developing autonomous learning strategies

7/29/2019 Developing Autonomous Learning Strategies

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The Extent of, and Desire for,

Autonomous Learning StrategiesAl d W l h


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Alexander Walsh

ContentsPurpose of Study ............... ................. ................ ................ ................ ................. ................ ................ ................. ................ ....... 1

Literature Review ............... ................. ................ ................ ................ ................. ................ ................ ................. ................ ....... 2

History of Autonomous Learning.................................................................................................................................... 2

Autonomous Learning and Asian Cultures ................................................................................................................. 3

Findings & Discussion ................ ................ ................. ................ ................ ................ ................. ................ ................. ............ 6

Data Collection .............. ................. ................ ................ ................ ................. ................ ................ ................. ................ ....... 6

Results .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 6

1) Student Attitudes towards Autonomous Practices ................................................................................ 6

2) Students Autonomous Strategies Outside of the Classroom .......................................................... 8

3) Teachers Use of Autonomous Strategies in the Classroom ............................................................. 9

Conclusion ................................................................................................................................................................................... 10

Bibliography ................................................................................................................................................................................ 12

Appendix 1 Student Questionnaire 14


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Purpose of Study

For a long time, the typical East Asian classroom has been described as teacher and book

centred whilst utilizing grammar translation and rote learning language teaching methodologies

(Littlewood, 1999). The typical East Asian learner, meanwhile, is often typified as introverted,

teacher dependent, passive and compliant (Gan, 2009). In South Korea the education system is in

transition, the Ministry of Education (2008) is encouraging English language teachers to move

away from the traditional grammar translation and rote learning classroom methodologies

towards a communicative oriented English language system based on specific communicational

goals:

[Students will have] the ability to communicate in English, [to] act as an important

bridge connecting different countries, and [] be the driving force developing our

country by forming trust among various countries and cultures.

(Ministry of Education 2008:41)

This transition is being spearheaded by a new examination system, known as NEAT (National

English Assessment Test) due to be implemented in 2016. The NEAT will operate alongside the

current SAT examination system (Korean University Entrance Exams), and will focus purely on


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2) To what extent do Korean high school students desire autonomous learning

practices in the classroom and engage in autonomous language learning outside

of the classroom?

3) Can the utilisation of autonomous language learning strategies be considered an

achievable goal for the South Korean public education system?

Literature Review

History of Autonomous Learning

Personal autonomy as an educational goal can be traced back to the European

Enlightenment Period in which individual autonomy and independency were seen as key ideals

(see, for example, Kant, 1933). It has since then, albeit with periods of strong criticism, played an

important role in the educational aims of Western countries (Gremmo & Riley, 1995). Given these

historical roots, autonomy has been widely considered a Western construct, one that has strongly

influenced modernist thinking about the subject and the emancipated individual in a democratic

t t (S h k 2005 107) I t t i th ti f l t i l t hi


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Littlewood (1999), meanwhile, identified two similar themes that run through autonomous

language learning literature:

1. Students should take responsibility for their own learning. This is both because

all learning can in any case only be carried out by students themselves and also

because they need to develop the ability to continue learning after the end of

their formal education.

2. Taking responsibility involves learners in taking ownership (partial or total) of

many processes which have traditionally belonged to the teacher, such as

deciding on learning objectives, selecting learning methods and evaluating

progress.

(Littlewood 1999:71)

Within these themes there are a number of teacher, student and classroom traits that are

seen as indicative of autonomy. Firstly, individualization and recognition of individual learning

styles, preferences and needs (Benson & Voller, 1997). Secondly, learner centeredness and the

b li f th t l t hi h ld t b id d t f f k l d b t th


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Discussions aimed at distinguishing and understanding cultural differences often revolve

around the effect of Confucianism in the East and Individualism in the West (Gan, 2009).

Confucianism promotes the idea of ones self as part of a collect ive, an individual gives priorities

to collective goals over their own personal goals (Triandis, 1995). Individualism, on the other hand,

is based on self-consciousness, independent decision making and freedom from external

constraints (Pennycock, 1998).

These dichotomous observations of Eastern and Western values have led to a tendency

to instil certain characteristics on Asian and Western students, characteristics that can potentially

influence students capacity for autonomous learning. Such characteristics that are often

associated with East Asian leaners include; being reluctant to stand out from the group by

expressing views, perceiving the teacher as a figure whose authority should not be questioned,

seeing knowledge as something that should be transmitted by the teacher, as passive vessels in

the learning process, dependent on a syllabus, lacking in critical thinking skills and favourable

towards rote learning (Pierson, 1996; Littlewood 2000; Rao, 2002; Gan, 2009; Kojima, 2006), all of

which conflict with learners taking charge of and becoming responsible for their own learning

making their own decisions [and] reflecting on their learning critically (Chang 2007:325), in other

d th i i l f l t


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surveyed 2686 students in both Europe and Asia (including South Korea) in order to either prove

or disprove predictions made about both European and Asian students including those described

above. Littlewoods (2001) conclusions that are of most relevance to this study are that:

1. Most students in all countries question the traditional authority structure of

the classroom.

2. Most students in all countries would like to see themselves as active

participants in the classroom learning process.

3. Most students in all countries have a positive attitude towards co-operating

in groups in order to achieve common goals.

(Littlewood 2001:21)

Clearly, these conclusions directly contradict the standard stereotype of the Asian learner. Gan

(2009) meanwhile, conducted questionnaires and interviews with students in Hong Kong and

China based on Littlewoods ten predictions and, in support of Littlewood (2001), concludes that

the students demonstrated an overall positive attitude towards self-directed learning, reflecting a

d i t k th i h i d ti l i th i l l i hi h


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right circumstances, when cultural differences are taken into account and the ethnocentric wings

of autonomy are snipped off, the use of autonomous learning strategies can be considered an

achievable goal in East Asian contexts.

Research Design, Findings & Discussion

Data Collection

The data was collected via closed question surveys (see Appendix 1 & Appendix 2).

These surveys were designed and developed through the identification in relevant literature of

autonomous language learning strategies that can be utilised both inside and outside of the

classroom. These surveys were filled in by one class of 38 students and 10 teachers in a high

school in Seoul, South Korea. Gaining student feedback via closed question surveys is normal

classroom practice within the educational institution involved. Ethical approval to use the data for

this project was obtained from the school and participants, and BERA ethical guidelines were

followed.


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Q 6. Set my own learning goals for each semester. 3.83

Q 7. Offer opinions on what materials to use or what to learn in the classroom 3.67

Q 14. Have more responsibility in making sure I am progressing. 3.63

Q 9. Be given the chance to find my own solutions to my learning problems. 3.63

Q 12. Discuss strategies for learning and using English outside of a classroom. 3.54

Q 13. Be given opportunities to contribute to the class. 3.37

Q 5. Evaluate my own learning and progress. 3.34Q 8. Learn from my peers, not just my teacher. 3.29

Q 4. Be given the opportunity to voice my opinions on issues. 3.14

Q 2. Discover knowledge on my own rather than waiting for knowledge from

the teacher.

3.09

Q 3. Have discussions in small groups to find answers or solutions. 2.77

Average 3.60

The results in Table 1 also indicate general agreements with previous research such as

Littlewood (2001), which concludes that students in all countries question the traditional authority

structure of the classroom, reflected by the average score of 4.26 given in response to Question 1.


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teachers do not encourage it.

The feedback from the Korean students also supports research from Gan (2009) which

demonstrates Honk Kong students desire to actively engage in the learning process and the

generally positive attitude towards autonomous strategies by Asian students highlighted by Balla

et al (1991), Dickinson (1996) and Widdowson & Voller (1991).

2) Students Autonomous Strategies Outside of the Classroom

Overall, the students indicate a positive uptake of autonomous learning strategies outside

of the classroom (see Table 2). There are, however, some very important exceptions to the trend.

Receptive strategies received a positive score, such as listening to English music and watching

English T.V shows (see Table 2 Questions 5 and 6), which received the highest average scores of

4.34 and 3.60 respectively, however it is possible that students watch T.V shows or listen to music

without the goal of improving their English ability. The results in Table 2 do indicate a positive

uptake of autonomous strategies to help students with their English grades, (see Table 2

Questions 3, 4 and 2 with scores of 3.40, 3.26 and 3.22 respectively), however this can be


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directly related to their school exams (see Table 2 Questions 1, 7 and 8). These results would seem

to support research by Balla et al. (1991) that concludes East Asian students are uninterested in

learning outside of the syllabus however when analysing these results it important to bear in

mind that Korean high school students spend most of their time outside of public school in

private academies, leaving little time, or energy, to engage in autonomous practices. This schedule

means that rather than a lack of interest in autonomous strategies outside the classroom, it could

very well be the impossibility of fitting them into their schedules.

3) Teachers Use of Autonomous Strategies in the Classroom

The teachers responses indicate a positive uptake of autonomous teaching strategies in

the classroom (see Table 3). Of the three categories that did have a below average uptake,

questions 10 and 3 (with scores of 2.91 and 2.90 respectively) can both be explained by the

syllabus teachers are expected to follow and, due to external pressures, the teachers primary goal

of getting the students as higher grade as possible in their University Entrance Examination.

Table 3. Teachers use of Autonomous Strategies

I encourage my students to:

(di l d i d f hi h l )

Average Score

(3 id d

Difference Between

St d t D i f d


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solutions.

12. Discuss strategies for learning and using English

outside of a classroom.

2.64 -0.906

Average 3.51 -0.083

These results also indicate a positive correlation, with the exception of learning English

that can be used in real life (as explained above) and students finding their own motivation for

learning English, between students desire for the use of autonomous learning strategies and the

autonomous strategies offered to them, with an average difference of only -0.083 (see Table 3).

This is in contrast to previous research that has indicated cultural and institutional powers may be

suppressing students opportunities for autonomous learning, for example Evans (1996).

Conclusion

This study indicates that Korean high school students have the desire for autonomous

learning strategies in the English language classroom, and that Korean teachers are making efforts

to afford their students opportunities for autonomous practices, albeit within the constraints of

th ll b d i ti t t f hi h th b d O t id f th l


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fact that there is no analysis of, or explanation by the students or teachers, as to why they gave

the answers they did. There is a need for further research to be conducted to explore issues

brought up by this data, such as the lack of desire for and use of group work, why students fail to

engage in active autonomous strategies outside the classroom and lack of English being taught

that can be used in real life despite students holding a strong desire for this.

In order to complement the communicative approach being introduced to Korean

language classrooms I would recommend the following steps be taken by the Ministry of

Education in order to further promote the use of autonomous learning strategies.

- Working closely with teachers to help develop classroom strategies that

incorporate group work into the syllabus. This would promote peer learning, peer

evaluation and other autonomous social learning strategies.

- Take further steps in developing the English language syllabus as to incorporate

English that both students and teachers feel is of use outside of the classroom, if

possible involving students in this process.

- Develop a program that helps students to understand methods they can use to


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BibliographyBalla, J., Stokes, M. and Stafford, K. (1991) Changes in students approaches to study at CPHK: A

three year longitudinal study.AAIR Conference Referred Proceedings 7 (31) Melbourne: AAIR.

Benson, P. and P. Voller (Eds.). 1997. Autonomy and Independence in Language Learning. New York:

Longman.

Chan, V., Spratt, M., & Humphreys, G. (2002). Autonomous language learning: Hong Kong tertiary

students' attitudes and behaviours. Evaluation & Research in Education, 16(1), 1-18.

Chang, L. Y. H. (2007). The influences of group processes on learners autonomous beliefs and

behaviors. System, 35(3), 322-337.

Cheng, H. F., & Drnyei, Z. (2007). The use of motivational strategies in language instruction: The

case of EFL teaching in Taiwan. International Journal of Innovation in Language Learning and

Teaching, 1(1), 153-174.

Chirkov, V. I. (2007). Culture, personal autonomy and individualism: Their relationships and

implications for personal growth and well-being. Perspectives and progress in contemporary cross-

cultural psychology, 247-263.

Dickinson, L. (1995). Autonomy and motivation a literature review. System, 23(2), 165-174.

Dickinson, L. (1996) Culture, autonomy and common-sense. Autonomy 2000: The Development of

Learning Independence in Language Learning. Conference Proceedings. Bangkok: King Mongkuts

I tit t f T h l Th b i


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Hu, G. (2002). Recent important developments in secondary English-language teaching in the

People's Republic of China. Language Culture and Curriculum,15(1), 30-49.

Kant, I. (1933). Critique of pure reason. (N. K. Smith, Trans.). New York: Macmillan. (Original work

published 1781, rev. ed. 1787.)

Kember, D. and Gow, L. (1991) A challenge to the anecdotal stereotype of the Asian student. Studies

in Higher Education 16 (2), 117128.

Kojima, Hideo. (2006). Learner Autonomy in Language Education: A Cross-Cultural

Perspective. Hirosaki University Bulletin of the Faculty of Education. 96 (1), 67-75.

Lee, I. (1998). Supporting greater autonomy in language learning. ELT journal, 52(4), 282-290.

Littlewood, W. (1999). Defining and developing autonomy in East Asian contexts. Applied

Linguistics, 20(1), 71-94.

Littlewood, W. (2001). Students' attitudes to classroom English learning: a cross-cultural

study. Language Teaching Research, 5(1), 3-28.

Littlewood, W. (2000). Do Asian students really want to listen and obey?. ELT journal, 54(1), 31-36.

Liu, N. F., & Littlewood, W. (1997). Why do many students appear reluctant to participate in classroom

learning discourse? System, 25(3), 371-384.

Marshall, N. and Torpey, M. (1997) Autonomy and interaction in a self-directed classroom. In V. Berry,

B. Adamson and W. Littlewood (eds) Applying Linguistics: Insights into Language in Education (pp.

107 122) H K E li h C t U i it f H K


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Appendix 1 Student Questionnaire

Do not write your name on this sheet. Fill it out and give it back to your teacher.

. .

This is not a test. There are no right and wrong answers; we want your own ideas and

impressions.

. .

.

In English class I would like to be able to:

:

1. Question the teacher if I dont understand or I disagree with something.

1. .


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5. Evaluate my own learning and progress.

5. .

Agree 1 2 3 4 5 Disagree

6. Set my own learning goals for each semester.

6. .


7. Offer opinions on what materials to use or what to learn in the classroom.

7.

.



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11. ,

.


12. Discuss strategies for learning and using English outside of a classroom.

12. .


13. Be given opportunities to contribute to the class.

13. .


14. Have more responsibility in making sure I am progressing.

14. .


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17. Think about whether I am progressing in learning English.

17. .

Often 1 2 3 4 5 Rarely

18. Set goals for myself in English learning.

18. .


19. Listen to English music.

19. ().


20. Watch English T.V shows.

20


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Appendix 2 Teacher Questionnaire

Please indicate your answer to the following questions by circling the number that most

closely reflects your opinion.

.

In English class I encourage students to:

1. Question me if they dont understand something or disagree with me

.


2. Discover knowledge on their own rather than relying on me.

.



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.


8. Learn from their peers.

.


9. Find their own solutions to their learning problems.

.


10. Learn English that can be used in real life, not just exams.

, .

11. Find their own motivation for learning English, rather than being motivated by teachers or

exams.

,


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Appendix 3 Statement of Research Ethics(Masters Programmes)

Name of student: Alexander Walsh Supervisor: Barbara Sinclair

Course of Study: M.A TESOL Date: 23-01-2013

Title of assignment / dissertation: The Extent of, and Desire for, Autonomous Learning Strategies in South Korean High School Language

Classrooms

Sections 1-4 are to be completed by the student; Sections 5 / 6 are to be completed by the tutor / supervisor.

Section 1

Briefly outline your research questions or aims

Research Question Is autonomous language learning a viable goal for Korean English language classrooms?


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Page | 21 of 26

Section 2

Briefly outline your proposed methods and sites of data generation and your proposed methods of sampling

Using feedback routinely collected from students as part of English program. Feedback is collected via closed question feedback forms. Further

feedback collected from teachers with permission.

Section 3

Briefly explain how you plan to gain access to prospective research participants

Principle and head of English department have granted permission.

Section 4 (a)

1.I have read and discussed with my supervisor the British Educational Research Associations Revised Ethical Guidelines for Educational

Research (BERA, 2004) and/or guidelines of the appropriate professional association where relevant.

x


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Page | 22 of 26

2.I have read and discussed with my supervisor the Code of Research Conduct and Research Ethics of the University of Nottingham:

http://www.nottingham.ac.uk/fabs/rgs/documents/code-of-research-conduct-and-research-ethics-approved-january-2010.pdf

x

3.I am aware of and have discussed with my supervisor the relevant sections of the Data Protection Act (1998):

http://www.hmso.gov.uk/acts/acts1998/19980029.htm

x

4.Data gathering activities involving schools and other organizations will be carried out only with the agreement of the head ofschool/organization, or an authorised representative, and after adequate notice has been given. Written permission (e.g. email) will need

to have been seen by your supervisor.

x

5.The purpose and procedures of the research, and the potential benefits and costs of participating (e.g. the amount of their time

involved), will be fully explained to prospective research participants at the outset.

x

6. My full identity will be revealed to potential participants. x

7.

Prospective participants will be informed that data collected will be treated in the strictest confidence and will only be reported in

anonymised form, but that I will be forced to consider disclosure of certain information where there are strong grounds for believing that

not doing so will result in harm to research participants or others, or (the continuation of) illegal activity.

x

8.All potential participants will be asked to give their explicit, normally written consent to participating in the research, and, where consent

is given, separate copies of this will be retained by both researcher and participant.

9.

In addition to the consent of the individuals concerned, the signed consent of a parent, guardian or responsible other will be required to

sanction the participation of minors (i.e. persons under 16 years of age) or those whose intellectual capability or other vu lnerable

circumstance may limit the extent to which they can be expected to understand or agree voluntarily to undertake their role. (BERA,

2004, para 14-16).

x

10. Undue pressure will not be placed on individuals or institutions to participate in research activities. x

11. The treatment of potential research participants will in no way be prejudiced if they choose not to participate in the project. x

12.I will provide participants with my contact details (and those of my supervisor), in order that they are able to make contact in relation to

any aspect of the research, should they wish to do so.

x

13. Participants will be made aware that they may freely withdraw from the project at any time without risk or prejudice. x
http://www.nottingham.ac.uk/fabs/rgs/documents/code-of-research-conduct-and-research-ethics-approved-january-2010.pdfhttp://www.nottingham.ac.uk/fabs/rgs/documents/code-of-research-conduct-and-research-ethics-approved-january-2010.pdfhttp://www.hmso.gov.uk/acts/acts1998/19980029.htmhttp://www.hmso.gov.uk/acts/acts1998/19980029.htmhttp://www.hmso.gov.uk/acts/acts1998/19980029.htmhttp://www.nottingham.ac.uk/fabs/rgs/documents/code-of-research-conduct-and-research-ethics-approved-january-2010.pdf


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Page | 23 of 26

14.Research will be carried out with regard for mutually convenient times and negotiated in a way that seeks to minimise disruption to

schedules and burdens on participants.

x

15.

I have considered carefully to what extent, if any, my research might expose me to any kind of risk to my personal safety. I have also

discussed this with my supervisor, and appropriate steps taken to respond to any risks identified. Where such a strategy has been

agreed, a record of it is attached to this submission.

x

16. At all times during the conduct of the research I will behave in an appropriate, professional manner and take steps to ensure that neithermyself nor research participants are placed at risk.

x

17.The dignity and interests of research participants will be respected at all times, and steps will be taken to ensure that no harm will result

from participating in the research.

x

18. The views of all participants in the research will be respected. x

19.Special efforts will be made to be sensitive to differences relating to age, culture, disability, race, sex, religion and sexual orientation,

amongst research participants, when planning, conducting and reporting on the research.

x

20.

Data generated by the research (e.g. transcripts of research interviews) will be kept in a safe and secure location and will be used purely

for the purposes of the research project (including dissemination of findings). No-one other than research colleagues, supervisors or

examiners will have access to any of the data collected.

x

21. Research participants will have the right of access to any data kept on them. x

22.All necessary steps will be taken to protect the privacy and ensure the anonymity and non-traceability of participants e.g. by the use of

pseudonyms, for both individual and institutional participants, in any written reports of the research and other forms of dissemination.

x

23.Where possible, research participants will be provided with a summary of research findings and an opportunity for debriefing after taking

part in the research.

x

24.

Does your research involve (please tick ALL that apply):

Schools? Vulnerable Adults? Children? None of these groups?X (16 years

old)


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Page | 24 of 26

25.

a) Will your research be conducted in (please tick ONE BOX only):

UK only? Outside the UK only? UK and outside the UK?

b) If outside the UK, please name the country(ies) involved: South Korea

26.

FOR ALL STUDENTS UNDERTAKING RESEARCH INVOLVING SCHOOLS, CHILDREN (UNDER 18) AND/OR VULNERABLE ADULTS AT A

LOCATION WHERE THE STUDENT IS NOT CURRENTLY COVERED BY AN EXISTING ENHANCED CRIMINAL RECORDS BUREAU (CRB)

DISCLOSURE

I have received Enhanced Criminal Records Bureau (CRB) disclosure through the University of Nottingham and the School of

Education Postgraduate Office has the reference number. This applies even when data are collected outside of the UK.

NB: All students must remember to apply for their University of Nottingham CRB disclosure when they are visiting the UK.

27.

FOR ALL NON UK STUDENTS

I have received a Certificate of Good Conduct (where one is available)* and the School of Education CRB Coordinatorshave a copy ofthis**.

* Countries that produce a Certificate of Good Conduct are: Australia, Canada, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Hungary, Irish Republic, Italy, Jamaica, Latvia,

Malaysia, Malta, Netherlands, New Zealand, Philippines, Poland, South Africa, Spain, Sweden & Turkey.

** UK students who have lived in one of the above countries for 6 months or more may also need to apply for one of these.

Section 4 (b)

Please provide further information below in relation to any of the above statements which you have not been able to tick, explaining in each case why

the suggested course of action is not appropriate:


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Page | 25 of 26

26. I am using date collected rountinely.

27. Does not exist in South Korea.

When you have completed Sections 1-4 email the form to the relevant supervising tutor, together with:

(1) a draft information sheet to be provided to prospective participants;

(2) a draft consent form to be used with prospective participants.

Section 5

Supervising tutor

I have discussed the proposed research outlined on this form with the student and I am satisfied that the work will be carried out w ith due regard to

ethical protocol and participants interests.


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Page | 26 of 26

NAME: Barbara Sinclair Date:

Section 6

Course Leader/ second reviewer

I have reviewed the proposed research outlined on this form and I am satisfied that the work will be carried out with due regard to ethical protocol

and participants interests.

NAME: Jane Evison Date:

Note to supervising tutor: Please email the completed form to the course leader who will forward the final version to the appropriate

administrative assistant. When the Course Leader is also Supervising Tutor (Section 5) they should get a second member of their course

team to check

and review the form. The administrative assistant will email the student (cc yourself and course leader) with confirmation of ethical approval tobegin collecting data and proceed to the next stage of the dissertation.

Updated 10/10/2012

developing autonomous learning strategies

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