fmars-06-00143 March 23, 2019 Time: 17:48 # 1

MINI REVIEWpublished: 26 March 2019

doi: 10.3389/fmars.2019.00143

Edited by:John Siddorn,

Met Office, United Kingdom

Reviewed by:Jun She,

Danish Meteorological Institute (DMI),Denmark

James Richard Fishwick,Plymouth Marine Laboratory,

United Kingdom

*Correspondence:Joanne O’Callaghan

joanne.ocallaghan@niwa.co.nz

Specialty section:This article was submitted to

Ocean Observation,a section of the journal

Frontiers in Marine Science

Received: 16 November 2018Accepted: 06 March 2019Published: 26 March 2019

Citation:O’Callaghan J, Stevens C,

Roughan M, Cornelisen C, Sutton P,Garrett S, Giorli G, Smith RO,

Currie KI, Suanda SH, Williams M,Bowen M, Fernandez D, Vennell R,

Knight BR, Barter P, McComb P,Oliver M, Livingston M, Tellier P,Meissner A, Brewer M, Gall M,

Nodder SD, Decima M, Souza J,Forcén-Vazquez A, Gardiner S,

Paul-Burke K, Chiswell S, Roberts J,Hayden B, Biggs B and Macdonald H

(2019) Developing an IntegratedOcean Observing System

for New Zealand.Front. Mar. Sci. 6:143.

doi: 10.3389/fmars.2019.00143

Developing an Integrated OceanObserving System for New ZealandJoanne O’Callaghan1* , Craig Stevens1,2, Moninya Roughan3,4, Chris Cornelisen5,Philip Sutton1,6, Sally Garrett7, Giacomo Giorli1, Robert O. Smith8, Kim I. Currie1,9,Sutara H. Suanda10, Michael Williams1, Melissa Bowen2,6, Denise Fernandez1,Ross Vennell5, Benjamin R. Knight5, Paul Barter5, Peter McComb10, Megan Oliver11,Mary Livingston12, Pierre Tellier13, Anna Meissner14, Mike Brewer1, Mark Gall1,Scott D. Nodder1, Moira Decima1, Joao Souza4, Aitana Forcén-Vazquez4,Sarah Gardiner4, Kura Paul-Burke1, Stephen Chiswell1, Jim Roberts1, Barb Hayden1,Barry Biggs1 and Helen Macdonald1

1 National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research (NIWA), Auckland, New Zealand, 2 Department of Physics,The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand, 3 School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of New South Wales,Sydney, NSW, Australia, 4 MetService, Wellington, New Zealand, 5 Cawthron Institute, Nelson, New Zealand, 6 Schoolof Environment, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand, 7 New Zealand Defence Force (NZDF), Wellington,New Zealand, 8 Department of Marine Science, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand, 9 Department of Chemistry,University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand, 10 MetOcean Solutions Ltd., New Plymouth, New Zealand, 11 Greater WellingtonRegional Council, Wellington, New Zealand, 12 Ministry for Primary Industries, Wellington, New Zealand, 13 Ministryfor the Environment, Wellington, New Zealand, 14 Land Information New Zealand, Wellington, New Zealand

New Zealand (NZ) is an island nation with stewardship of an ocean twenty timeslarger than its land area. While the challenges facing NZ’s ocean are similar to othermaritime countries, no coherent national plan exists that meets the needs of scientists,stakeholders or kaitiakitanga (guardianship) of NZ’s ocean in a changing climate. The NZmarine science community used the OceanObs’19 white paper to establish a frameworkand implementation plan for a collaborative NZ ocean observing system (NZ-OOS). Co-production of ocean knowledge with Maori will be embedded in this national strategy forgrowing a sustainable, blue economy for NZ. The strengths of an observing system fora relatively small nation come from direct connections between the science impetusthrough to users and stakeholders of an NZ-OOS. The community will leverage offexisting ocean observations to optimize effort and resources in a system that hashistorically made limited investment in ocean observing. The goal of the communitypaper will be achieved by bringing together oceanographers, data scientists and marinestakeholders to develop an NZ-OOS that provides best knowledge and tools to thesectors of society that use or are influenced by the ocean.

Keywords: ocean observation network, ocean modeling, marine community, Matauranga Maori, changingocean climate

INTRODUCTION

New Zealand (NZ) is an island nation with stewardship of an ocean area twenty times its landsize,yet it does not currently have an ocean observing system (OOS). NZ’s marine space spans thesubtropics to the subantarctics with islands to the north, south and east far beyond its two mainislands (Figure 1). The shelf sea environment includes broad plateaus, narrow steep shelves and

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wide continental shelves incised with submarine canyons. Warm,saline subtropical water (STW) arrives in NZ from the northvia the South Pacific Gyre and East Auckland Current (EAUC).From the south, subantarctic water (SAW) with lower salinityand temperature flow near NZ in the Southland Current adjacentto the South Island and in the northernmost branches of theAntarctic Circumpolar Current (Chiswell et al., 2015). Dynamicprocesses in the shelf seas include strong tidal flows in CentralNZ, large internal tides and significant terrestrial inputs offreshwater, sediment and carbon after storms (Zeldis and Swaney,2018; Stevens et al., 2019).

In dollar terms, NZ’s marine economy is estimated to beworth around $NZ four billion (Ministry for the Environment[MfE], 2016). NZ’s exclusive economic zone (EEZ) underpinsan emerging blue economy; it is globally recognized to supporthigh biodiversity of seabirds and marine mammals, a productivefisheries sector and a growing aquaculture industry. Stewardshipof this large area’s resources and values requires robust scientificknowledge and understanding to ensure sustainable managementof marine ecosystems, which are influenced by multiple stressorsand a changing climate.

Indigenous perspectives are a key aspect of NZ’s policyand science landscape and are particularly relevant indeveloping effective ocean stewardship that is informed byan NZ-OOS. The government’s Vision Matauranga (VM)policy was developed to unlock the potential of MataurangaMaori, which is broadly defined as Maori or traditionalknowledge, comprehension or understanding of the universe(Ministry of Research Science and Technology [MoRST],2007). Guardianship or kaitiakitanga of Aotearoa’s (te reoMaori for NZ) land and sea is an intrinsic concept inMaori science. Joint efforts between Matauranga Maoriand western science practices are becoming more commonproviding a holistic, inclusive, system-wide knowledge ofthe natural world.

The Why and Why NowNew Zealand faces similar challenges – managing multiplestressors, climate change, sea-level rise, ocean acidification, andimpacts from changing terrestrial fluxes – as other maritimecountries. A sense of urgency exists to understand, predict andmitigate, at a national scale, the ocean and ecosystem responses tothese global problems (Stevens and O’Callaghan, 2015). Figure 2outlines high-level themes of interest for users and beneficiariesof an NZ-OOS and its integrated data products. Underlying thesethemes are six key issues identified by the NZ community askaitiakitanga priorities.

1. Land-sea connectivity and associated stressors (e.g.,sedimentation, contaminants).

2. Coastal and bluewater carbon budgets.3. Sustainable extraction of marine resources (e.g., seabed

mining, tidal energy).4. Sustainable seafood sector including both wild caught

fisheries and aquaculture.5. Multi-scale drivers and response of the ocean state.6. Maritime safety and transport optimization.

The concept of an OOS is not new to NZ; factors relating tonational priorities and NZ’s policy and science systems, combinedwith limited resources have inhibited the development of anNZ-OOS. Resources commensurate with a population of ∼5million people and a dominant agricultural sector for many yearsunderpinned a landward focus (Hendy and Callaghan, 2013).Long term coastal warming (Shears and Bowen, 2017) and recentvariability in fish stocks and impacts on aquaculture along withextremes in ocean temperature have prompted an urgent rethinkof how marine sectors will respond to changing environmentaldrivers (Salinger et al., 2019).

The NZ Science SystemThe NZ science system is small, which can be both advantageousand limiting in terms of developing and implementingan OOS. The OECD Research & Development (R&D)survey identified R&D as a percentage of GDP as 1.263 andresearchers per thousand employment (FTE) as 7.94 (OECD,2018). The R&D expenditure proportion is around halfthe OECD average. Several significant changes have takenplace in the NZ science system sector over the last threedecades. In 1991 Crown Research Institutes (CRIs) wereformed, essentially restructuring the Government sciencesector from a single research provider (the Departmentof Scientific and Industrial Research, DSIR) into severalinstitutes that were built around a hybrid business andpublic-good model.

Marine scientist capacity is modest across NZ. Majoremployers in the sector are the National Institute of Waterand Atmospheric Research (NIWA, a CRI), four (out ofseven) universities, Meteorological Service of New Zealand(MetService), MetOcean Solutions and the CawthronInstitute (independent research organization). Research fociof the national institutes has evolved over the past 25 yearsfrom public-good science to stakeholder “co-production.”Current hallmarks of the funding landscape include (1)separation between climate science and ecosystem research,(2) under-valuing of sustained monitoring of the ocean and(3) inability to support long term (greater than 5 years)projects. Funding for the development and implementationof an NZ-OOS will require a combination of long-termgovernment investment, organizational co-investment andprivate sector contributions.

NZ-OOS Planning WorkshopA successful workshop with multi-institutional support washeld in August 2018. Participant organizations were NIWA,Cawthron, MetService, Centre for Space Science Technology(CSST), Ministry for Primary Industries (MPI), Ministry forthe Environment (MfE), Department of Conservation (DOC),NZ Navy, Defence Technology Agency (DTA), Auckland andOtago Universities, and the Coastal Special Interest Group (C-SIG) that represents the national network of regional councilswith jurisdiction out to 12 nautical miles. NIWA’s Pou Honongafor Maori and the Marine Environment provided a MataurangaMaori contribution. Outcomes from workshop discussions formthe basis of this white paper.

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FIGURE 1 | Map of New Zealand (NZ) with observational assets are overlaid on the bathymetry. Assets shown are wave buoys (blue dots), coastal buoys (orangedots), NZOA-ON (yellow dots), SST network (green dots) and the Southern Ocean wave buoy (black dot).

OCEAN OBSERVATIONS

Present State of NZ ObservationsThe two longest sea surface temperature (SST) monitoringsites are from opposite ends of Aotearoa, with the Portobellostation (University of Otago) started in 1953, followed by Leigh(University of Auckland) in 1967. Growth and reduction of acoastal SST monitoring network has occurred over interveningyears (Greig et al., 1988) and as of writing there are five coastalSST stations (Figure 1). Other long term observations are the sealevel network around NZ1, which has also had to rationalizatisethe number of sites in recent years. Two biophysical mooringswere located at 41◦S, 178◦30′E and 46◦40′S, 178◦30′E in STW and

1https://www.niwa.co.nz/our-services/online-services/sea-levels

SAW for 10 years from 2002 to 2012 to resolve oceanic carbonbudgets (Nodder et al., 2016).

University of Otago and NIWA established the NZ OceanAcidification observing network (NZOA-ON) with 14 sitesaround NZ, linked to the Global Ocean Acidification ObservingNetwork (GOA-ON). The NZOA–ON expands on the successfulMunida transect off the coast of the South Island established in1998 that is the southern hemisphere’s longest-running record ofpH (Bates et al., 2014) and surface variability across STW andSAW (Currie et al., 2011).

There are few wave and coastal moorings considering thelength (15,000 km) and variability of NZ’s coastline. The Firthof Thames mooring is the longest at 20 +years (1998 to now,Zeldis and Swaney, 2018). Sampling durations are typicallyshorter (<10 years), generally deployed by regional councils

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FIGURE 2 | Framework for the NZ-OOS building on existing efforts in NZ. The proposed structure illustrated has been adapted from that used for the SoutheastCoastal Ocean Observing Regional Association.

in conjunction with Cawthron or NIWA and tend to have afocus on surface coastal water quality issues and sedimentation(Figure 1). Passive acoustics moorings to characterize marinemammal migratory pathways have also been deployed for12 months in Central NZ. Recently, ocean gliders have been usedto observe NZ shelf seas processes with 20 missions since 2015(O’Callaghan, pers comm).

Bluewater observations have historically been dominatedby mooring deployments of less than 2 year duration andvoyage-based hydrographic surveys to characterize boundarycurrents around NZ. For example, Tasman Sea boundaryexperiments (Stanton and Moore, 1992), and variability studiesof the East Auckland Current (EAUC) (e.g. Stanton et al., 1997;Fernandez et al., 2018, and many others), Norfolk Ridge (Suttonand Bowen, 2014) and, Southland Current (Sutton, 2003).

New Zealand has been an important part of the Global Argoprogram since the early 2000s with NIWA’s vessel R/V KahaOra deploying 1287 floats in the Pacific, Indian and SouthernOceans. NIWA’s RV Tangaroa has deployed a further 147 floats.The most southerly wave buoy in the world has been maintainedby the MetService since 2016 at 52.7

◦

S. EXpendable BathyThermographs (XBTs) have been deployed along two tracksending in NZ roughly four times per year (Sutton et al., 2005).XBTs are also routinely deployed by the NZ Navy.

Plans for a Future ObservationalNetworkBuilding on the framework of existing observations, a series ofworkshops will be held with scientists and key stakeholders in

regulatory agencies, CRIs and universities. These workshops willdefine the mix of what infrastructure is most likely to address thekey research themes in an ambitious and affordable way for thenext 1, 5 and 10 years. With international experience to draw on,we are well placed to implement an NZ-OOS in a cost-effectivemanner to achieve meaningful and sustained observationalcoverage with potential to grow strategically in the future.

We propose a number of sentinel sites (analogous to theNational Reference stations in the Australian IMOS context) thatare physically occupied at adequate frequency for biogeochemicaland physical water sampling of essential ocean variables (EOVs).Sentinel sites will be instrumented appropriately to developenvironmental baselines in a changing climate. In addition, wewill identify a backbone network of high frequency (HF) radarand glider deployments to provide boundary current data, andcontext for model data assimilation.

A creative approach will be required to get meaningfulcoverage across NZ’s large EEZ. It is recognized that the NZseafood sector provides an opportunistic pathway for datacollection and effort is already being made with this sector. TheNZ Navy has plans to facilitate oceanographic data collection. Byusing vessels of opportunity, we can optimize data coverage whileminimizing costs to NZ-OOS.

OCEAN MODELING

Present StatusPhysical and biogeochemical ocean modeling is undertaken by anumber of organizations with each team having their preferred

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model (ROMS, Schism/SELFE, SWASH, SWAN, WW3, Gerris,and Basilisk), domain (coastal to global scale), grid (structured,unstructured, curvilinear or adaptive), timeframe (days, weeksto years) and parameters (physics, biogeochemistry, sedimenttransport, waves). Typically these models have been developedeither for specific process studies (e.g., Hadfield et al., 2007), orin response to stakeholder requirements and resource consentapplications. Operational forecasts of waves, storm surge andbarotropic circulation exist at the national scale.

An OOS is acknowledged as incomplete without a nationallycoordinated ocean modeling program. The benefits are 2-fold:observational design is optimized from model simulations whilemodeling efforts are constrained by relevant observations. TheAustralian Integrated Marine Observing system (IMOS) programdid not initially include funding for ocean modeling. AustralianCoastal and Oceans Modeling and Observations (ACOMO)was born 5 years after IMOS and provides a valuable nationalperspective on modeling and observational networks. It isconsidered prudent to incorporate an integrated modeling systemin NZ-OOS from the outset.

Plans for Ocean Modeling and DataAssimilationClose connections between the NZ science community andstakeholders means that knowledge relevant to industry isparamount. A national modeling framework that assimilatesnew and historic observations is essential for an integratedNZ-OOS. In this way the observations and modeling initiativesare intimately coupled. A high resolution coastal oceanreanalysis (ocean state estimate) is being developed by MetOceanSolutions2. This modeling system will include a 25-year dataassimilating physical model and will provide open access dailycoastal ocean forecasts in the next 1 to 3 years. Model hindcastsof physics and biogeochemistry are being developed by NIWAat the EEZ scale. Observation impact experiments (Kerry et al.,2018) and observing system simulation experiments (Kourafalouet al., 2015) provide both context for ongoing model developmentand the evolution of the observing system.

DATA, TOOLS, AND DELIVERY

Open Data and Legacy Data IssuesOpen access to data underpins OOS frameworks globally andsuccess of the proposed NZ-OOS will be intertwined withavailability of data, data uptake and publications. The necessaryshift in perspective is underway in NZ but is happening againsta backdrop of a better understanding of what open data meansand resourcing open data. The proprietary nature of datafrom commercial projects is questionable, particularly if theywere collected with resources and capacity co-supported bygovernment funding.

Open data is universally recognized as a “good thing”(Schmidt et al., 2016), however, there remain issues relating toquality assurance and usage restrictions. Stronger mandates from

2https://www.moanaproject.org/

the funding agencies will strengthen the requirements for datasharing. New Zealand Government Open Access and Licensing[NZGOAL], 2019 provides a framework for open data to apply toall sector data.

In 2017 the New Zealand Ocean Data Network (NZODN)3

was launched, modeled on the Australian Open Data Network(AODN). It is now a collaboration between NIWA and LandInformation New Zealand (LINZ). The AODN Portal providesaccess to all available Australian marine and climate science dataand provides the primary access to IMOS data. A key pointof difference is that IMOS is national collaborative researchinfrastructure, supported by Australian Government – noequivalent exists yet in the New Zealand system, although this isour aspiration. The NZODN and AODN are regional reflectionsof a growing international trend for open data resources.

Data Science Products and ToolsThe evolution of useful data products becomes iterative as userstend to be resourceful and can use data in ways not obvious inthe initial planning. This ad hoc co-production can be enhancedthrough better and wider end-user input to the design phase.The impact of the NZ-OOS will be enhanced if it provides easypathways for uptake, manipulations and re-dissemination fromthe outset. Stakeholders are likely users of tools and while uptakemay be slow they will provide robust interrogation of the resultswhereas the public are likely to be fast and idiosyncratic intheir usage. Both pathways provide connections between scienceproduct and government policy.

Matauranga MaoriIt is possible that NZ can be among the world leaders inthe integration of traditional knowledge with western scienceinto an NZ-OOS. Matauranga-a-iwi is being advanced throughTreaty settlements legislation and other negotiated agreements,which is creating co-management arrangements and increasedparticipation by Maori in all areas of ocean research, policy andmanagement. Maori are seeking Matauranga and science adviceto address aspirations in halting ocean degradation throughadaptive management strategies, inclusive of both traditionaland contemporary forms of kaitiakitanga. There is potentialfor non-sacred traditional knowledge to be shared throughknowledge platforms such as Maori environmental forumsand Rûnanga (a recognized iwi or tribal authority) thereforeenhancing uptake and integration.

TOWARD AN INTEGRATED NZ-OOS

The NZ-OOS is a bottom-up community-driven initiative andits success depends on a joint, inclusive approach. Overcominglongstanding limitations established by the hybrid science modelover nearly 30 years will require ongoing and meaningfulcross-institutional engagement. With collaborative governance,broad participation, and sustainable central government funding,NZ is fully capable of implementing a world-leading OOS that

3https://nzodn.nz/

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provides effective kaitiakitanga of its vast EEZ in a changingclimate. This white paper is the first step in the implementationprocess. Figure 2 provides the framework for the proposedNZ-OOS from governance through to details of data collectionplatforms. Ecosystem-based management tools that are beingdeveloped in National Science Challenges (aligned efforts)will allow integration of monitoring components at the10-year time scale.

Without doubt the biggest hurdle to overcome is sufficientand sustained resourcing of the proposed NZ-OOS. Often thelimiting factor in the development of a highly sophisticated oceanobserving system such as the one detailed here is the availablefunding mechanisms. Observational data streams obtained viaexisting research programs from central government funding willbe the backbone of NZ-OOS in the short- to medium term.Resources to support working group progress will come fromindividual organizations. Long-term funding was identified bythe community as much more difficult to secure. Ultimately, thiswill require a business case to be submitted to the NZ governmentto fund future ocean infrastructure.

By the end of the first year, we aim to develop a draft strategicplan built on a well-designed framework and collaborativegovernance structure. With a sound plan in place, a businesscase for funding an NZ-OOS will be developed. Many of theelements, both observational and modeling, already exist in NZ.It is encouraging that the NZ-OOS framework has begun toprovide, since the August 2018 workshop, a mechanism for newconnections of aligned efforts from organizations (Figure 2).

To achieve the year 1 objective, we will establish:

1. A pan-NZ steering committee and governance board.2. Four working groups focused on estuaries to shelf, bluewater,

data systems, and communications. The scope of each groupwill be expansive to overcome organization and sciencediscipline silos.

3. A catalog of observational assets and existing marine data forNZ (Figure 1).

4. A strategy for implementing Matauranga Maori inan NZ-OOS.

After 5 years, the NZ-OOS could include:

1. A widely subscribed data system built around the NZ-OceanData Network (NZ-ODN) providing data to a wide rangeof users.

2. A network of coastal monitoring assets in key regionsacross a range of organizations that follow standardized dataexchange protocols.

3. Access to model hindcast and reanalysis products forsimulating and visualizing NZ’s EEZ.

4. The ability for rapid response for forecasting coastal hazards,oil spill trajectories, and biosecurity risk.

5. Implementation of a network of sentinel sites for observingEOVs along latitudinal and anthropogenic gradients.

6. Develop and implement sentinel fish and marine megafaunadata collection programs that indicate ecosystem change.

After ten years, the NZ-OOS could include:

1. A widely accessible OOS visualization system that enablessociety to engage with ocean data in new and exciting ways.

2. Data assimilating operational models providing near-real timeforecasting of our entire EEZ.

3. Commitment from the seafood industry, with theentire fishing fleet and aquaculture farms established asobserving platforms.

4. Integration of ecological layers and the inclusion of,biogeochemical and molecular ocean data through alignedsampling programs.

5. Successful integration of Matauranga Maori into a nationalOOS framework.

To summarize, with the integration of Matauranga Maori,NZ’s science, technologies and closely connected communityprovides a timely opportunity to develop an exemplary NZ-OOSthat will provide a world-leading example of ocean stewardship,and enable ocean knowledge, data and tools to be openlyaccessed for the benefit of NZ’s economy, social well-beingand ocean health.

AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS

JO led the writing and NZ-OOS workshop. CS, MR, andCC contributed to respective sections of the manuscript.All other authors either participated in the Augustworkshop or provided feedback on various versionsof the manuscript.

FUNDING

The NZ-OOS workshop and resources for manuscript wasfunded by NIWA under Coasts and Oceans Research Program2 (2018/19 SCI).

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Conflict of Interest Statement: The authors declare that the research wasconducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that couldbe construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Copyright © 2019 O’Callaghan, Stevens, Roughan, Cornelisen, Sutton, Garrett,Giorli, Smith, Currie, Suanda, Williams, Bowen, Fernandez, Vennell, Knight,Barter, McComb, Oliver, Livingston, Tellier, Meissner, Brewer, Gall, Nodder, Decima,Souza, Forcén-Vazquez, Gardiner, Paul-Burke, Chiswell, Roberts, Hayden, Biggs andMacdonald. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the CreativeCommons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction inother forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s)are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordancewith accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permittedwhich does not comply with these terms.

Frontiers in Marine Science | www.frontiersin.org 7 March 2019 | Volume 6 | Article 143