaining the correct balance with sport and lifestyle; adopting affirmative self-talk strategies and positive rationalization; and controlling negativity and expectations.

All of the performers felt they experienced a lack of mental toughness within the maintenance years. Three participants claimed to recover from this drop through a radical change in routine and the use of mental skill and strategies, while the others stated that this lack of mental toughness contributed to unsuccessful per-formances and ultimately, retirement. Participants suggested the subcomponents, ‘belief’ and ‘focus’ in the attitude/mindset dimension were affected first, followed by the subcomponents in the training, competition, and postcompetition dimen-sions, “my focus reduced, followed by my belief and this caused a domino effect on the subcomponents in training, competition, and post-competition”. A lack of ‘new challenges’, injuries, or relationships, family, financial, or career overtaking the importance of sport, were reported as reasons for this lack of mental toughness:

I needed another goal . . . I had won the Olympics, the Europeans, I had the world record. I needed a focus, I couldn’t get up about winning the Olympics again . . . I lost my focus and this had a knock-on effect on my belief, my training, competition . . . I could (sport activity named) well but I didn’t have that edge . . . that bit that allowed me to excel. (Performer 1)

The performers who overcame the reductions in mental toughness stated that they found ways of setting new challenges that motivated them to focus on goal achievement, and provided a different perspective on their sport (e.g., moving to a new location, recruiting a new coach, changing events, and developing a more technical side to their sport). One performer suggested that, “a new coach gave me a different perspective, a more technical side . . . it was a new challenge rather than the same old one . . . it motivated me to focus more. I felt I had something to prove again”.

Development and Maintenance: Coaches’ and Sport Psychologists’ Perspectives

From their experiences of working with superelite performers and based on Jones et al. (2007) framework, coaches and sport psychologists provided their opinions of how mental toughness is developed and maintained (presented in Table 3.). The coaches’ and sport psychologists’ beliefs were merged together to incorporated the unique and distinctive insights that they possessed in relation to a performer’s sporting and nonsporting life.

184

Tab

le 3

C

oac

hes

’/Sp

ort

Psy

cho

log

ists

’ Per

spec

tive

s o

n M

enta

l To

ug

hn

ess

Dev

elo

pm

ent

and

Mai

nte

nan

ce

Dev

elop

men

tD

imen

sion

and

Sub

com

pone

ntU

nder

lyin

g th

emes

Atti

tude

/Min

dset

• B

elie

f•

Cha

lleng

es in

trai

ning

• Fo

cus

• E

duca

tion

rega

rdin

g ho

w f

ocus

impr

oved

per

form

ance

• Ach

ieve

men

t of

succ

esse

s an

d go

als

in tr

aini

ng e

nhan

ced

Atti

tude

/min

dset

sub

com

pone

nts,

‘be

lief’

and

‘fo

cus’

Tra

inin

g•

Usi

ng lo

ng-t

erm

goa

ls a

s th

e so

urce

of

mot

ivat

ion

• G

ood

com

mun

icat

ion

• Pu

shin

g yo

urse

lf to

the

limit

• E

duca

tion

rega

rdin

g ef

fect

ive

goal

set

ting

• C

ontr

ollin

g th

e en

viro

nmen

t•

Ena

blin

g pe

rfor

mer

ow

ners

hip

of tr

aini

ng p

rogr

am

• D

evel

opm

ent o

f a

posi

tive

grou

p tr

aini

ng a

tmos

pher

e

• Fo

ster

ing

prid

e in

ach

ieve

men

t of

diffi

cult

sets

• Fo

ster

ing

com

petit

iven

ess

and

chal

leng

ing

perf

orm

ers

• Po

sitiv

e im

ager

y

Com

petit

ion

• C

ontr

ollin

g th

e en

viro

nmen

t• A

dapt

ion

of A

ttitu

de/m

inds

et a

nd T

rain

ing

subc

ompo

nent

s to

com

petit

ive

setti

ngs.

• B

elie

f• A

cqui

ring

bal

ance

with

reg

ard

to s

port

and

life

• R

egul

atin

g pe

rfor

man

ce•

Edu

catio

n on

how

to h

andl

e co

mpe

titio

n pr

essu

re

• St

ayin

g fo

cuse

d•

Sim

ulat

ion

trai

ning

• Aw

aren

ess

and

cont

rol o

f th

ough

ts a

nd f

eelin

gs

• H

andl

ing

pres

sure

Post

-Com

petit

ion

• H

andl

ing

failu

re•

Inte

rnat

iona

l exp

erie

nce

• Si

mul

atio

n tr

aini

ng

• H

andl

ing

succ

ess

• R

eflec

tive

prac

tice

(why

and

how

thin

gs o

ccur

red)

• Im

ager

y: r

ecre

atin

g an

d re

expe

rien

cing

suc

cess

es

• D

evel

opm

ent o

f pr

erac

e or

pre

gam

e ro

utin

es

(con

tinu

ed)

185

Mai

nten

ance

Dim

ensi

on a

nd S

ubco

mpo

nent

Und

erly

ing

them

es

Atti

tude

/Min

dset

• B

elie

f•

Pres

ervi

ng B

elie

f an

d Fo

cus

(Atti

tude

/min

dset

dim

ensi

on)

• Fo

cus

• Acq

uiri

ng b

alan

ce w

ith r

egar

d to

spo

rt a

nd li

fe

• E

ffec

tive

com

mun

icat

ion

and

educ

atio

n re

gard

ing

goal

s

• D

evel

opm

ent o

f go

al m

aps

• Adv

ance

d ps

ycho

logi

cal s

kill

usag

e

• R

eflec

tive

prac

tice

(why

and

how

thin

gs o

ccur

red)

• Im

ager

y

• E

ncou

ragi

ng c

ompe

titiv

enes

s an

d pr

ide

in tr

aini

ng

• Si

mul

atio

n tr

aini

ng

• D

evel

opm

ent o

f pr

erac

e or

pre

gam

e ro

utin

es

Tra

inin

g•

Usi

ng lo

ng-t

erm

goa

ls a

s th

e so

urce

of

mot

ivat

ion

• Pu

shin

g yo

urse

lf to

the

limit

• C

ontr

ollin

g th

e en

viro

nmen

t

Com

petit

ion

• C

ontr

ollin

g th

e en

viro

nmen

t

• B

elie

f

• R

egul

atin

g pe

rfor

man

ce

• St

ayin

g fo

cuse

d

• Aw

aren

ess

and

cont

rol o

f th

ough

ts a

nd f

eelin

gs

• H

andl

ing

pres

sure

Post

-Com

petit

ion

• H

andl

ing

failu

re

• H

andl

ing

succ

ess

Tab

le 3

(co

nti

nu

ed)


Developing Mental Toughness. A combination of many factors (e.g., trial and error, successes and failures, expert instruction, and social support) was believed to develop mental toughness over a number of years. Development began in the attitude/mindset dimension followed by the training, competition, and postcompetition dimensions, respectively. Coaches and sport psychologists suggested that the first step was to develop the two subcomponents, ‘belief’ and ‘focus’ in the attitude/mindset dimension. Creating challenges in training and educating performers regarding how focus contributed to acquiring, “the right physical and mental shape to achieve specific goals”, and also achieving successes in training were attributed to developing focus, commitment, and belief:

They would ideally come to me with the talent and some sort of belief and focus. We would build on this in training . . . if you have a session, you have to finish the session. This makes them face challenges . . . they can see things happening, and this builds the belief in the program, me (the coach), and themselves. (Coach 2)

Effective communication, goal setting, and involving the performer in the planning was reported to provide the commitment and motivation necessary to achieve spe-cific aims in training, and develop the subcomponent, ‘using long-term goals as the source of motivation’ (training dimension). One coach suggested that involving the performer in the planning gave them, “ownership in some form, helps them feel in control and take charge of their sport”. Education regarding how the achievement of short-term goals equated to long-term goals (in training and competition) pro-vided knowledge on how long each training phase would take, thereby increasing motivation, focus, patience, and perception of control:

You need to help them realize what they can achieve with the training . . . physique they have . . . communication . . . you need to sit down with them and set goals . . . you can’t progress to the next step unless you reach the goals that are in front of you. We discuss how doing something in training relates to reaching that aim. I bombard them with reminders of why they are here . . . what they need to do . . . to motivate them. (Coach 1)

Developing a positive training atmosphere, challenging performers, the use of positive imagery, encouraging competitiveness in training (e.g., head-to-head races and partnering performers with other elite performers or possibly competitors), fostering pride in achieving difficult training sets, and emphasizing the acceptance that training, “has to hurt” were reported to contribute to the development of the subcomponents, ‘controlling the environment’ and ‘pushing yourself to the limit’ (training dimension):

We try to develop pride in training hard . . . head-to-head races . . . push them-selves hard . . . be involved and committed to the team . . . this pride develops into a feeling of achievement every session and they learn to love the hard bits. They imagine beating their competitors in training sets . . . It makes them aware of what they need to do. (Coach 2)

The next step, according to the coaches and sport psychologists, was to use the already acquired subcomponents within the attitude/mindset and training dimen-


sions to assist in the development and enhancement of four of the six competition subcomponents. Specifically, ‘belief’, ‘focus’, ‘using long-term goals as a source of motivation’, ‘controlling the environment’, and ‘pushing yourself to the limit’ (attitude/mindset and training dimensions) were all perceived to transfer or adapt to the subcomponents in the competition dimension, namely, ‘belief’, ‘controlling the environment’, ‘regulating performance’, and ‘handling pressure’:

We break things down, certain things must be practiced in competitions and this may mean sacrificing an outcome to achieve a specific aim . . . it’s like a jigsaw . . . every piece must be in place and sometimes you have to be able to see that sections must be practiced separately, and perfected separately, and then put together. (Sport Psychologist 1)

Balance and education were reported as important factors in developing the fifth subcomponent, ‘staying focused’ (competition dimension). Balance was described as, “other interests and priorities in life… hobbies or education” and allowed performers to switch off from sporting pressure. Education regarding how others handled pressure situations, and simulating such experiences assisted in developing the ‘on/off focus switch’, and the ability to enjoy and “love the pressure”:

Switching off is key, it’s easy to switch on but switching off is difficult. If you can not get away from your sport, you are too desperate to succeed . . . you need balance . . . to step away from pressure . . . to switch off . . . it gives you a break in order to recharge. Once they can switch off, they can switch on at higher levels when it is required. (Sport Psychologist 2)

Development of the sixth subcomponent, ‘awareness and control of thoughts and feelings’ (competition dimension) and the two subcomponents, ‘handling success’ and ‘handling failure’ (postcompetition dimension) were influenced by competitive experience and engaging in postrace or game analysis. Successful achievements were formally analyzed, “to understand why they occurred” and then recreated, via imagery. Associating positive emotions to experiences assisted in creating routines and greater awareness of optimal precompetition thoughts and feelings which enhanced the subcomponents, ‘belief’ (attitude/mindset and competition dimensions). Perceived failures or mistakes were examined and ratio-nalized to improve future performances and training methods. This rationalization resulted in greater awareness and control of preperformance thoughts and feelings, increased motivation in training, and overall focus. Finally, specific strategies were then developed to counteract any potential distractions, disruptions, or problems:

Mistakes that caused problems . . . you video them if possible and calculate how much time they lost . . . I talk about what they are thinking and why . . . the first step is to introduce awareness . . . what effect they have, how we can change them . . . then we work out how we would cope with different scenarios . . . what we would do to overcome it . . . We plan for it. This way they are ready for anything and nothing will distract them. Then they are more relaxed… and this means enjoying the moment . . . loving the pressure. (Coach 1)

While coaches and sport psychologists did not profess to understand every circumstance that performers encountered, they did acknowledge the notion of


critical incidents. Specifically, they reported witnessing negative incidents but had no knowledge of exactly how they affected mental toughness development. With regard to positive critical incidents, coaches and sport psychologists reported trying to initiate such incidents to enhance mental toughness:

Putting them (performers) in with other world class athletes . . . their com-petitors . . . to realize they are as good or better in training, coping with life . . . belief increases and this has a positive effect on motivation, commitment, focus and overall mental toughness. (Coach 2)

Maintaining Mental Toughness. Participants suggested that the maintenance of mental toughness occurred in the dimensional order of, attitude/mindset, training, competition, and postcompetition. Coaches and sport psychologists stated that when strategies to maintain the subcomponents, ‘belief’ and ‘focus’ (attitude/mindset dimension) were perceived “to be in place”, separate strategies could be introduced to maintain subcomponents in the training, competition, and postcompetition dimensions. Mental skills that reenforced belief and focus, and encouraged the correct sport/life balance were highlighted as important in maintaining the attitude/mindset dimension. Other strategies involved extracting maximum value from successes, thereby enhancing greater awareness of the achievement of specific goals, “to increase focus and the durability of belief . . . to make it unshakable belief”, and simulation training to increase the performer’s belief that they could overcome any obstacle.

Effective communication and education regarding goals (e.g., retaining an Olympic title) and how they could be achieved, provided a justification for con-tinuing in that sport, at that level. The development of process and performance goal ‘maps’ guided the performer through each step in achieving the long-term outcome goal and enhanced the performer’s internal motivation to, “stick with the training and make achievement of his goal as the number one priority in his life”. This increased focus and commitment, specifically in what they had to do day to day, encouraged competitiveness, and instilled pride in completing difficult sets. Other strategies included: developing competition routines; reflective practice; recognition of key moments in the game, and how to react to these; and simula-tion training, to incorporate all potential problems in games/races (e.g., mistakes, opponent’s game plan):

In lesser competitions we use video analysis . . . we remember why we worked so hard to get here and stay committed to that. Communication, trying to see the bigger picture, and using imagery and simulation training . . . visualizing potential obstacles and breaking them down into many smaller parts so that they could be tackled one by one, instead of all together . . . Practice gives the performer the knowledge to select the right options in pressure situations. (Sport psychologist 1)

Recommendations

The final part of all interviews probed for recommendations to assist future athletes in developing and maintaining mental toughness. This section is combined to include five suggestions that were offered by performers, coaches, and sport psychologists.


First, was the need to develop mental toughness education programs for coaches and performers. In fact, Jones et al.’s (2007) framework was proposed as being valuable for understanding the make-up and development of mental toughness as, “it helps to explain mental toughness . . . it gives direction on what to focus on . . . to see what they have to do in training . . . in competition, etc”. Second, the provision of expert coaching to performers within a disciplined and structured training regimen was suggested to enhance the development of subcomponents within the attitude/mindset and training dimensions. Third, building belief in performers through suc-cesses in training and competitions, setting challenging goals, and enabling good communication between the athlete and coach/sport psychologist:

Performers need to know that not only are they good enough to win but that their training program, coaches, lifestyle, are right and facilitate the achieve-ment of their goal. You build the belief in the system and that builds the belief in the performers. (Sport psychologist 2)

Fourth, enable access to a wide ranging social support network that includes sporting (e.g., coaches, senior athletes, sport psychologists, team-mates) and nonsporting (e.g., friends, parents) individuals. This can assist in achieving the correct balance between sporting and general life commitments. And finally, with specific relevance to maintenance, participants recommended setting goals that the performer has not already achieved (e.g., retaining an Olympic title), “something that the performer can focus on and want to achieve”.

DiscussionThis study addressed the underlying mechanisms accountable for mental toughness development and maintenance. Findings are discussed in relation to the participants’ experiences of development and maintenance, followed by practical implications, and future directions.

Participants’ Experiences of Development and Maintenance

Development and maintenance of mental toughness evolved over four distinct career phases, with significant events characterizing the transition between career phases (e.g., changing clubs, working with a new coach, making the national team, or winning a major event). Factors that were reported to develop mental toughness during the initial involvement to intermediate level phase included being competi-tive in training and engaging in activities for enjoyment, socialization, and skill mastery (Connaughton et al., 2008; Gould et al., 2002). Performers derived a sense of achievement from learning skills more quickly and to a higher level, than their peers, thereby increasing focus and instilling a belief of sporting superiority. The intermediate to elite level phase was characterized by discipline and structure in training, learning from role models, and doing what was necessary to achieve suc-cess in training. These findings were consistent with studies that have attributed role models and disciplined involvement to the development of talented individuals and Olympic Champions (Bloom, 1985; Durand-Bush & Salmela, 2002; Gould et al., 2002). During the elite to Olympic/World Champion status phase, development


was influenced by experience of international competition, an intense desire to win and upstage world class performers, a wide ranging social support network, the use of mental skills, attaining the correct balance in life, gaining knowledge from respected individuals (e.g., coaches, competitors, sport psychologists), and reflec-tive practice (cf. Connaughton et al., 2008). In addition, competitive experience allowed performers to become more familiar with and cope more positively in future competitions, and being involved in a process of reflection enabled familiarization of competition-specific symptoms. These experiences empowered individuals to become self-aware, implement change, and cope more positively (e.g., Ghaye & Ghaye, 1998; Hanton et al., 2007).

Supporting Connaughton et al.’s (2008) findings, the experience of critical incidents were found to have a powerful influence on mental toughness develop-ment. Perceived critical incidents (positive and negative) acted as catalysts in cul-tivating mental toughness throughout all three development phases. For example, the recognition of talent by respected individuals was perceived as a positive critical incident, which provided the encouragement and inspiration that goals and potential were achievable, thereby enhancing belief and motivation. Interestingly, self-confidence and motivation have been frequently attributed to development of expertise in sport (e.g., Gould et al., 2002). Negative critical incidents, such as parental divorce or being involved in a car accident, resulted in a reappraisal of priorities. These incidents influenced mental toughness in one of two ways: (a) sport was viewed as “an escape” from such negative experiences and resulted in increased focus and prioritization of training and competition goals, or (b) they were perceived to increase control and focus on long-term goals, by enabling the performer to develop the necessary perspective with life and sport (Botterill, Patrick, & Sawatzky, 1996; Durand-Bush & Salmela, 2002; Orlick, 2000).

Knowledge of how to handle such negative life experiences, and what strategies and environments are necessary to assist mental toughness development would be of great benefit to sport psychologists and coaches. Previous research has indicated the importance of exploring critical incidents or ‘periodic incidents’ in relation to experience (Côté et al., 2003; Hanton, Cropley, & Lee, 2009; Hanton et al., 2007), and mental toughness (Connaughton et al., 2008). While not directly investigating perceived critical incidents, Gould et al. (2002) found that direct (emphasizing cer-tain psychological lessons) and indirect (unknowingly creating certain psychological environments) affects were involved in developing Olympic Champions. It could be argued that perceived critical incidents and what performers learn from these incidents may assist in creating the necessary psychological environments for mental toughness development to occur, and this process warrants future investigation.

Findings also support the contention that, once acquired, mental toughness can fluctuate and must be maintained (cf. Connaughton et al., 2008). Maintenance was influenced by strong sporting (e.g., coaches, team mates, sport psychologists) and nonsporting (e.g., friends, parents) support networks, and preserving the correct bal-ance with life and sport (Connaughton et al., 2008). In addition, the act of winning an Olympic or World title was found “to protect high levels of mental toughness for up to two years”. Following achievement of specific goals (i.e., Olympic title), new, challenging goals need to be set to sustain the strong desire to succeed and the focus necessary to maintain mental toughness. Finally, reductions in mental toughness began by negatively affecting the subcomponents ‘belief’ and ‘focus’


(attitude/mindset dimension), and were attributed to a lack of new challenges, injuries, and prioritization of relationships, family, or career over sport.

Practical Implications and Future Directions

The underlying themes of mental toughness development that were identified in this study provide an overview of how mental toughness training programs can be devised. These programs should initially concentrate on skill mastery, enjoyment, competitiveness, a disciplined and structured training regimen, and finally, building a belief of superiority (Feltz, Short, & Sullivan, 2008). Motivating performers to achieve success in training and competitions can be achieved by providing expert coaching and learning from inspirational role models. The subcomponents, ‘belief’ and ‘focus’ (attitude/mindset dimension) were viewed as the foundation for mental toughness development and maintenance, and were influenced by performance accomplishments, awareness in training, and an ability to control focus (see Feltz et al., 2008). Furthermore, skill mastery, a desire to be the best, expert coaching, and successes in training and competitions, were highlighted as key factors in the development and maintenance of mental toughness. Csikszentmihalyi et al. (1993) highlighted discipline as essential in acquiring the skills necessary for superior performance, while Orlick and Partington (1988) suggested focus, commitment to the pursuit of excellence, and setting practice goals, as variables that successful athletes possess. Performers therefore, should be encouraged to engage in sport-ing activities as a means of skill accomplishment, socialization, and to develop a disciplined work ethic. In young performers, parents and coaches could assist in creating the correct motivational environment for the attitude/mindset and training subcomponents to develop. Indeed, Gould et al. (2002) found that coaches and parents were the primary influence in instilling hard work and discipline, provid-ing encouragement and support, and teaching mental skills. Because parents and coaches play such a crucial role, more research should focus on uncovering exactly what it is they do to support, motivate, and guide athletes.

Coaches, sport psychologists, and older, more experienced performers facili-tated the development of the competition dimension through advice and education regarding strategies to achieve success, to recognize and exert control over inappro-priate thoughts and feelings, and how to handle the pressure of competition. These strategies highlight the importance of learning basic and advanced psychological skills to enhance the development and maintenance of mental toughness (Con-naughton et al., 2008). While recent investigations have suggested goal setting and the use of imagery to enhance attentional focus, concentration, self-confidence, and motivation (e.g., Short, Ross-Stewart, & Monsma, 2006; Wadey & Hanton, 2008), future research should address the impact of specific mental skills on mental toughness development and maintenance.

Finally, experience of international competition, reflective practice, and a sporting and nonsporting social support network, may afford performers the means to extract the knowledge necessary to develop and maintain mental toughness to its highest levels. Postcompetition analysis and reflection was reported as important in achieving peak levels of mental toughness, and coaches and performers may wish to formally include it in their training programs. Furthermore, investigations should include assessing the role and contribution of education, and how key individuals (e.g.,


parents, coaches, sporting and nonsporting friends) provide support and foster the correct life/sport balance in the development and maintenance of mental toughness.

The fact that none of the coaches or sport psychologists had worked with super-elite performers during the first two career phases is recognized as a limitation in this study. However, in the world of elite sport it is not unusual for coaches and sport psychologists to begin their relationships in the latter parts of performers’ careers (i.e., when performers are at their best). Despite the challenges of finding such indi-viduals to sample, researchers in the future should endeavor to seek out coaches and sport psychologists who have worked with mentally tough performers throughout all four career phases. Nevertheless, the coaches’ and sport psychologists’ explana-tions supported the experiences reported by performers. Indeed, both groups revealed that development took place over a long time period, was influenced by a variety of individuals (parents, coaches, family, friends: Bull et al., 2005), factors (environment, critical incidents: Bull et al., 2005; Connaughton et al., 2008; Thelwell et al., 2005), and occurred in a specific dimensional order (cf. Whitehead, 1929).

Finally, the authors only investigated the development and maintenance of mental toughness in relation to Jones et al.’s (2007) four dimensions and 13 sub-components, and while recognizing this as a limitation, the authors believe that the articulation of the underlying mechanisms for all 30 attributes was beyond the practicalities of this study. Findings also highlight the overriding need to develop a mental toughness measure, and while recent advancements have been made with regard to a measure in Australian football (i.e., Gucciardi, Gordon, & Dimmock, 2009), a conceptually accurate and psychometrically valid and reliable measure of mental toughness is required to address: the identification of performers who possess high or low levels of specific attributes, subcomponents, or dimensions; cross-sectional group comparisons, and the design, implementation, and assessment of specific intervention programs.

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