developing action-oriented knowledge among preservice teachers · finds“hard-to-observe” (p....

Frances Rust & NancyLee Bergey

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Teacher Education Quarterly, Winter 2014

DevelopingAction-Oriented Knowledgeamong Preservice Teachers:

Exploring Learning to Teach

By Frances Rust & NancyLee Bergey

Doesteachereducationmatter?Ifitdoes,inwhatwaysdoesitmatter?Whatistheevidence?Thesequestionsareattheforefrontofmanypolicy-relateddiscus-sionsbothhereintheUnitedStatesandabroad,andthereismuchatstakeinwhoanswersthesequestionsandinthewaysinwhichtheyareanswered.Ontheonehand,therearethosewhotakeabroadviewandclaimthatlittleisknown(Cochran-

Frances Rust is a senior fellow and director of Teacher Education Programs and NancyLee Bergey is associate director of teacher education, both at the Graduate School of Education, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

Smith&Zeichner,2005);ontheotherhand,therearethosewhoclaimthatmuchisknowninthegeneralsensebut that thisgeneralknowledge is inherentlysubject to contextual interpretation and enactment(Darling-Hammond&Bransford,2005).Relatedtothe latter viewpoint is the perspective that there isaknowledgebasefor teachereducation(Reynolds,1989)thatblendstheoryandpractice. Hiebert,Gallimore,andStigler (2002) suggestthatdevelopinganddrawingfromthisknowledgebaseinteachereducationresidesinsystematicstudiesofpracticethataresharedinwaysthatsupportanalign-mentwithcognitivetheoryandcanleadtogradualimprovement of the practice of teacher educators.

Developing Action-Oriented Knowledge

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ThisiswhatLaBoskey(2012)describesasresearchthatinformspractice,thatis,researchthatenablesconversationsaroundpracticesoastoimprovepractice(Ball&Cohen,1999;Grossmanetal.,2009); research thatenables teachers tocraftinstructiontomeettheneedsofthelearnersintheirclassrooms(Cochran-Smith,1999;Tomlinson&McTighe,2006);andresearchthatenablesteacherstodiscernanddrawonthose“fundsofknowledge”(Moll&Arnot-Hopffer,2005)thatshapeand informtheirstudents’understandingsofandparticipation in theworld.AsWideen,Mayer-Smith,andMoon(1998)contend,suchresearchshouldembrace,theecologyofteachereducationitself:

Theecologicalapproachweproposebeginswithamoreeclecticmethodologywherebyeffortsaremadetobridgeprogramsofresearch.Suchanecologicalapproachwouldseeresearchersattemptingtolinktheirresearchto,andferretout,itsmeaningasitrelatestothesocialandculturalconditionswherebeginningteacherswillteach,theneedsofbeginningteachers,andthevaluesofteachereducators.(p.168)

WeseeinthisspecialissueofTeacher Education Quarterlyacriticallyimportantopportunityforthetypeofsystemic,ecologicalapproachtoresearchonteachereducationthatWideen,Mayer-Smith,andMoon(1998)andHiebert,Gallimore,andStigler(2002)arecallingfor.

Our Study Inthisarticle,ourintentistofocusinononeelementaryteachereducationprogramand,specifically,onthewaysinwhichthatprogramhasgrappledwithandcontinuestograpplewiththequestionsofwhetherandhowteachereducationworksrelativetoourclaimthatoursisaprogramcommittedtosocialjusticeanddesignedto“prepareethical,reflective,collaborative,visionaryteacher-leaders”forurbanschools.Clearly,thevaluesimplicitinthismissionareamongthosequalitiesthatGladwell(2011),inhisdiscussionofthedifficultiesimplicitinratingscales,finds“hard-to-observe”(p.73);but,ifwearesetongraduatingnewteacherswhosewaysofinteractingwiththeirstudentsaswellaswithcolleagues,administrators,parentsandotherpolicy-makersexemplifyourmission,then,itseemstousessentialthatwefindoutwhatisworkingtowardthoseendsinourprogramandthinkabouthowtoshareourunderstandingswithoneanotherinthecommunityofteachereducators.For,asHiebert,Gallimore,andStigler(2002)suggest,iftherewereafocused,sharedconversationaboutteachingandlearning,wecouldbegintobuildagenuineknowledge-baseforteachereducationthatenablesustostandbehindclaimsthatteachereducationworks. WehavechosentostudyourprogramintermsofwhatShulman(2005)de-scribesasits“signaturepedagogies,”thatis,“thecharacteristicformsofteachingandlearning...thatorganizethefundamentalwaysinwhichfuturepractitionersareeducatedfortheirnewprofessions”(p.52).Wepositthatthereareessentiallyfourgeneralsignaturepedagogiesinteachereducation:


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*Choosingstudents/shapingcohorts*Curriculum*FieldWork/Clinicalpractice*InquiryandReflection

Takentogether,theyprovidemarkersorguidepostsformappingtheterritorythatis teachereducationandlearningtoteach—hence, itsecology.Wesuggest thatthesesignaturepedagogiesfunctionasaframeforenactmentofteachereducationprogramsandthateachofthesesignaturepedagogieswhendeconstructedholdswithinitotherpedagogiesthatshouldaligninonewayoranotherwithaprogram’smission.Lookingdeeplythenataprogram’scorepedagogiesshouldenableteachereducatorsandresearcherstodeterminetheextentofalignmentbetweenpedagogiesandmission,hence,asassessmentevents,andasthelearningopportunitiesthatClarkandRust(2006)suggestedshouldbeinherentineveryassessment. Wefurtherclaimthat,becauseteachereducationis(orshouldbe)essentiallyfocusedonprofessionalpreparation,theprogrammaticpedagogiesofteachereduca-tionshouldenableopportunitiesforwhatGrossmanandcolleagues(2009)describeasrepresentation,decomposition,andapproximationofpractice.Here,welookatakeypedagogyofourteachereducationprogram:assessmentasinquiry.Wefocusspecificallyontheprogram’ssummativeassessment,theinquiryportfolio,becauseitisdesignedtodrawacrossthestudents’entireprogramexperiencesoastoenableourstudentsandustotracetheirprofessionalgrowthwithevidenceoftheirandtheirstudents’learning.UsingthelensprovidedbyGrossmanetal(2009)aswestudytheinquiryportfolio,wewanttoknowifandinwhatwaystheexperienceoftheprogramhasenabledourstudentstointegratetheory,inquiry,andactionsoastoenablewhatUrzúaandVásquez(2008)describeasaction-orientedknowledge(AOK),i.e.,therepresentationandformulationofpracticeintoconcepts,pedagogi-caltechniques,andstrategiesthatariseamongpractitionersinproblem-solvinganddecision-makingsituations.Thus,ourfocushereisbothnarrowandbroadinthesensethatWideen,Mayer-Smith,andMoon(1998)describe:

Wecannolongerregardcourses,programs,andtheotherparticipantsandstructuresofteachereducationasunchallengeableandoperatinginisolation.Thesefeaturesmustbeseenasinterconnectedandregardedasexaminableandproblematicinbothresearchandpractice.(p.169)

The Program Themaster’sprogramisdesignedtoprepareteacher-leadersforurbaneducation.AsKumar,PupikDean,andBergey(2012)whostudiedtheelementaryprogramnote,

Theprogram’semphasisonurbanissuesineducationmightbesummarizedbyitsfocusontwothemes:(1)socialjusticeandthequestionofwhatajustsystemofschoolsshouldlooklikeand(2)issuesofpoverty,racism,andimmigration


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thathaveplayedaroleinshapingschoolsinlarge,post-industrialcities(Sugrue,1993).Ourstudentsmayarrivewithpreconceptionsofurbancommunities,butweaimtocomplicatetheseideasforthem,resistingbothessentializationandadeficitperspective.(p.86)

Intheelementaryprogram,wegenerallyadmit40students:abouthalfofthestudentsarelocal;theothersfromaroundthecountry.Theychoosetheprogramfortworeasons:itsemphasisonpreparationforteachingandpotentialleadershipinurbaneducationanditspositioninarenowneduniversity.Wechoosethembothfortheirprofessedcommitmenttourbaneducationandtheircapacitytoengageinarigorousand,insomeways,high-pressured,graduateprogram.Veryfewcomedirectlyfromcollege.Asmallnumber(2-4)willhavehadsomeexperienceinurbaneducationwithprogramslikeCityYearbutthemajorityenterwithanywherefromoneto10yearsexperienceinfieldsasdiverseaslaw,architecture,publicrelations,andtheater. StudentsmovethroughtheprogramasacohortbeginningtogetherinJulyandfinishinginMay.Fromtheirfirstdays,theyaretakingtheircoursestogetherandaresimultaneouslyengagedintheneighborhoodsinwhichtheywillbeteaching—acurricularapproachspecificallyintendedtoenablestudentstousethecommunityassetsoftheneighborhood,thecohort,andtheuniversitytoshapeandstrengthentheirclassroomteachingpracticeswithinacontinuouslyevolvingprocessofin-quiry,criticalreflectionandrevision(Murrell,2001).(SeeFigure1.)AsKumarandcolleagues(2012)pointout,

. . . theprogram’sdesigndrawsonsociocultural theoriesof learning thatem-phasizetheappropriationofmediationaltoolsthroughexperiencesoflegitimate

Figure 1Outline of Elementary Teacher Education Program

Term / Theme Classes plus mini-courses Integrated assignment Fieldwork

I - Children and 2½ plus 2 Neighborhood StudyNeighborhoods 32 hours total

II - Learners and Learning 5½ plus 1 Portrait of a child— 2 days/week sections for each course

III - edagogy 5½ plus 1 Inquiry into practice— 2 days/wk analysis of 4 lessons with framing question

IV - Curriculum 1½ (intensive) Integrated curriculum 4 days/week

V - Praxis 1 Inquiry Portfolio 5 days/week


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peripheralparticipation(LPP)andboundarycrossing(Lave&Wenger,1991;Tsui&Law,2007;Tsui,Edwards,Lopez-Real,&Kwan,2009;Wenger,1998).Thisframeworksuggests that individuals learnbybeing involvedwithpeoplewhothinkindifferentwaysandbyhavingexperiencesthatchallengethemtorethinkpriorassumptions.(p.88)

Inaveryrealsense,thisframeworkdescribeswhatWideenetal(1998)nameastheecologyofaprograminthat“everythingisconnectedtoeverythingelse”(p.168).

Summer Studentsbegin in thesummerbyconductinganethnographicstudyof thecommunityinwhichtheywillbeteaching.Theprogramstructuresstudents’entryintothestudentteachingneighborhoodinavarietyofways.Anintroductiontothecityitselfandspecificallytotheeffectsofde-industrializationandthepocketsofpovertythatwereleftinitswakeareaccomplishedthrough“MuralTours.”Philadel-phiaisknownastheCityofMurals,and,sinceacarefulprocesstoinsurethatthemuralsreflectthedesireoftheneighborhoodresidentsisfollowedinthecreationofmurals,themuralsreallytellthestoryoftheneighborhoods.TheMuralTouroccursontheseconddayoforientationtoourprogrameachJuly.ThemorningisspentwitheveryoneexploringtheneighborhoodoftheUniversity,and,insmallergroupsintheafternoon,studentsinvestigateanindividualneighborhoodusuallybyfollowingapre-arrangedtourroute. Onthethirddayoforientationandfollowingthesegeneraltours,studentsareledintotheneighborhoodoftheschoolwheretheywillstudentteachbya“liaison,”generallyagraduateoftheprogramwhohasstudenttaughtatthatschool.Theli-aisonwillhavefoundaresidenttoserveasaguideforthetoursoastoprovideanemicperspectiveontheneighborhood,andwillhavescoutedsomeneighborhoodresourcesthattheincomingstudentsmightcontactaspartoftheirneighborhoodstudy.Subsequently,studentsspendapproximatelysixhoursaweekduringtheirfive-weeksummertermvolunteeringinasummeryouthprogramwhilecontinuingworkontheneighborhoodstudy.Thisinitialphaseoftheprogramispurposefullydesignedtointroducetheschool’sneighborhoodandhelpnewstudentsfeelcomfortableinit.

Fall Inearlyfall,studentsareaskedtousetheirfieldworktimeinseveralways:ThefirstisbyobservingtheirClassroomMentor(cooperatingteacher).TheygethelpinterpretingwhattheyareseeingfromboththeClassroomMentorandaPennMentor(fieldsupervisor).WearewellawareofwhatLortie(1975)describesastheappren-ticeshipofobservation.Thisactivityisdesignedtobeginforourstudentstheprocessofmakingthefamiliarstrange,thatis,toexposethecomplexityofteachingthatisoftenhiddenfromthemasstudentsintheclassroom.Aseconduseofthefieldworkinvolvesdevelopingaportraitofanindividualchild(TermII).Thisassignmentisfollowedbyanalysisoflessonsthateachstudentconductsineachofthecurricular


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areas—math,science,socialstudies,andreadingwithadaptationsforchildrenwithspecialneedsandspeakersofEnglishasasecondlanguage(TermIII).

Term II:Throughaseriesofformalandinformalmeasures,eachstudentdevelopsaprofileofalearner.Thisisintendedtobeanin-depthexaminationthatincludesaCarini-styledescriptivereview(Himley&Carini,2000)aswellasinvestigationofthechild’slevelofskillandknowledgeattainmentinthecontentareasofmath,science,literacy,andsocialstudies.Theassignmentisreadandgradedbyeachofthecontentareainstructorsaswellastheinstructorofthefieldseminar.Althoughstudentsoftenappearanxioustobeginteaching,andsometimesexpressfrustrationbecausetheydonotunderstand,prospectively,thevalueofthiswork,wehaveheldtothisassignmentbecausewehaveseendemonstratedoverandoveragainthat,intheprocessofcompletingit,theylearnhowimportanttotheworkofteachinggettingtoknowone’sclassis.

Term III:InTermIIIstudentslearnaboutlessondesign.Duringthisphaseoftheirprogram,theydevelopandimplementalessonforasmallgroupofstudentsineachofthecontentareas—math,science,literacy,andsocialstudies.Theselessonsareplannedaroundaquestionaboutpracticethateachstudentidentifiesaspartoftheirinquiryworkfortheirfieldseminarclass.Theresultinglessonplansarecheckedbytheappropriate“methods”instructoraswellasthePennMentor,and,sometimes,bytheClassroomMentor,beforetheyareactedupon.TheTermIIIassignmentforeachofthefiveareasincludingtheseminarisananalysisofwhatthestudenthaslearnedintheprocessofconductingtheselessons.Itendswithatentativeanswertothequestionthestudenthasposed.Theassignmentisreadandgradedbyeachofthecontentareainstructorsaswellasbytheinstructorofthefieldseminar.

Spring Students move into the spring semester with full time student teaching anddevelopingandteachingacurriculumunitthatintegratesseveralmajorcurricularareas.BytheendoftheSpring,theywillhavecompletedtheirinquiryportfolios.

Term IV—Integrated Curriculum:Duringtheearlypartofthespringsemester,students’usebackwarddesign(Blythe,1998;Tomlinson&McTighe,2006)tode-velopacurriculumunitthatintegratesatleasttwoofthemajorelementarycontentareasaroundathemethatthestudentandClassroomMentorhaveagreedupon.Ideally,thisunit,orpartofit,istaughtduringthetwoweekswhenstudentsassumefullresponsibilityfortheirclassroominthelatespring(partofthestatemandateforcertification).AlthoughthecurriculumiswritteninTermIV,itisenactedinthefinalterm,andsodiscussionofitsimpactgenerallyoccursinthestudent’sinquiryportfolio.

Inquiry Portfolio:TheinquiryportfolioisnotdescribedastheTermVassess-ment.Thisisimportantforanumberofreasonsthemostsalientbeingthatthis


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assignmentisintendedtobeandispursuedacrosstheprogramasthestudents’culminatingreflection.Hence,theinquiryportfolioincorporatesandbuildsonallthathascomebefore.Itispresentedinawebsite-basedformatandtakestheplaceofaMaster’sdegreeexaminationinourprogram.Theportfolioisfocusedaroundaquestionthathasengagedthestudentthroughouttheprogram,andthestudentbolstershisorherexplanationofcurrentunderstandingwithartifactsfromacrosstheyear.Theseartifactsmayincludeexamplesofchildren’swork,entriesfromthestudentteacher’sjournal,assignmentsfromclasses,piecesofpreviousintegratedassignments,and,increasingly,annotatedaudioorvideosegments.Theseitemsaredrawnfromsummer,fall,andspringcourses,studies,andfieldwork,full-timestudentteachingintheSpring,readings,andconferenceactivities—hence,acul-minatingandsummativestudy.

Method Forthisstudy,weuseoneinquiryportfolioasrepresentativeofthelargerbodyofeightyinquiryportfolios(40eachyear)thatwehaveexamined.Forthewhole,we have drawn extensively on work done by Kumar, Pupik Dean, and Bergey(2012)whofocusedonthewaysinwhichstudents’attitudesandperceptionsabouturbanneighborhoodsandtheroleofteachingchangedoverthe10monthsoftheprogram.Theyusedseveralassignmentsfromthesummer—students’reflectionsonfirstenteringtheneighborhoodoftheirschool,aneighborhoodstudy,specificreadingsrelatedtoequityandsocialjustice(Murrell,2001;Moll,Amanti,Neff,&Gonzalez,2005;Nieto,2006;Sugrue,1993;Yosso,2005).Kumarandcolleagueslookedforevidenceof theseassignments in thespringsemesterwhenstudentscompletedcurriculumunitsandtheirinquiryportfolios. Followingonthatworkandusingagroundedtheoryanalysis(Strauss&Corbin,1990),weexaminedpreservicestudents’descriptionsofandreflectionsaroundpracticeasindicatorsoftheirgrowingaction-orientedknowledge(AOK)(Urzúa&Vásquez,2008),i.e.,therepresentationandformulationofpracticeintoconcepts,pedagogicaltechniques,andstrategiesthatariseamongpractitionersinproblem-solvinganddeci-sion-makingsituations.Specifically,aswefollowedKumarandcolleagues’(2012)studyofechoesofthesummer,weexaminedtheportfoliostodeterminewhichele-mentsofthewholeteachereducationprogram—activities,readings,specificteachingstrategies,programstructuressuchasfieldexperiencesandcohortdesign—figureinpreservicestudents’descriptionsoftheirpractice.Inthisway,wehavetriedtocaptureasenseoftheprogram’secologysoastodeterminetheextenttowhichourteachereducationprogramholdstogetherasacoherenteffortaimedatpreparing“reflective,collaborative,visionaryteacher-leaders”forurbanschools.

Tracing Learning to Teach through Janet’s Portfolio WehavechosenJanet’sportfolionotbecause itwas thebest (althoughwe


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acknowledgethatit isamongthem).Wehavechosenitbecauseitservesasanexemplar showingways inwhich theprogram’sfive core assessments seem toscaffoldthedevelopmentofaction-orientedknowledge(Urzúa&Vásquez,2008)amongourstudents.

Summer: Janet Enters the Neighborhood Likemanyofthestudentswhocomeintotheprogramwithoutpriorexperi-enceofurbanschoolsandneighborhoods,Janet,anAsianstudentfromthewestcoastwithabachelor’sdegreeinthehistoryofarchitecture,haddevelopedasetofexpectationsaboutthecity,itsneighborhoods,anditsschools.Inherreflectionpaperdescribingtheexperienceofenteringtheneighborhoodshewrote,“Ihadexpectedittobe…dilapidatedandrun-down…judgmentsformedduetootherpeople’sperceptions.”Aftertheneighborhoodvisit,Janetwrote:

Incontrast[towhatIhadbeenleadtoexpect],mytour…wasveryeyeopening…Theneighborhoodcarries[a]senseofculture,diversityofpeoplesandcharacter…Comingfromanarchitecturalhistorybackground,Iwasimmediatelystruckbythediversemixtureofarchitectureaswellas…thequalityoftheupkeepofthehomes.

Whilenotall studentsare influencedby thearchitectureandwhile itmay takesomeseveraldaysofinteractionwithchildren,families,andcommunityduringthesummer,theexperienceofgainingnewperceptionsseemstobeuniversalandtobesupportedbothbythefieldexperienceandthecourse,SchoolandSociety,thatstudentstakealongwithit.

Fall: Term II—Janet’s Portrait of a Child Initially,developinganuancedportraitofasinglechildisoftenresistedbymanystudents.Theywouldratherbeteachingandworkingwiththewholeclass.Theyoftenexpressreluctanceandfeelingsofawkwardnessaboutsinglingoutonechildandlearninghowtoobserve,interview,andanalyzethechild’sworkandtheirconversations.Theyquestiontherelevanceofknowingonechildthiswell.Janetwasnoexception. ForthePortraitofaChild,Janetstudiedachildwhomshedescribedasstand-ingoutnotbecausehewasatopstudentorlowfunctioningstudentbutbecausehewaskindtohisclassmatesandrespectfulofauthority.Attheendofherpapersheremarked:

Conductingthischildstudyprojectwasachallengeincapitalizingonlittlemo-ments,thenuancesofbehavior.Ihavelearnedtofindimportanceintheday-to-day,mundaneactionsthatweoftentakeforgrantedas“normativebehavior.”

Latershewrites:

CertainlygoingthroughthisprocesshasinfluencedthewaythatIwillapproachmyfutureclassroom.Inconductingtheseinterviews,Ihavebeenabletoestablisha


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trustingrelationshipwithmychildstudystudent.Ifhewereastudentinmyclass,Ithinkthatthisestablishmentoftrustwouldhavelastingbenefitsinthechild’sfuturelearningsuccess,ashefeelscomfortableapproachingmetoaskquestionsorbringupconcerns…

Ihavelearned,though,…thatobservingachildisanongoingandcontinuousprocessthatwillneverbecomplete.Whilethismaybediscouraging,makingtheefforttoconducttheseobservationsiscertainlyanimportantandworthwhiletask.Therearesomanyinstanceswhenstudentsareneglectedbecauseitisimpossibletogainagoodsenseoftheirstrengthsandinterests.Ithinkthatmakingtheefforttomeetandtalkwitheachstudentindividuallycanprovetobeavaluableeffortinthelongrun,helpingtoestablishtrustingrelationshipswithone’sstudents.

Theaction-orientedthinkingthatJanetdemonstrateshereisnotunusual.Asstudentsstepbackandreflectontheexperienceofcomingtoknowonechildwell,mostcometotherealizationthatitisessentialtofindways,asJanethasvoicedhere,tocometoknowallofone’sstudents.Theirjournals,likeJanet’sshowhowtheobservationalandrecord-keepingtechniquesthattheyadoptedfortheassignmentaregraduallybecomingstaples tosupport thecarefulplanningforsmallgroupinstructionthatiscoretotheTermIIIassignment.

Term III—Janet’s Inquiry into Practice ThequestionaroundwhichJanetframedherInquiryintoPracticewas,“HowcanIplanandimplementlessonsthatencourageparticipationandindividualstudents’voicestobeheardwhilealsoestablishingacollaborativelearningenvironment?”ForherTermIIIassignment,Janetexperimentedwithavarietyofgroupingsfordifferentcontentarealessonswhilesimultaneouslyassessingtheroleoftheindi-vidualstudent,thegroupasawhole,andherroleastheteacher/facilitator.Attheend,shewrote:

Buildingaclassroomcommunitycanthusbefacilitatedthroughthethoughtfulplanningoflessonsthatincorporateandtakeintoconsiderationthediverseneedsandskilllevelswithinaclass.

Andspecifically(seeFigure2):

Oneimportantideatoconsideristhatstudents’silentvoicesdonotmeanthattheyarenotengaged.Therearecertainzonesofcomfortthatyoucantapintowithstudentswhodonotfeelcomfortabletalkinginthelargegroup.Thesestudentsmayexcelinthewrittenwordorpreferdiscussionswithinthesmallgrouporpairedsetting.Ithinkitisvitalandimperative,then,tohavemultiplemodesofdiscourseandassessmentinaclassasameansoffairlytakingnoteofwhichstudentsarecontributingtoaclassroomlearningcommunity,verballyornot.

At this point in the program, students have developed a website in whichartifactsfromthesummerandfallassignmentsareavailable.TheysituatetheirInquiryintoPractice(TermIIIassignment)relativetothechild,class,school,and


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neighborhoodinwhichtheyhavebeenimmersedsincethesummer,andtheystructuretheirpresentationsrelativetowhattheyarelearningaboutteachingmath,science,literacy,andsocialstudies.LikeJanet’s,theirquestions,seemtocombineasenseofplaceandpeoplewithagrowingunderstandingsofthecomplexworkofteaching.Intheirefforttoanswertheirownquestions,they,likeJanet,moveintowritingaboutinstructionaldilemmas,takingactionandreflectingonit,drawingonevidenceoftheirownandtheirstudents’learning.Forus,theirinstructors,ourfocusturnstoourstudents’readinesstomoveintoafull-timeclassroomcommitment.

Spring: Janet’s Full-Time Student Teaching Giventhebroaddevelopmentalrangeofchildreninelementaryschoolandthevarietyofteachingtechniquesandskillsneeded,weencourageourstudentstochooseasecondschoolplacementforthespring.Becauseofthefocusontestpreparation in somehard to staffurbanschools,manystudentschooseahigh-functioningschoolforthisplacement.Janetisonewhotooktheoppositecourse;shemovedfromoneofthebestschoolsinthedistricttoamoretypical,althoughstilleffective,urbanschool. InJanuary,Janetbeganonthefull-timestudentteachingphaseofthepro-gram.Shechosetomoveintoanewschoolandanewneighborhood.ShechoseaneighborhoodwithadiverseimmigrantpopulationhencemeetingtheneedsofEnglishLanguageLearnersbecameveryimportanttoher.Meanwhile,Janet’sfeelingofcomfortintheseurbanneighborhoodscontinuedtogrowasevidenced

Figure 2Learning about Multiple Modes of Assessment—Term III

Harry's drawing about going to his grandfather's house and having a picnic.

Janet finds that a child's drawing can work for formative assessment and can open up opportu-nities for language development.


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inherdescriptionofhermorningtripbypublictransportationintohernewneigh-borhood:

Onceweedgecloserto[streetname]andthestorefrontsshiftfromEnglishtoanassortmentofAsianandSpanishlanguages,theneighborhoodcharacteristicsdramaticallyshift.Thehousesnarrowinwidthandheight, thestreetsbecomeincreasinglymorecompactandcrowded,andcommercialskyscrapersarereplacedwithneighborhoodstaples…IcherishthesenseofcomfortthatoverwhelmsmeeverydayasIstepoffofthe…bus…Thefourcornerintersectionenvelopsme,welcomingmetotheneighborhoodwithopenarms.Ifeelathome,eventhoughIamworldsawayfrommytemporarydwellinginWestPhiladelphiaandevenmoresofrommypermanenthomeinsouthernCalifornia.

Term IV—Janet’s Integrated Curriculum:Janet’sgrowingsenseofcomfortwiththeneighborhoodoftheschoolalongwithherownbackgroundinarchitecturemayhavecontributedtoherchoiceof“PlaceandtheNeighborhood”asthetopicforhercurriculumunit.Inhercontextandrationalestatements,JanetcitesTheNationalTrustforHistoricPreservationthatdescribesschoolsas"importantanchorsthathelpdefineandsustainourneighborhoods." Janetintroducedherunitbyshowingthechildrenaphotographoftheirschoolfrom1926.Thechildrenrecognizedtheschoolimmediatelybutthenbegantonoticewhatwasdifferentinthepicture:thecars,stores,eventhesignageandtheshapeoftelephonepoles.Thisintroductionwasfollowedbyhavingthechildrenlearnaboutarchitecturalfeatures(seeFigure3),takeseveralneighborhoodwalks

Figure 3Learning Different Architectural Features

This new school had a significant number of English language learners. Janet strove to accom-modate them, allowing them to show what they knew by designing worksheets that relied on visual information.


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tolocatethesefeatures(seeFigure4),designabuildingtofitintotheneighborhood(seeFigures5&6),usemaps,and,finally,haveeachchildmakeapersonalmaptoshowwhatwasimportanttohimorherintheneighborhood(seeFigure7).

Figure 4Different Map Worksheets for Children Who Were Proficientin Reading English and Those Who Were Not

Figure 5The Task—Developing Assessment Opportunitiesin Which All Learners Feel Supported and Challenged


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Figure 6A Variety of Responses to the Design Task

Figure 7Individual Maps Showed Students’ Views of Neighborhood Assets


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Asnotedearlier,studentsarerequiredtodevelopanintegratedcurriculuminwhichatleasttwoandoftenthreecontentareasarebroughttogetheraroundwhatBlythe(1998)andWigginsandMicTighe(2005)describeas“overarching”or“enduring”understandingsandareintendedtobeaccessibletoallstudentsintheclass(Tomlinson&McTighe,2006).Thestructureoftheassignmentcallsfortheirdescribingconstraintstheyarelikelytoexperience,standardstheywilltrytoaddress,andassessmentactivitiesuponwhichtheywilldraw.Thus,Janet’sef-forttodevelopacurriculumthatwouldbeaccessibletoallofherstudents,eventhoseforwhomEnglishisasecondlanguage,isnotunusual.Neitherisitunusualthatherworkwouldbeinformedbythesummerandfallassignmentssincethesearepurposefullyintendedasscaffoldsforthestudents’full-timestudentteachingexperience.Asafaculty,weexpecttoseeelementsoftheseassignmentsinformingboththestudents’constructionoftheirunitsandtheirinquiryportfolios.

Janet’s Inquiry Portfolio:The inquiryquestion thatJanetdevelopedduringTermIII,“HowcanIcreateaclassroomlearningenvironmentinwhichallstudentsaresupportedandchallenged?”becomesthefocusherofherportfolioandtherebyenablinghertoreachbacktoherexperiencesduringthefallandearlyspringterms.Inherportfolio,JanethighlightsvariousversionsofworksheetsshedevelopedsothatstudentswhosereadingorwritingofEnglishwereatdifferentlevelswouldbeabletoparticipateequally(seeFigures3,4,5,6,7).Relyingonherownstrongvisual sense, Janet developed symbol-based activities that allowed her EnglishLanguageLearnerstudentstoshowtheirfullunderstanding(seeFigures3,4,7) Despiteherandmostofherstudents’evidentsuccess,Janetcontinues,evenattheendofherportfolio,toaskhardquestions:

Iamleftwithmanyquestionsaftermystudentteachingexperiences:Firstly,itisdiscouragingthattherearesomestudentswhoarestillleftbehind.HowcanIimplementacurriculumthatisdifferentiatedandsupportiveyetstillchallengingforstudentswhoareabovegradelevel?Inaddition,inattemptingtodifferenti-ate,howdoesonesuccessfullydothisonaconsistentbasisforeverylessonandforeachsubject?Howcanyousuccessfullychallengestudentswhoarealwaysfinishingearly,howcanyoucontinuetomotivateandengagestudentswhoalwaysdotheirwork,butmakesurethattheyarebeingchallengedandlearningaswell?Finally,howdoyoureconcilesuchvastdifferencesinlevelsacrossaclassroomof studentsandstillmaintainacohesive, supportive,welcoming,and thrivinglearningenvironment?

However,shehasprovidedherselfsometentativeanswersparticularlyaroundassessment(seeFigures5and6)withwhichtostarthercareer:

Ithinkthatmanyoftheanswerstothesequestionsmustbebuiltfromdayoneintheestablishmentofapositiveclassroomlearningenvironment.Ifeellikeitissodifficulttomakesurethatallstudentsareonthesamepage.Assuch,thetimespentintheplanningstagesbeforealessonisimplementedissovitaltodetermining


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whatyouastheteacherwanteachindividualstudenttogainfromalesson.Then,youcandesignassessmentsormodifyyourdirectinstructioninsuchawayastoprovidethenecessaryskillsandtoolsforthelesson’sgoals.Thereafter,youcanstructureguidedpracticesothatstudentsareagainreceivingmodelingoftheskillsandbehaviorsthatyouteaching.Finally,whenstudentsgotoindependentlypracticetheskillsoftheday,youcancirculateandprovidethosestudentswhoneedextrasupportwithassistance.

Analysis Webeganourstudywiththequestionofwhetherandtowhatextentourstudentsareabletoembracetheprogram’scommitmenttosocialjusticeanditsclaimthatit“preparesreflective,collaborative,visionaryteacher-leaders”forurbanschools.Wechosetousethefivecoreassessmenteventsoftheprogramasthelensthroughwhichtostudyourstudents’progressand,asawaytogoafterwhatGladwell(2011)describes as “hard-to-observe” (p. 73) program qualities. Following Clark andRust(2006),wehavelookedatthoseassessmentsas“learningopportunities”andhaveasked,“whatisitthatourstudentslearnrelativetotheprogram’smissionandgoals?”Aretheydevelopingtheaction-orientedknowledgethatUrzúaandVásquez(2008)suggestarisesamongpractitionersinproblem-solvinganddecision-makingsituations?Inshort,istheecologyoftheprogramsuchthatstudentsfindsupporttoexperimentwithandadoptnewunderstandingsofteachingandlearning?

Giving Meaning to “Urban” Janet’s story surfaces the most obvious answer, that is, that our students’understandingsof“urban”and“urbanschools”change—sometimes,asinJanet’scase,quitedramatically.Shearrivedwithpreconceptionsabouturbanschoolsthatshecandidlydescribes:“Ihadexpectedittobe…dilapidatedandrun-down…judgmentsformedduetootherpeople’sperceptions.”Whatsheinitiallydiscoversisanunexpectedvibrancyinthecommunityandadiversityofarchitecturetowhichherundergraduate experiencemadeher especially sensitive.Wecanwatchherunderstandingofthebreadthanddepthofthecommunity’sassetsgrowsuchthat,whenshecouldmovetoamoreaffluentandbetterresourcedsetting(asaboutathirdofhercolleaguesdo),shechoosesnotto.Hersisnotaromanticvision.Rather,sheseemstohaveinterpretedhersummerreadingsofMolletal,(2001),Murrell(2001),Sugrue,(1993),Yosso(2005),andothersasamandateforaction.So,shesituatesherselfsolidlyinthecommunityandtakesupthechallengeofteachingherstudentsabouttheircommunity—boththeneighborhoodandthecity.

Developing Practical Skills toward Becoming a Teacher Intheprocess,Janetdemonstratesanothermajorlearningthatsheand,actually,allofthestudentsintheprogramhaveapprehended:thatisthecapacitytoplanandthecapabilityofenactingacurriculumunitthatistargetedthoughtfullyand


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appropriatelyatherstudents.Sheengagesthemandtheylearn,andshe,likeherpeersintheprogram,demonstratesthatshehasdevelopedwaysofdeterminingwhatintereststhem,howtodifferentiateinstructiontomeettheirneeds,howtodeterminewheretheyneedsupport,andhowtousethedataofformativeassess-menttoshapefutureaction. Thisabilitytoplanwaybeyondindividuallessonsissupportedandencouragedbyaconfigurationofindividualandsmallgroupactivitiessituatedbothinandout-sideofcoursesandfieldexperiencesthatprovidestudentswithampleopportunitytoengagewithcorepedagogiesofteachinginthewaysthatGrossmanetal(2009)suggestarecritical.Thekeyprogramassessments,particularlytheTermIIandTermIIIassignments,showedJanet’sabilitytodecomposeinstructionalpracticessoastomakesenseofthem.Thiswasabundantlyclear,forexample,inheradaptingalessonforherfocuschildinthefall(seeFigure2)andinherexperimentswithgroupingthroughoutwinterandspring.ThroughoutherfieldexperienceandespeciallyintheassignmentsassociatedwiththeTermIIandIIIassessments,shehadopportunitiesforapproximationsofpracticethatsupportedhermoveintomoreindependentpracticeinthespringwhereformativeandsummativeassessmentassumedmajorimportanceinhereffortstoaddressherinquiryquestion(SeeFigures5,6,7).

Becoming a Teacher Researcher In reading Janet’s portfolio, we discover echoes not only of the summerneighborhoodstudybutalsoofeachofthepriorassessmentsand,intheseechoes,weseehergrowingcompetenceasateacherresearcher.Tocompleteherportraitofalearner(TermIIassignment),Janetengagedininterviewsforeachcontentarea;shecollectedsamplesofstudentwork;sheworkedfromclassroommapstodeterminemovementandverbalflowatdifferenttimesofday;shemadeanecdotalrecords;shebegankeepingajournal.TheseandotherresearchstrategiesshowupinJanet’sdevelopmentofartifactstobuttresstheclaimsthatshemakesaboutherlearningandtosupportherefforttoaddressherinquiryquestion.Whatisimportanttonotehereisthateachresearchstrategythatsheusedhasbeenconsciouslyandsystematicallyembeddedinthecoreprogramassessments.

Reflecting in and on Action ForstudentslikeJanet,thetoolsofteacherresearcharespurstoreflection.Asshenoteswhendescribingherportraitofalearner,“CertainlygoingthroughthisprocesshasinfluencedthewaythatIwillapproachmyfutureclassroom.”Sheclearlyseesthepossibilityofcontinuallydeepeningandexpandingknowledgeofeachchild;andshegetsthatthetrustandinterdependencethatsuchknowledgebringsisessentialtosuccessfulteaching.Willitcontinue?OurbetsareonforJanetaswesawherefforttogettoknowandunderstandstudents,herself,thecontext,andtheimpactofherinstructionaldecisions.Wesawthiseffortatreflectivepracticesustainedanddeepenedthroughouttheyear.


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Doother students in theprogramdemonstrate a similar inclination to thisdepthofreflection?Simplyput,theansweristhatallshowsome,butfewshowthisdepth.ZeichnerandListon’s(1987)andRust’s(2002,1994)suggestionthatstudentteachersquicklylearntosayandwritewhatwe,teachereducators,wanttohearholdstruehere;whatourassessmentscannottellusishowdeepitgoes.Toknowthis,itisessentialthatnewteachersbefollowedintotheirfirstyearsofteachingandbeyond.

Discussion Itisdifficulttoidentifytheentireconstellationoffactorsthatenableastu-dentteacherlikeJanettogodeepwhenothersseemnotto.WecanspeculatethatJanet’slifeexperienceshavemappedwellwiththewaysofknowingprofferedbytheprogramandthatthisfitmaybelessgoodforotherstudents.Ifthisisthecase,thequestionbecomes,canwebetterengineer theecologyof theprogram—thescheduleandstructureofcourses,assignments,fieldexperiences,assessments—toenableourstudentstoengagemoredeeplyinareflexiveprocessthatequipsthemtoexamineandmakeuseoftheirpersonalexperiencerelativetotheireffortstobecometeachers?

Seeking a Learning Community Likemanyotherprograms,acorepedagogyofthisteachereducationprogramisitscohortdesign.OurstudentsbegintogetherinJulyandmovethroughtheentireprogramtakingthesamecoursesatthesametime.Wetakethispedagogicalstructuremoredeeplyintotheplacementofstudentsinthefieldbyplacingstudentsinschoolcohorts,and,whenpossible,pairingtheminaclassroom,tryingtoplacecounselingstudentsinthesameschoolsinwhichwehavestudentteachers,andencouragingtheformationofsmalllearningcommunities.Wealsotakethecohortdesigndeeplyintotheshapingofclasssections,andintotheverydesignofsomeofthelearningtaskswithinindividualcourses.So,itisnotsurprisingthatJanet,likemostofthestudentsintheprogram,wouldseektocreateacollaborativelearningenvironmentwithinherclassroom.WhatwasunexpectedinJanet’sworkwasthedualfocusontheindividualandtheentirelearningecosystemthatbeginsinherlessonanalysis(TermIII)andcanbetracedasathrough-lineacrossherassignments. Kumarandcolleagues’study(2012)ofJanet’sinquiryportfoliosuggeststhatthe combination of student teaching placements with supportive program andclassroommentorswasinstrumentalinherefforttoenableeachchild’svoicetobeheardintheclassroomandtoremovebarriersthatmightpreventfullpartici-pationfromEnglishLanguageLearners.Byusingtheseresourcesintheactofshapingherinstructionsoastoincorporateherconvictionabouttheimportanceofcommunitytolearning,JanetmovedherselfintoworkingwithinacommunityofpracticethatincludedherClassroommentorandherPennmentor.Thisis,as


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researchonteacherprofessionaldevelopment(Ball&Cohen,1999;Lieberman&Miller,2001;Little&McLaughlin,1993)makesclear,anessentialstancethatsupportsboththeindividualgrowthofteachersandahighlevelofpracticeacrossanentireschool.And,itfitswellwithWideen,Mayer-Smith,andMoon’s(1998)contentionthat,

Wecannolongerregardcourses,programs,andotherparticipantsandstructuresofteachereducationasunchallengeableandoperatinginisolation.Thesefeaturesmustbeseen(bystudents,teachereducators,andresearchers)asinterconnectedandregardedasexaminableandproblematicinbothresearchandpractice.(p.169)

However,asremarkableasJanet’sworkandthatofotherstudentsinthepro-gramwaswithrespectcreatingandparticipatingincommunitiesoflearners,ourkeyprogramassessmentsdonotcallforandsodonotmeasuretheextenttowhichstudents,intheirfirstyearsofteaching,seekoutcollaborativearrangementsthatcouldsupport their learning to teachaswellas theirmovement toward teacherleadership.Weknowthatsuchopportunitiestopracticeandexperimentwiththesetechniquesduringourprogramarethereforthem:forexample,themathproblemsolving,moonjournalsharinginscience,andemphasison“wholeisgreaterthanthesumoftheparts”projectsintheintegratedcurriculumoftheprogram.Intermsofprofessionalcommunitiesthe“modifiedlessonstudy”intheliteracyportionofTermIIIisanotherexampleofcollaborativework.Further,wehavealwaysencour-agedourstudentstotakepartinallmeetingsattheschools,whentheycan:gradelevelgroups,CSAPmeetings,parentconferences,professionaldevelopment–allofwhichareopportunitiestoshareinsightsandresponsibilitieswithotherswhohaveaninterestinthechildorclass. Thepointhereisthatunlikeapprehendingteacherresearchskillsorreshapingdefinitionsofurban,wehavenotspecificallyplannedformeasurementofstudents’developmentofcollaborativeskills.Aswithreflectiononaction,wedonothaveanywayofsayingdefinitivelythatthereisaprecisemomentwhenstudentswillseethisasanessentialaspectoftheirpracticeorthattheyhaveadoptedastancethatwillpropelthemtowardcollegialpractice.Inthisasinsomuchelseaboutlearningtoteach,whooneisasonecomestotheprogramandthewaysinwhichthecontextualstrandsoftheprogramareinterpretedhavealottodowithwhatprospectiveintermsofaffectiveframesandworldviewsteacherstakeawaywiththem.

Conclusion Weknowthatteacherpreparationprogramsoccupyasmallmomentoftimeinthecourseofateacher’sprofessionallifeandthat,inthebestofallpossibleworlds,teacherpreparationcaneffectivelylaunchnewteachersonalongandlearning-filledcareer(Rust,2009).Thequestioniswhichprograms,whichpracticeswillinsurethatnewteachersbeginwellandthattheyarewellequippedtoengageinthereshapingofeducationinwaysthatenabletheachievementofwhatBanks(2010)


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describesas“(1)meaningfullearninggoals,(2),intelligent,reciprocalaccountabilitysystems,(3)equitableandadequateresources,(4)strongprofessionalstandards,and(5)theorganizationofschoolsforstudentsandteacherlearning”(p.xi). Ourrecenteffortstosubstantiateourclaimshavefocusedussquarelyonthefourcorepedagogiesoftheprogramandontheevidencethatwehavegarneredfromthekeyassignmentsoftheprograms.Ourstudysuggeststhat,whenassessmenteventsarecarefullycraftedtoalignwithprogramgoalsastheonesinourprogramare,theycanhelpbothpreservicestudentsandteachereducatorstodeterminehowcloselypreservicestudentsarecomingtorealizingthosequalitiesthatBanks(2010)hassetout.However, thesearenotenoughor,rather,wemaynothavestudiedthemcarefullyenough.Intheirstudyoftwodigitalinquiryportfolioscompletedbyelementarystudents,Kumar,Pupik-Dean,andBergey(2012)showeduswhatwecanlearnifwedrilldownintotheassignmentsandlookacrosstheprogramtofindtheirechoes.Wearealsoseeingthat,asWideen,Mayer-Smith,andMoon(1998)suggest,weneedmoresystematicinquiriesengagedinbyprogramfaculty,mentors,andstudentsthatcangiveusinsightaboutthose“hardtosee”qualitiesthatenableustosupporttheclaimthatourgraduatesarewellpreparedforworkasteachersand,eventually,leadersinurbanschools. Inthelongrun,whatmaybeneededisanexpandedunderstandingofteachereducationthatpositionslearningtoteachasintegraltoandpartofthecontinuumofteacherprofessionaldevelopment(Stein&Mundry,1999;Rust,2009).Recon-ceptualizingteachereducationinthiswaycouldchangetheecologyofteaching:Itcouldenablenewteacherstotransitionwithconfidenceintoschoolswheretheconceptions of learning and teaching that they have developed and learned tobringintopracticearehonoredandsupported.Itcouldenableteachereducatorstobesituatedascolleagueswithschoolteachersinthedevelopmentofpowerfulpedagogiesthatcanchangetheexperienceoflearningfornewteachersandforthechildrenwhomtheyteach.

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developing action-oriented knowledge among preservice teachers · finds“hard-to-observe” (p....

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