developing leaders: examining the role of transactional and transformational leadership across...
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8/9/2019 Developing Leaders: Examining the Role of Transactional and Transformational Leadership Across Business Contexts
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Abstract
Leaders:
ining the Role of
Michae l B. Hargis
John D Watt
Chris P iotrowski
Mic hael B. Hargis Ph.D.
is an
Assistant Professor of Management
and Innovation at the University of
Central Arkansas. His research inter-
ests focus on understanding how
person- and situation-based factors
inf luence both funct ional
(e.g.,
task
persistence, innovation, goal setting)
and dysfunct ional
(e.g.,
unethical
His research appears in jou rna ls such as
Psychology
ournal of Vocational
Behavior
an d
Relations. Dr. Hargis serves as a member of the
act Inform ation
Over the p ast 20 years, the Multifactor Leadersh
Theory MLT) has become one of the m ost
dominant theories of leadership. This popularit
is due, in part, to the broad range of leadership
behav iors included in the theory. Bass 1985) an
colleagues conceptualized leadership as consist-
ing of three prima ry factors i.e., transform ationa
transacfional, and passive/laissez-faire leadershi
and p rior research has clearly linked transforma
tional and transactional leadership to important
outcomes, such as employee commitment and
organizational performance. Furtherm ore, prior
research has established that these behaviors can
be developed throug h training. How ever, it is
less well understood how the importance of thes
behaviors changes across organizational settings
The purpo se of this study, therefore, is to exam in
across two data sets) the relative importance of
these leadership factors across various outcomes
i.e., team potency/efficacy, team cohesion, and j
performance) and organizational contexts i.e.,
military and healthcare). Results indicate that
transformafional leadership behaviors are
critically important for team cohesion and team
potency/efficacy Data Set 1) and lead er
effectiveness Data Set 2), and that transac tional
leadership becomes particularly salient with
regard to actual task performance and extra effo
Data Set
and 2). Implications of these results
for practitioners are discussed, and a useful tax-
onomy to guide leadership development is pro-
vided.
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Introduction
John D. W att Ph.D. is an Associate
Professor of Organizational Behavior
and Hum an Resources OBHR) in the
Department of Management at the
University of Central Arkansas. His
research interests center around the
influence of cognitive and personality
variables on organizational behavior.
He is particularly interested in the areas
of boredom proneness, individual att i tude strength
e.g.,
affective-cognitive consistency), employee engagement,
perceived organizational support, and underem ployme nt.
His research appears in journals such as Journal of Applied
Psychology, Journal of Business and Psychology, and
Journal o f Research in Personality. Dr. Wa tt curre ntly serves
as Executive Editor of The Journal o f P sychology:
Interdisciplinary and Applied.
Contact Information
Department of Marketing and Management
University of Central Arkansas
201 Donaghey Avenue
Conway, AR 72035
Chris Piotrowski
has s erved as a
research consu ltant at the University of
West Florida since 1982. He has
authored over 200 peer-reviewed pub-
lications, including book chapters over
the past 30 years. He has a research
focus o n da tabase s earching , assess-
ment issues, and the study of disasters.
His work has appeared in the
ncydopedia of
Stress
Chris also serves as a reviewer for
journals in psychology, me dicine, and business.
Contact Information
Chris Piotrowski
504 Concordia Blvd.
Pensacola FL 32505
Effective leade rship h as bee n rec ognize d as
tral determinan t of growth a nd success with
organizational settings ranging from profit s
ing enterprises to amateur and professional
letics, religious organizations, and military
(Judge Piccolo, 2004; Low e, Kroeck,
Sivasubram aniam, 1996; No rtho use , 2007).
recognition has resulted in increasing intere
leadership development, with organizations
investing greater and greater resources into
ership development and succession plannin
(Bolt, 2007; Carter, Ulrich, Go ldsm ith, 200
Hernez-Broom e H ug he s, 2004; Riggio, 20
Across settings, transformational leadership
behaviors have become o ne of the most dom
approaches to understanding leadership effe
ness (Lowe Gardn er, 2001) an d certain tra
mational leadership beha viors are included
leadership development programs from com
nies operating in industries ranging from on
retail (e.g., Zappos .com ) to finance (e.g., GE
tal; Hsieh, 2010). Furthermore, there is sub
tial evidence that transformational leadersh
behaviors lead to important individual-level
comes such as employee commitment, motiv
and task performance and organization-leve
comes such as firm performance (Barling, W
Kellow ay 1996; Bono Judge, 2004; Byc
Hackett, Allen, 1995). Finally as describe
the Multifactor Leadership Theory (MLT), e
dence suggests that transformational leader
behaviors augment, or build upon, transacti
leadership behaviors such as utilizing contin
rew ard s (Judge Piccolo, 2004).
Thus, the extant research provide s reasonab
strong sup port for the theoretical predicatio
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ved from the MLT (cf.. Hou se Sham ir, 1993;
Avolio, 1993; Jud ge Piccolo, 2004;
et al., 1996). Nam ely, transac tional leader-
behaviors and transform ational leadership
iors are necessary to effectively perform as a
emental value to mo re tradition al transaction-
rship behav iors. W hile prior research has
ly supp orted the theoretical tene ts outlined
he MLT, lea dership scholars ha ve b egu n to rec-
l context, imp act w^hat leader beh avio rs are
Hall,
Shamir How ell, 1999). That is, the trans -
ps) may no t trans late to effective perform ance
Office). The sam e is true across different
ormance criteria (Jud ge Piccolo, 2004). In
2003; Den
og et al., 1999) clearly ind icates tha t the
of other criteria (e.g., creativity, com mitm ent,
en the role of leadership in creating and sus-
ing a competitive a dva ntage , an d the role
leader beh avio rs (Parry Sinha, 2005),
de rsta nd the specific factors
impact organization al success. Furthe rmo re,
important to exam ine how the im portanc e of
nization. Thus , the purp ose of this stud y is
end prior research by exploring the relative
t performan ce across a variety of
zationally v alued criteria (e.g., team pote n-
cy/efficacy, job performance, team cohesion) and
organizational contexts (e.g., private healthcare
and m ilitary). This is particularly im portan t
because prior research has relied on faulty meas
ures to assess predictor importance, and there is
some data suggesting that leadership behaviors
change in impo rtance across contexts (Den Ha rt
et al., 1999; Johnson LeBreton, 2004; LeBreton
Hargis, Griepenti-og, Oswald,
Ployhart, 2007).
Additionally, these data will help practitioners
create leadership development approaches that
are more cost and time-effective, and context sen
sitive, due to the increased aw areness of which
behaviors are most related to desired outcomes
across different organizational settings.
In the text that follows, we: 1) outline the leader-
ship behaviors includ ed in the multifactor leade
ship theory, 2) present the results of a study
designed to examine how the relative importanc
of these leadership behaviors change across dif-
ferent organ izational settings (military and med -
ical) and across outcomes such as team
potency/efficacy, team cohesion, and job perform
ance, and 3) presen t a leadership developm ent
taxonomy (based on the results of the current
study and a review of best practices) designed to
aide practitioners in the development and chang
process.
Multifactor Leadership Theory
The multifactor leadership theory developed by
Bass (1985) has received a great deal of theoretic
and empirical attention over the past nearly thre
decades (Bass Avolio, 2000; Judge Piccolo,
2004; Lowe, Kroeck, Sivasub ramaniam, 1996).
This popularity is due, in part, to three primary
factors. First, the model of leadership introduce
by Bass encompasses a broad range of leader
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and non -lead ersh ip (or laissez-faire). Second,
entific literature has generated substantial
use Shamir, 1993, How ell Avolio, 1993;
ride, 2006; Lowe et al., 1996). Third, this
(Parry Sinha, 2005) and these behav -
have been linked to impo rtant ind ividual,
Howell Avolio, 1993; Lowe et al.,
W aldman, B ass,
Yammarino, 1990). For
et al. (1996) presen ted meta-ana-
correlations of .73 and .30, respecfively.
hat transformational leadership impacts creativi-
ty and innovation (Avolio et al., 1999) and com-
mitment (Bass
Riggio, 2006). Finally, Dvir,
Eden, Avolio, and Shamir (2002) presented evi-
dence suggesting that transformational leadership
resulted in better unit performance relafive to
group s that did not receive transformational lead-
ership train ing. In the following text, each of the
factors included in the MLT will be discussed.
Transformational leadership.
Transformational
leaders are described as being capable of m otivat-
ing followers to transcend their self-interests to
accomplish collective goals (Bass, 1985).
Transformational leadership includes four distinct
actors:
ide lized influence inspir tion l
motivation
ntellectu l stimulation nd individu lized considera-
(Bass Avolio, 2000). The ide lized influence
ed at influencing followers' perc eptions of
accomplishing stated goals, as well as leader
behaviors that are directed towards goal atta
ment and developing a sense of mission amo
followers. Key beh avio rs inclu de demo nstra
high levels of competence and the effecfive u
power to enhance group performance (Kirkb
2006). The inspirational motivation factor foc
on behaviors directed towards energizing an
motivafing followers, such as communicafing
vision and mak ing emotional app eals that h
followers strive towards future goals.
Inspirational behav iors include presenting o
mistic (yet attainable) visions for the future a
creafing a unified sense of mission and purp
(Kirkbride, 2006). The intellectu l stimul ti
tor focuses on encouraging followers to crific
examine their assumpfions, values, and belie
effect, the intellectual sfimulafion factor is vi
as the degree to which leaders favor new wa
doing things and encourage followers to dev
the skills necessary to think through and sol
problems for themselves. Finally, the individ
ized consider tion factor focuses on leader
behaviors that are aimed at understanding t
needs of individual followers and encouragi
them to develop to their full potential in the
suit of challenging goals (Avolio, Bass, Ju
1999;
Bass Avolio, 2000).
Transactional leadership.
The notion of tra
tional leadership grew^ out of the exchange-b
theories of leadership that dominated the lea
ship literature until the 198O's. Bass (1985)
defined fransactional leaders as leaders who
tify the needs of their followers and engage
exchange relationships with them based on o
tives to be m et. The high er ord er factor of t
actional leadership includes: contingent
rew
active mana gement by exception and passive
m
ment by exception. Contingent rew ard lead er
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Avolio, 1993). With this style of leader-
the leader sets clear goals and objectives and
ncial) can be expected for achiev ing g oals.
ctive
an d passive management by exception are
red beh avio r from followers. The differ-
when one c onsiders the m onitoring patte rn of
leader. Active ma nag em ent by exception is
racterized by the lea der s c ontinued observa-
of followers to en sure that agreed up on stan-
3). In contiast, passive ma nag em ent b y excep-
eaders only interv ene w^hen mistakes hav e
ady occurred (Antonak is et al., 2003).
The last leadership factor
or, which is labeled laissez-faire lead ersh ip.
follower. In essence, this type of leade rsh ip
ing decisions an d w ho fail to take interest
there are eight factors represe nted in
current form of the m ultifactor leade rship the-
Avolio, 1993) suggests that
this proposition. For instance, there is evidence
that transactional leadership behaviors lead to
effective leadership (Hater Bass,
1988;
Waldm
et al., 1990). Prior research also dem onstia tes th
after controlling for the effects of transactional
leadership, transformational leadership behavior
account for incremental variance in ratings of
leader effectiveness (Hater Bass, 1988) and sat
isfaction with the leader
Podsakof,
MacKenzie,
Moorman, Fetter, 1990). Additionally, the
results of a meta-analytic investigation of the
MLT, conduc ted by Lowe et al. (1996), sugg ested
that the same leader might exhibit behaviors asso
ciated with transactional and transformational
leadership, which is consistent with the theory
postulated by Bass (1985). This meta-analysis als
demonstrates that both types of leadership are
associated with leader effectiveness.
JVIethod
To examine ho w leader behaviors change in
importance across different criteria and organiza
tional contexts, we reanalyzed the correlation
matrices from two published studies using two
relative im portance indices that are increasingly
being used in the organizational science literatur
Dom inance Analysis and Relative Weights
Analysis - both of which are intioduced in more
detail in the da ta analysis section below. The use
of these relative importance statistics is becomin
more common in the organizational sciences (cf.
Baltes, Parker, Young, Huff, Altinan n, 2004;
LeBreton, Ployhart, Ladd, 2001). These data
sets were chosen because: (1) these two datasets
allow u s to examine the relative importance of th
factors and sub-factors included in the MLT
across diverse sam ples (military vs. registered
nurses) and performance criteria, and (2) the var
ables, as a group, explained a significant and
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end ent variables. These selection criteria are
: The first data set came from a study
by Bass, Avolio, Jung, a nd Berson
es: team potency/efficacy (represen t-
orm its mission) and team cohesion (repre-
ng whether team mem bers pulled together to
ion usin g a sample of 78 platoon leaders and
t
Set 2: The second data set came from a
These authors utilized a sample of nurses
1,376 to examine the impa ct of transforma-
Analysis Relative Importance Indices
bined with other variab les. Traditionally, a
) have been used to evaluate predic-
impo rtance. While each of these meth ods ha s
Darlington (1968) notes that most measures o
predictor importance are often misleading w
variables are co rrelated, wh ich is often the ca
the organizational sciences (LeBreton et al., 20
This is very useful when considering the ML
because transactional leadership and transfor
tional leadership behaviors are often highly c
lated. For instance, Bycio, Hac kett, and Allen
(1995) presented evidence demonstrafing tha
contingent reward behaviors usually correlat
strongly with transformational b ehaviors w it
intercorrelations rang ing from .63 to .70.
Furthe rmo re, Lowe et al. (1996) repo rted unc
rected correlations between the transformatio
factors th at ran ged in ma gn itud e from .68 to
To overcome these lim itations, two stafistical
approaches have been introduced: dominanc
analysis (Budescu, 1993) and relative w eights
analysis (Johnson, 2000). These stafisfics hav
recently been used in the organizafional scien
literature in areas ranging from employee sel
fion (Van Iddeking e & Ployhart, 2008) to un d
standing percepfions of fairness (Schleicher et
2006). For exam ple, LeBreton et al. (2007) an
Van Idde kinge and Ployh art (2008) bo th utiliz
relative imp ortance indices to examine which
employee selecfion tests best predicted job pe
forman ce. Addifionally, Schleicher et al. (200
utilized relative importance indices to examin
how selection procedures that provided the
opportunity to perform job related tasks posit
ly influenced subsequent applicant reactions
the organiza fion. Finally, Behso n (2005) dem
strated, via dominance analysis, that certain m
ageme nt practices (e.g., supervisory suppo rt,
autonomy, etc.) predicted a number of import
outcom es such as job safisfaction, wo rk stress
and intenfions to quit. W hile relative importa
indices have been used to examine a num ber
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arch has u sed these statistics within a leader-
ntext.
Analysis Dom inance analysis was
in the presen ce of co rrelated predic tors.
tive importance of m ultiple p redicto rs by
nance weigh t represents the average useful-
imp ortance. Statistically, for each var iable (j),
this weight represen ts the average useful-
of a variable across all subset regressions
Budescu, 2003). Thus, dominance analy-
on a variable's direct effect (i.e., w hen con-
), and partial effect (i.e., condi-
l on all subsets of pre dic tors ) (Budescu,
p. 544). Furthermore, general dominance
lysis examines patte rns of a pre dictor's dom i-
specif
tern of a variable's relative impo rtance
s regression m odels. Full dom inance occurs
n a variable is consistently m ore imp ortan t
y other va riable across all subset regres-
The second method.
ive Weights A nalys is (Johnso n, 2000), pro-
s a measu re of the relative im portan ce of
iple predictors by using a principal com po-
predictors that are maximally correlated with th
original set of predictors yet are orthogonal
(uncorrelated) to one another. The criterion vari
ables are then regressed on the transformed pre-
dictors yielding s tanda rdized regression coeffi-
cients. These coefficients are then squared and
combined with the squared standardized regres-
sion coefficients to calculate importance estimate
Both methods provide estimates of predictor
importance based on the proportion of the mode
R-̂ that can be attributed to each indepe nde nt pr
dictor. Furthermore, all of these independent
components add up to the model R^. Because
these methods provide estimates of importance
that sum to the mo del R^, it is possible to evalua
predictors using the metric of their proportionate
contribution to the model R^. Additionally, it is
possible to calculate rescaled relative importance
estimates for both dominance and relative
weights by dividing each raw estimate by the
model R^. These
rescaled importance estimates
in
cate the percentage of total explained variance
contributed by each independent predictor, whic
is a helpful metho d to comm unicate results.
Results
Bass et al. (2003) examined the predictive validit
of transformational and transactional leadership
behav iors of platoon leaders for ratings of unit
potency (i.e., group efficacy), unit cohesion, and
task performance by examining data collected
from 72 platoon leaders. When considering
unit/tea m potency (see Table 1), which represen t
the belief that the team can carry out the mission
successfully, our data indicate that transforma-
tional leadership behaviors are most important
(ranked #1) and account for approximately 42%
the predicted variance and transactional leader-
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r j Y
0.41
0.37
-0.37
ß j
0.28
0.04
-0.13
R S - C J
0.42
0.28
0.30
Tí
1
2
2
2 ßj2
1
3
2
C j
1
3
2
Importance Estimates Relative Rank ings
Variables
atoon Leader TF >D> Platoon Leader PA, Platoon Leader TA
te: Data are from the Platoon Leader Sample described in Bass et al. (2003). rry
zero order correlation; ßj
rescaled (RS) importance estimate, whicr\ is calculated by dividing the do
) by mo del R^. RS-Cj can be interpreted as the percentage of total explained variance c ontribu te
Importance Estimates Relative Rankings
Variables TTX, ß j RS-Cj r jy ^ ßj2 C j
onal Leadersh ip 0.48 0.26 0.39 1 1 1
Leadership 0.46 0.15 0.33 2 2 2
BE/Passive Leadership -0.43 -0.11 0.28 3 3 3
te: Data are from the Platoon Leader Sam ple described in Bass et al. (2003). rjy
zero order correlation; ßi
ized regression coefficient; RS-Cj
rescaled (RS) imp ortance estímate, which is calculated by d ividing the d
ight (Cj) by mod el R^. RS-Cj can be interpre ted as the perce ntag e of total explained varianc e contribu te
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ip behaviors an d man agem ent by exception
28
and 30 of the variance, respec-
l leadersh ip fully dom inates transactional
mportance (which is a comm on practice in the
izational sciences and deve lopm ent litera-
we would likely make the attribution that a
ationship w ith a .04 mag nitu de is practically
nd mean-
39 of predicted vari-
ce followed by 33 for transactional and 28
for manag emenf by excepfion. Finally, in ferms
of performance during a full-scale training exer
cise (see Table 3), transform ational lead ersh ip
behaviors became relatively less important.
More specifically, transactional behaviors accou
for
36
of predicted variance and passive leade
ship/management by exception accounted for
33 of predicted variance. Both variables fully
dominated transformafional leadership, which
accounts for 31 of predicted variance.
However, by examining the re-scaled importanc
estimates (which reflect percentages) we see tha
each variable accounts for roughly equal portio
of predicted variance.
The Bycio et al. (1995) stud y allows us to look a
the relative effectiveness of the sub-factors of fh
MLT across different criteria (i.e., leader effec-
tiveness and extra effort fiom employees). As
presented in Table 4, idealized influence (or
charisma) was the most important predictor wit
regard to leader effectiveness accounting for 41
ndent Variable = Platoon Performance (R^ = .11 )
Importance Estimates
Variables RS-C
0.30 0.06 0.31
0.31 0.16 0.36
-0.30 -0.14 0.33
Relative Rankings
2 3 3
1 1 1
2 2 2
tals 1.00
nance Results: Platoon Leader TA, Platoon Leader PA >D> P latoon L eader TF
: Data are from the Platoo n Lea der Sa mple described in Bass et al. (2003). r w
zero order correlation; ßj
sta
RS-CT
rescaled (RS) importance estimate, whicli is calculated by dividing the dom
ce weigh t (Cj) by m ode l R^. RS-Cj can be inter prete d as the percentage of total explained variance contributed b
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= Leader Effectiveness (R ̂= .41)
Importance Estimates
Relative Rankings
Idealized Influence
Individualized Consideration
Intellectual Stimulation
Contingent Reward
Management-by-Exception
RS-C
0.63 0.57 0.41
0.56 0.15 0.25
0.51 -0.03 0.18
0.42 -0.07 0.11
-0.26 -0.04 0.05
4
5
4
5
3
4
5
1.00
min ance Results: Idealized Influence >D> Indiv idua lized Co nside ration >D> Managem ent-by-Exc
Data are from
Bycio
et
al.
(1995). rjy
zero order correlation; ßj
=
standardized regression coefficient;
R
(RS) importance estimate, which is calculated by dividing the dominance weight (G) by model R^. RS
as the percentage of total explained variance contributed by each predictor.
the pred icted variance. Taken together, these
variables accoun ted for a combined 66 of
variance in the criterion (41 and 25 ,
18 or less
f predicted variance.
s of extra effort (see Table 5), again, ideal-
e (ranked
1
and accounting for 32 of
27 of the predicted variance in extra effort.
both accounted for 18 of predicte d vari-
ance,
but contingent reward dominated ind
alized conside ration. One of the mo st intere
findings here relates to individualized consid
tion. Exam ining the regression we ight (or st
dardized beta weight) it appears th at individ
ized consideration is not important (see Table
However, relative weights analysis suggests
it actually accounts for 18 of the predic ted
ance and is tied with con tingent reward lead
ship in terms of predictor impo rtance.
Discussion
Taken as a whole, the results from the curren
study clearly indicate that transformational l
ership behaviors are critically im portan t whe
considering team cohesion and team potency
cacy (Data Set 1) and leader effectiveness (D
Set 2). While transformational leadership is
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me mo re salient. This finding is consistent
es of leadersh ip accounting for 36 of the
(see Table 3) and 18 of the
across samples and criteria, our results fur-
rly indicate that effective lead ers need to hav e
l range of leader beha vio rs to dra w from. For
y, transformational be hav iors a ppe ar mo st
pen den t Va riable = Ex tra Effort (R^ = .72)
transacfional behaviors take the forefront. We
observed this pattern of relafionships across bo
samples used in this study.
From a practical standpoint, the results of the c
rent study have implications for leadership trai
ing and deve lopm ent program s. The results of
this study provide more information regarding
the impact that contextual factors have on shap-
ing leadership processes. Addifionally, through
the use of dom inance analysis, the results inform
us which factors are most important for predict-
ing outcomes in a particular context. Given tha
training time is expensive, this last piece of info
mation could really facilitate the development o
training protocols geared towards developing
leaders for specific contexts.
Idealized Influence
Individual ized Considerat ion
Intellectual Stimulation
Confirigent Reward
Management-by-Except ion
Resu lts: Idealize d Influence
Impor tance
0.82
0.70
0.78
0.68
-0.33
0.46
0.00
0.27
0.16
-0.06
>D> Intellectual
Estimates
RS-Cj
0.32
0.18
0.27
0.18
0.04
1.00
Stimulation
Relative
3
2
4
5
1
5
2
3
4
Rankings
1
4
2
3
5
>D> Contingent R ew ard >D>
vidualized Consideration, M anagem ent-by-Exception
Bycio et al. (1995). rjy
=
zero o rder correlation; ßj
=
standardized regression coefficient; RS-C
timate, which is calculated by d ividin g the d om inance w eight (Cj) by m odel R^. RS-Cj can be in
) impo rtance estima te,
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f baby-boom generation retire-
ent (Avolio, Avey & Quisenberry, 2010;
1997; Riggio, 2008). Inde ed, in the 2009
d retaining effective leaders at
. As a consequence,
t is viewed as a growth
arly ma ny different mea ns to
leadersh ip, effective leadersh ip devel-
ntation tha n w ith the actual choice of the rele-
2001;
Day Ha lpin, 2001;
Ruderman, 2010). One
l and strategic imperative for op timal organiza-
fectiveness is the emergence of best prac-
with regard to leader and leadership devel-
ent. Yet, a review of the literature sh ow s th at
are applied in business organizations
• Aligning leadership compe tencies with
business strategy
• Fostering innov ation, creativity, and
continuous improvement
• Recruiting, identifying and deve lopin
future talent and succession
• Executing and prom oting organizatio
strategy and change
• Building custom er and em ploye e loya
• Engaging in a suppo rtive organization
culture
• Eva luating the efficacy of leadersh ip
development initiatives and programs
Although this study represents a useful exten
of previous research, there are research quest
that remain unad dress ed. For example, the c
rent study, as well as the previous investigati
examining the impact of context on the leade
process, has only considered one variable at
time. Given that hu m an behavior is determi
by multiple elements, a useful area for future
research would be to examine the impact of m
tiple contextual variables concurrently.
Additionally, most of the research examining
transformational leadership process has focu
on the positive outcomes associated with tran
mational leader behaviors. While this work
incredibly useful, it does not consider the cau
of this behav ior. Thu s, anoth er area of futur
research could explore the various intraindiv
causes (e.g., personality, m otivation, values)
transforming behaviors.
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