developing a framework for public relations …
TRANSCRIPT
DEVELOPING A FRAMEWORK FOR PUBLIC RELATIONS PRACTICE: A STUDY
OF THE FINANCIAL SERVICES SECTOR IN GHANA.
by
ALBERT ADJEI ANANI-BOSSMAN
Submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree of
DOCTOR OF LITERATURE AND PHILOSOPHY
in the subject
Communication
at the
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA
SUPERVISOR: Professor Takalani E. Mudzanani
June 2018
ii
Declaration
DECLARATION
Name: Albert Adjei Anani-Bossman
Student number: 55716423
Degree: Doctor of Literature and Philosophy (Communication)
Thesis title Developing a framework for public relations practice: A study of the
financial services sector in Ghana.
I declare that the above thesis is my own work and that all the sources that I have used or quoted
have been indicated and acknowledged by means of complete references. I further declare that I
submitted the thesis to originality checking software. I further declare that I have not previously
submitted this work, or part of it, for examination at Unisa for another qualification or at any other
higher education institution.
June, 2018
Signature Date
iii
Acknowledgments
Acknowledgement
The saying that ‘no man is an island’ definitely proved to be the case in the development of this
thesis. I could not have completed this work without the assistance of the many people who
played various parts in one way or the other. I would therefore like to thank the following:
I wish to extend my sincere thanks to the almighty God for the grace and strength he
gave me throughout this period. Indeed, there were times I felt like giving up but His word
always sustained and strengthened me.
Special appreciation goes to my supervisor, Professor Takalani E. Mudzanani, for his
immense support and contribution to this work. Being a young scholar who had embarked
on this new journey, I was not certain of what I needed to do, but his continuous support,
guidance and suggestions have been immense in finishing this work. No amount of words
can really express my gratitude to this wonderful man, except to say the Lord bless you
a thousand fold for all the effort you put into this work.
This research would not have been completed without the contribution of the research
participants. I therefore wish to extend my sincere gratitude to all the research
participants who took time off their busy schedules to assist me with my data collection.
To my beloved family, my wife Sheila and children Aileen, Shaun and Albert Jnr., for your
patience and tolerance even as I left you alone for long periods at a time just to do this
project. You have been a great support and God bless you.
To my colleagues at the Department of Communication Studies at the Pentecost
University College, I thank you for your constant encouragement.
Finally, to my friend and mentor, Professor Kwabena Kwansah-Aidoo of Swinburne
University of Technology, Australia, thank you for your advice and counselling during the
initial stages of this thesis.
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Dedication
DEDICATION
This work is dedicated to my wonderful family, my wife Sheila and children Aileen, Shaun
and Albert Jnr.
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Abstract
ABSTRACT
The goal of the study was to develop a framework for public relations practice in the financial
services sector. The study was based on four key objectives. In line with the first objective,
chapters 2 and 3 reviewed how public relations was conceptualised and practiced by reviewing
literature. Three worldviews, the North American, the European and African worldviews, were
discussed by looking at their similarities and differences. The literature also reviewed the
development of public relations from these three perspectives. Literature revealed that different
models influence practices in different cultural settings and that effective PR practice cannot be
premised on a single model.
Objectives 2, 3 and 4 empirically analysed the conceptualisation and practice of public relations
in terms of the purpose (models) and roles (activities). The study employed the one-on-one
interview technique to gauge the views of communication managers in the financial services
sector. The result of the study was discussed and analysed in chapter 5. Findings showed that
PR was not strategic and mostly had a marketing orientation. Significantly, most of the
communication managers had marketing backgrounds, which invariably affected their concept
and practice of public relations. Another key finding was that public relations measurement and
evaluation was based on outputs and outtakes more than outcomes. Moreover, methods used
were mostly unscientific in nature. PR strategies were based on audience satisfaction surveys
rather than perception and attitudinal research. Practitioners are not part of the dominant
coalition. The findings showed that practitioners faced a number of challenges that
compromised the effectiveness of their work, including management’s value and perception of
their work, lack of in-depth knowledge about the profession itself, budgetary constraints and
inability to sometimes influence decisions because of their position in the organisational
structure.
The findings of the study, together with findings in the literature, were used to develop a
framework for effective PR practice in the sector. The framework differs in certain aspects from
some of the recommendations made by literature for excellent public relations practice. The
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framework also incorporates recommendations aligning to the reality of public relations practice
within the Ghanaian cultural and political environment.
Key words: framework, relationship management, symmetrical communication, public relations
practice, culture, model, strategic, excellent communication, worldview, stakeholder,
relationship building.
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Opsomming
OPSOMMING
Die doel van die studie was om 'n raamwerk vir openbare betrekkinge praktyk in die finansiële dienste
sektor te ontwikkel. Die studie was gebaseer op vier sleutel doelwitte. In lyn met die eerste doel het
hoofstukke 2 en 3 nagegaan hoe openbare betrekkinge gekonseptualiseer en beoefen word deur
literatuur te hersien. Drie wêreldbeskouings, die Noord-Amerikaanse, die Europese en Afrika-
wêreldbeskouings, is bespreek deur na hul ooreenkomste en verskille te kyk. Die literatuur het ook die
ontwikkeling van openbare betrekkinge vanuit hierdie drie perspektiewe nagegaan. Literatuur het aan
die lig gebring dat verskillende modelle praktyke in verskillende kulturele instellings beïnvloed en dat
effektiewe PR praktyk nie op 'n enkele model voorgestel kan word nie.
Doelwitte 2, 3 en 4 het die konseptualisering en beoefening van openbare betrekkinge empiries ontleed
ten opsigte van die doel (modelle) en rolle (aktiwiteite). Die studie het die een-tot-een-onderhoudstegniek
gebruik om die sienings van kommunikasiebestuurders in die finansiële dienste sektor te meet. Die
uitslag van die studie is in hoofstuk 5 bespreek en ontleed. Bevindinge het getoon dat PR nie strategies
was nie en meestal bemarkingsoriëntering gehad het. Aansienlik het die meeste
kommunikasiebestuurders bemarkingsagtergrond gehad, wat hul konsep en praktyk van openbare
betrekkinge altyd beïnvloed het. Nog 'n belangrike bevinding was dat metings en evaluering van
openbare betrekkinge gebaseer is op uitsette en uittreksels meer as uitkomste. Daarbenewens was die
gebruik van metodes meestal onwetenskaplik van aard. PR strategieë was gebaseer op gehoor
bevrediging opnames eerder as persepsie en houding navorsing. Praktisyns is nie deel van die
dominante koalisie nie. Die bevindings het getoon dat praktisyns 'n aantal uitdagings gekonfronteer het
wat die doeltreffendheid van hul werk bekamp het, insluitend die waarde van die bestuur en die persepsie
van hul werk, 'n gebrek aan grondige kennis oor die professie self, begrotingsbeperkings en onvermoë
om soms besluite te beïnvloed weens hul posisie in die organisasiestruktuur.
Die bevindinge van die studie, tesame met bevindings in die literatuur, is gebruik om 'n raamwerk vir
effektiewe PR-praktyk in die sektor te ontwikkel. Die raamwerk verskil in sekere opsigte van sommige
van die aanbevelings van die literatuur vir uitstekende openbare betrekkinge praktyk. Die raamwerk
bevat ook aanbevelings wat ooreenstem met die realiteit van openbare betrekkinge praktyk binne die
Ghanese kulturele en politieke omgewing.
Sleutelwoorde: raamwerk, verhoudingsbestuur, simmetriese kommunikasie, openbare
betrekkinge praktyk, kultuur, model, strategiese, uitstekende kommunikasie, wêreldbeskouing,
belanghebbende, verhoudingsgebou.
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Table of contents
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Content Page
TITLE PAGE ........................................................................................................................ i
DECLARATION .................................................................................................................. ii
ACKNOWLEDGMENT ....................................................................................................... iii
DEDICATION ..................................................................................................................... iv
ABSTRACTS ...................................................................................................................... v
TABLE OF CONTENTS ..................................................................................................... ix
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS .............................................................................................. xv
LIST OF FIGURES .......................................................................................................... xvii
LIST OF TABLES .......................................................................................................... xviii
CHAPTER 1: BACKGROUND AND ORIENTATION ................................................................. 1
1.1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................... 1
1.2 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY ......................................................................... 3
1.2.1 Overview of Ghana .............................................................................................. 5
1.2.1.1. The Economy….. ................................................................................................. 6
1.2.1.2. The economic sector..…………………………………………………………….6
1.2.1.3. The financial services sector….. ........................................................................ 7
1.3 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM ......................................................................... 7
1.4 GOALS AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY ....................................................... 9
1.5 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES ................................................................................ 10
1.6 RESEARCH QUESTIONS .................................................................................. 11
1.7 THE PUBLIC RELATIONS INDUSTRY ............................................................... 12
1.8 GLOBALISATION AND PUBLIC RELATIONS ................................................... 13
1.8.1. Brief overview of globalisation ........................................................................ 13
1.8.2. Impact of globalisation on the public relations industry ............................... 15
1.8.3. Implications for global theory building ........................................................... 16
1.8.3.1. Different public relations models practiced in different regions ................... 17
1.8.3.2. Towards a generic principle of public relations .............................................. 20
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1.9 LITERATURE REVIEW....................................................................................... 22
1.9.1. An historical overview of public relations ....................................................... 22
1.9.2. Defining public relations .................................................................................. 23
1.9.3. Towards a conceptualised theory of public relations ..................................... 27
1.9.3.1. The Excellence Theory ...................................................................................... 27
1.9.3.2. Systems Theory ................................................................................................. 28
1.9.3.3. Models of public relations practice .................................................................. 28
1.9.4. Public relations roles ......................................................................................... 30
1.9.5. Public relations in the financial services sector .............................................. 31
1.10 DEFINITION OF TERMS ..................................................................................... 32
1.11 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY .................................................... 33 1.11.1. The research method ........................................................................................ 35
1.11.2. Population .......................................................................................................... 35
1.11.2.1. Accessible population....................................................................................... 36
1.11.3. Sampling design ................................................................................................ 36
1.11.4. Study area .......................................................................................................... 38
1.11.5. Data collection method ..................................................................................... 39
1.11.5.1. Data collection techniques ............................................................................... 39
1.11.6. Data analysis method ........................................................................................ 39
1.11.7. Data interpretation ............................................................................................. 41
1.12 SIGNFICANCE OF THE STUDY .......................................................................... 42
1.13 FEASIBILITY OF THE STUDY ............................................................................ 43
1.14 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY ............................................................................. 43
1.15 ANTICIPATED FINDINGS ................................................................................... 45
1.16 ETHICAL CONSIDERATION .............................................................................. 45
1.17 SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY ..................................................... 46
1.18 DELIMITATION OF THE STUDY ........................................................................ 47
1.19 ORGANISATION OF THE THESIS ...................................................................... 47
1.20 SUMMARY........................................................................................................... 48
CHAPTER 2: WORLDVIEWS, PARADIGMS AND THEORIES OF THE STUDY .................... 51
2.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................. 51
2.2 CONCEPTUALISATION OF THE STUDY .......................................................... 51
2.2.1. Difference between worldviews, paradigms, meta-theories and theories ..... 52
2.2.2. Paradigms framing the study .......................................................................... 63
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2.2.2.1. The relational paradigm ................................................................................... 63
2.2.2.2. Reflective paradigm ......................................................................................... 66
2.2.2.3. Two-way symmetrical communication paradigm ........................................... 67
2.2.2.3.1. Criticisms of the symmetric paradigm ...................................................... 70
2.2.3. Meta-theory used in the study .......................................................................... 71
2.2.3.1. Inductive versus deductive reasoning ............................................................. 72
2.2.3.2. General excellence theory as a meta-theory ................................................... 73
2.2.4. Theories used for the study ............................................................................... 76
2.2.4.1. The systems theory ........................................................................................... 79
2.2.4.1.1. Systems theory as applied to public relations ....................................... 81
2.2.4.1.2. Linking the systems theory to the study................................................... 85
2.2.4.2. Relationship management theory ................................................................... 86
2.2.4.2.1. Linking the relationship management theory to the study ...................... 90
2.2.5. Public relations as practiced in the financial services sector ......................... 90
2.3 SUMMARY ................................................................................................................... 92
CHAPTER THREE: DEVELOPMENT AND PRACTICE OF PUBLIC RELATIONS ................. 95
3.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................. 95
3.2 ORIGIN OF PUBLIC RELATIONS ...................................................................... 95
3.2.1. North American development of public relations ........................................... 99
3.2.2. Historical development of public relations in Europe .................................. 104
3.3 MODELS OF PUBLIC RELATIONS PRACTICE .............................................. 106
3.3.1. Models of public relations practice: North American perspectives ............. 107
3.3.2. Models of public relations practice: European perspectives ....................... 111
3.3.3. Models of public relations practice: Non-western perspective .................... 115
3.3.3.1. The personal influence model ........................................................................ 117
3.3.3.2. The cultural interpreter model ........................................................................ 118
3.4 PUBLIC RELATIONS IN AFRICA .................................................................... 120
3.4.1. Early beginnings.............................................................................................. 121
3.4.2. Development of public relations practice in Africa ....................................... 122
3.4.3. Public relations and the African worldview ................................................... 127
3.5 PUBLIC RELATIONS ROLE ............................................................................. 131
3.5.1. Public relations roles: North American perspective ..................................... 131
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3.5.2. Public relations roles: European perspectives ............................................. 133
3.5.3. Public relations roles in Africa ...................................................................... 135
3.5.3.1. The strategist role of South Africa ............................................................... 137
3.6 DEVELOPMENT OF PUBLIC RELATIONS IN GHANA ................................... 139
3.6.1. Brief history of Ghana ..................................................................................... 140
3.6.2. The landscape of modern public relations in Ghana ..................................... 141
3.6.3. PR roles in Ghana............................................................................................ 147
3.7 SUMMARY ........................................................................................................ 148
CHAPTER 4: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ........................................................................ 151
4.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................... 151
4.2 RESEARCH DESIGN ....................................................................................... 152
4.2.1 Qualitative research design ............................................................................ 154
4.2.2 Sources of data ............................................................................................... 155
4.3 DATA COLLECTION ......................................................................................... 156
4.4 SAMPLING ........................................................................................................ 157 4.4.1. Defining the research population .................................................................... 159
4.4.1.1. Selecting the target population ...................................................................... 159
4.4.2. Selecting the sample type ............................................................................... 160
4.4.3. Determining the sample size ........................................................................... 160
4.4.4. Data collection methods .................................................................................. 163
4.4.4.1. The interview schedule ................................................................................... 164
4.4.4.2. The data gathering procedure ........................................................................ 165
4.4.5. Data analysis and interpretation .................................................................... 166
4.5 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY ........................................................................... 170
4.6 ETHICAL CONSIDERATION ............................................................................. 173
4.7 SUMMARY ........................................................................................................ 175
CHAPTER FIVE: PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION OF THE RESEARCH RESULTS176
5.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................... 176
5.2 OVERVIEW OF RESEARCH PARTICIPANTS .................................................. 177
5.3 FINDINGS OF ONE-ON-ONE INTERVIEW........................................................ 180
5.3.1. Research objective 2 ....................................................................................... 180
5.3.2 Research objective 3 ....................................................................................... 186
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5.3.2.1. Press agentry/publicity .................................................................................. 186
5.3.2.2. Public information ......................................................................................... 206
5.3.2.3. Two-way asymmetric communication ......................................................... 224
5.3.2.4. Two-way symmetric communication ............................................................ 235
5.3.3. Research objective 4 ..................................................................................... 243
5.3.3.1. Technician role ............................................................................................. 235
5.3.3.2. Managerial role ................................................................................................ 247
5.3.4. Concluding questions ..................................................................................... 260
5.4 A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK FOR PUBLIC RELATIONS PRACTICE ...... 266
5.4.1. Theoretical statements for the proposed framework .................................... 266
5.5 SUMMARY………………………………………………………………………...270
CHAPTER 6: SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS AND
FRAMEWORK FOR PUBLIC RELATIONS PRACTICE …………………………………….272
6.1 INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………... 272
6.2 SUMMARY OF RESEARCH FINDINGS………………………………………….272
6.3 CONCLUSIONS ON RESEARCH OBJECTIVES……………………………275
6.3.1. Conclusion on the conceptualisation of public relations by means of literature…………………………………………………………………………..275
6.3.2. Conclusion on the conceptualisation of public relations by means of empirical data …………………………………………………………………..276
6.3.3. Conclusion on the selected models by means of empirical data……...276
6.3.4. Conclusions on the public relations roles by means of empirical data277
6.4 RECOMMENDATIONS………………………………………………………….278
6.4.1. Training of department staff and management……………………………278
6.4.2. Focus on formal environmental scanning and evaluative research…..279
6.4.3. Separation of public relations functions from other functions………...281
6.4.4. Empowerment of the public relations manager in the decision making process…………………………………………………………………………...282
6.4.5. Integration of communication functions across departments…………282
6.4.6. Two- way communication……………………………………………………..283
6.4.7. Development of social network policy………………………………………285
6.4.8. A strong focus on advocacy role…………………………………………….286
6.5 THE PROPOSED FRAMEWORK…………………………………………....286
6.5.1. Explanation of the framework…………………………………………………287
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6.5.1.1. Strategic Approach…………………………………………………………...288
6.5.1.2. Symmetrical Approach………………………………………………….……289
6.5.1.3. Relational Approach……………………………………………………….…290
6.6 FRAMEWORK JUSTIFICATION AND IMPLICATION FOR THEORY, POLICY AND PRACTICE………………………………………………………292
6.7 CONTRIBUTION OF THE STUDY………………………………..............…..293
6.8 RECOMMENDATION FOR FUTURE STUDIES……………………………..293
6.9 CONCLUSION OF THE STUDY……………………………………………….394
LIST OF SOURCES CONSULTED…………………………………………………………......296
ADDENDUM A: ONE-ON-ONE INTERVIEW GUIDE………………………………………....337
ADDENDUM B: LETTER REQUESTING PERMISSION TO CONDUCT RESEARCH…..340
ADDENDUM C: CONSENT INFORMATION SHEET AND ETHICAL CONSENT FORM..343
ADENDUM D: ETHICAL CLEARANCE CERTIFICATE……………………………….......348
ADDENDUM E: UNISA POLICY ON RESEARCH ETHICS (2016)…………………….…349
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List of abbreviations
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
AGM Annual General Meeting
AMEC Association for the Measurement and Evaluation of Communication
APR Association in Public Relations
APRA African Public Relations Association
AUCC African University College of Communication
AVE Advertising value equivalence
BC Before Christ
CAQDAS Computer Assisted Qualitative Data Analysis Software
CIPR Chartered Institute of Public Relations
CRM Customer relationship management
EBOK European Public Relations Body of Knowledge
EPRERA European Public Relations Education and Research Association
FAPRA Federation of African Public Relations Association
FDI Foreign Direct Investment
GAPRCM Global Alliance for Public Relations and Communication Management
GDP Gross Domestic Product
GIJ Ghana Institute of Journalism
GIPC Ghana Investment Promotion Centre
GNI Gross National Income
GOIL Ghana Oil Company
IABC International Association of Business Communicators
ICCO International Communications Consultancy Organisation
IMF International Monetary Fund
IPR Institute of Public Relations
IPRA International Public Relations Association
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IQPR International Quality in Public Relations
ISSER Institute of Statistical, Social and Economic Research
KPMG Klynveld Peat Marwick Goerdeler
OPR Organisational-public relationships
PRAG Public Relations Association of Ghana
PRSA Public Relations Society of America
ROE Return on equity
ROI Return on investment
UK United Kingdom
USA United States of America
WW I/II World War 1 & 2
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List of figures
LIST OF FIGURES
Figures page
Figure 2.1. Inductive reasoning……………………………………………………..72
Figure 2.2. Deductive reasoning ……………………..……………………………..72
Figure 2.3. The cycle of research…………………………………………………….73
Figure 4.1. The three Cs of data analysis: codes, categories, concepts.…...169
Figure 4.2. Relationship between questions, data, and meaning…………….170
Figure 5.1. Educational level of participants………………….…………………..180
Figure 6: Framework for effective public relations in the financial services
sector …………………………………………………………………….287
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List of tables
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Research objectives, methods of data collection, and chapter………...11
Table 2.1. Conceptualisation of the study ………………………...…………………….52
Table 2.2. Frameworks for organisation-public relationship measurement………..89
Table 3.1. Stages of PR development in the United States of America…………....100
Table 3.2. Characteristics of the four models of public relations.…………………109
Table 3.3. The four models of European public relations….……………………….113
Table 5.1. Demographics of participants….…………………………………………..178
1
CHAPTER 1
BACKGROUND AND ORIENTATION
1.1. INTRODUCTION
Since the beginning of the 21st century public relations (PR) has seen an
immeasurable growth as an industry both in numbers and respect. As an industry and
profession PR has matured to the point of becoming an essential part of businesses
worldwide. Contemporary PR as it is known today has moved beyond being an
industry based in the United States of America (USA) to a worldwide profession. PR
practice now spans countries with diverse cultures, economic and political systems,
and levels of development (Curtin & Gaither, 2012: 1; Culbertson, 1996:1). Gregory
(2004: 1) describes the nature of PR as “Dynamic, fast-moving, always developing, at
the heart of the action.” This is because a lot more organisations, including
developing/non-western countries, are gradually becoming aware of how
communication/PR impacts on the success of their organisation. Waiyachote (2007:1),
for instance, attributes the rise of the PR industry to the profession’s ability to distribute
messages clearly. Duncan (2005: 543) asserts that PR has “the power to cut through
messages” and is more cost-effective and sometimes more credible than advertising.
Bowen, Rawlins and Martin (2012: 3) further emphasise the value of PR to
organisational success when they posit that PR can mean the difference between “life
and death” or the difference between “profitability and failure.”
The increasing value of PR within organisations has primarily been due to economic,
societal, and technological advancement and communication across the globe. Many
businesses now transcend national borders to conduct businesses, leading to a
competitive environment. The increase in competition for foreign market among
multinational organisations means that PR practitioners now service not only their
environment, but a new, intercultural, worldwide audience (Chmielecki, 2012: 135,
Jourde, 2007:1). Grunig (1992: 541) points out that “most organisations are affected
by publics throughout the world or by competition with organisations in other
countries.” This means organisations can no longer depend on a single strategy to
communicate with its publics but must rather develop different strategies to address
different situations (Gregory, 2002).
2
As globalisation is continuously increasing economic, social and political
interdependencies, many organisations are also interacting, physically and virtually,
with their publics outside their own country to build a dynamic relationship. Molleda
(2009) believes that “trade, direct foreign investment, political coalitions, worthy global
cases, information flow, and social networking, among other phenomena, are
increasing the complexity of these relationships dramatically.” What this means is that
there is a higher level of interdependence and interconnectivity among groups and
organisations. The net effect is that there is now a strong demand on PR practitioners
to manage communication and relationships between an organisation and its
stakeholders at local as well as international levels (Vercic, Zerfass & Wiesenberg,
2015: 415; Wakefield, 2001: 639).
Scholars have, for several years, been studying how the profession is practiced
globally as a way of contributing to the development of global theory and increasing
the body of knowledge on the discipline. However, such research has largely been
concentrated in western organisations/countries (Gupta & Bartlett, 2007:1;
Cultberson, 1996:2). Very little research on the practice has been conducted in other
parts of the world, especially in African countries. The purpose of this study is to
investigate how PR is practiced in Ghana, with specific reference to corporate
institutions in the financial sector. The desire to contribute to the body of knowledge
on the practice and understand the uniqueness or otherwise of how the profession is
practiced has occasioned this research. At the end of the research, the researcher
hopes to develop a framework that will aid in the practice of PR in the financial services
sector in Ghana.
This chapter will examine a number of issues. The chapter will discuss the overall
context of the study, beginning with a discussion of the background, including an
overview of the PR industry. Next, an overview is provided on the concept of
globalisation and its impact on PR practice worldwide. Reference will be made to the
different paradigms postulated by scholars in different regions particularly USA,
Europe and Asia. Other issues that will be discussed in this chapter include: the
purpose and relevance of the study, some theoretical concepts and related studies on
the subject under investigation, historical overview of public relations, the research
3
setting, as well as the goals and objectives of the research. The chapter will conclude
by looking at the formulation of the research problem(s), including the formulation of
the sub-problems, various aspects of the methodology and the anticipated findings.
The researcher will further link the contribution of the study to the discipline of
communication.
1.2. BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY
PR efforts are generally seen as an attempt to manage communication between an
organisation and its publics (Grunig & Hunt, 1984: 6). Johnson and Zawawi (2009: 6)
also define PR as “a management function that uses communications to facilitate
relationships and understanding between an organisation and its publics.” The
practice of PR is found globally by corporate organisations, NGOs and governments
in different roles and contexts. Organisations use PR as a means of enhancing
reputation and building and maintaining relationships to achieve goals and objectives.
Mehta and Xavier (2009: 192) note that the duty of a PR practitioner is to ensure
successful communication between an organisation and its publics, including
monitoring and responding to issues, expectations and maintaining an effective
working environment.
PR is an intrinsic part of every organisation. It provides organisations the opportunity
to monitor, dialogue, and respond to issues that affect key publics of the organisation
(Lamb & McKee, 2005: 1). Lamb and McKee (2005: 1) define the profession as “the
communication and action on the part of an organisation that supports the
development and maintenance of mutually beneficial relationships between the
organisation and the groups with which it is interdependent.”
The relevance of PR professionals to organisations is clearly found in the roles they
play within the organisation. PR practitioners do not only manage information flow,
they actively engage key publics, establish strong relationships, strive to maintain a
sound reputation at all times and through all circumstances, and through PR
measurement, help the organisation achieve strategic organisational goals (Public
Relations Society of America – PRSA, 2012). PR practitioners ensure that
organisations engage with stakeholders to succeed in an increasingly competitive,
product-saturated, service-oriented marketplace. PR is now a fundamental part of
4
organisations in every country (McEllrath, Chen, Azarova & Shadrova, 2001: 665).
The discussion so far shows how far the profession has developed during the new
millennium and its importance to organisations not only in the western world but also
other countries where the profession was not held in high esteem.
In the attempt to contribute to the discussion on increasing the global body of
knowledge, it is important for scholars to look at how the profession is practiced in
other countries. There is the need to broaden the discussion to other cultures,
especially countries regarded as third world as these countries are poorly represented
when debating scholarly literature on the subject. The need for country-by-country
studies on the profession is even more urgent as the literature available is either
scarce or non-existent. Despite showing signs of increasing development, very little is
known about PR practice in Africa and Ghana, for that matter. In fact, Mersham,
Skinner and Rensburg (2011: 1) note that most of the scholarly body of knowledge on
PR since the beginning of the 21st century has mainly been in the USA and western
Europe, a view shared by other scholars. The result is that conceptual
frameworks/models developed to enhance the practice suit these countries. Mersham
et al (2011: 1) therefore suggest the need for an African body of knowledge of PR and
theory based on an African worldview. This will pave the way for Africa to effectively
“engage in the global refocusing of world economics and discussions on how PR is
practised in various countries and on different continents.” Gupta and Bartlet (2007:
1) also affirm that non-western practitioners often struggle in their attempt to
implement such western-based models due to cultural, economic and societal
differences. Although South Africa has led Africa’s effort to bridge the gap (Mersham,
Skinner & Rensburg, 2011; Roux, 2010; Steyn, 2009; Van Heerden, 2004 etc), there
is much more to be learnt by way of country-by-country studies. The current study
therefore attempts to fill the gap by investigating how the profession is practiced in
Ghana by first trying to understand the roles of practitioners in the selected
organisations and the models that influence their practice. Secondly, the research will
determine whether these models (if any) are effective in view of the cultural diversity
between Ghana and the western countries where the models were developed.
The previous section introduced the chapter by discussing the various contexts within
which PR is practiced. The following section will briefly discuss the country Ghana and
its economy. It will end with a discussion about the financial services sector in Ghana.
5
1.2.1. Overview of Ghana
Ghana is a lower middle income country situated in Sub-Saharan Africa. The country
is flanked by French speaking countries, Cote D’Ivoire to the east, Burkina Faso to the
north, Togo to the east, and the Atlantic Ocean to the south. Ghana currently has a
population of over 25.1 million (July 2013 estimate) with a GNI per capita (US$) of
1,760 (World Bank Doing Business report, 2015). In 1957, Ghana became the first
country south of the Sahara to gain its independence from their British colonial
masters. The independence struggle was led by then Prime Minister Dr. Kwame
Nkrumah, who later became its first president. The name of the country, which was
then known as the Gold Coast because of its abundance of gold, was changed to
Ghana after independence to reflect its new identity. After a series of coups in the
1980s Ghana witnessed historic elections as the country took the decision to return to
multi-party democracy with the promulgation of a new constitution in 1992. Flt. Lt. Jerry
John Rawlings, the then military ruler, became the first president of the fourth republic
under the 1992 constitution. Since then Ghana has successfully held several elections
and the country continues to grow economically and politically.
The people of Ghana are made up of various ethnic groups with its own unique cultural
characteristics and lifestyles. The major ethnic groups consist of the Akans (47.5%),
who constitute the largest group in terms of population. The others are the Ga-Dagme
(16.6%), Ewe (13.9%), Mole-Dagme (7.4%), Guan (3.7%), Gurma (5.7%), Grusi
(2.5%), Mande (1.1%), and others (1.4%) - (Tucci, 2017).
Ghana is currently one of Africa’s fastest growing economies thanks largely to its
wealthy resources, democratic system and robust economy. The democratic
credentials of the country have fast-tracked its growth in foreign direct investment
(FDI) in recent years. Ghana’s GDP is now close to US$ 44 million (2013 estimate –
Ghana Statistical Service, 2014).
6
1.2.1.1. The Economy
Ghana achieved middle income status in 2012 with a GDP per capita of US$1,563
with a GDP estimate of US$1,668 estimated for 2013 (PwC, 2014). Ghana is a country
rich in natural resources. It is the second largest producer of cocoa and one of the
leading producers of gold in the world. The quality of Ghana’s cocoa ensures that it
enjoys good patronage on the world market. Cocoa presently accounts for nearly 20%
of the country’s total merchandised exports. Apart from cocoa, the country also exports
timber, crude oil, diamonds, bauxite, and aluminium, among others.
In 2010 Ghana commenced drilling of crude oil in commercial quantities and now
produces close to 120,000 barrels per day. Production of oil is expected to increase
after the government approved the commencement of production on the TEN
(Tweneboa-Enyenra-Ntomme) oil field which is operated by Tullow Oil Ghana Ltd.
Ghana commenced the export of natural gas in the latter part of 2014.
Ghana’s growth has remained fairly resilient despite the global recession. Even though
the growth rate has slowed since 2011, the economy remains robust and fairly stable.
The GDP growth rate as at 2013 stood at 5.4%. The economic growth rate was buoyed
by oil exports, which accounted for a much larger proportion of GDP growth (ISSER,
2014: 7). There was a significant improvement in the industrial sector, which is the
second largest and second fastest growing sector, primarily due to growth in mining
and quarrying, with petroleum the main contributor (ISSER, 2013).
1.2.1.2. The economic sector
The economy of Ghana is based on a number of sectors including agriculture, financial
services (banks and other financial institutions), real estate, energy (electricity, oil and
gas), mining, tourism and Information and Communication Technologies (ICT). For the
purpose of this research, the discussion will focus on the financial services sector. This
sector is considered key due to its significant contribution to the country’s economy.
7
1.2.1.3. Financial services sector
The financial sector’s role in promoting economic development has been highlighted
for decades (Armenta, 2007: 189). Sutton and Jenkins (2007: 6) also identify the
fundamental role that the financial services sector plays in economic growth and
development. Sutton and Jenkins posit that the financial services sector allows citizens
to save money, protect themselves from an uncertain future, and enhance their credit
value, at the same time ensuring they start and expand their businesses, enhance
productivity, and compete effectively not only at a local level, but also internationally.
Ghana’s financial services sector operates in three main areas, namely the banking
and finance (including non-banking services and forex bureaus), insurance, and
financial market/capital markets. The industry is regulated by the Bank of Ghana. The
financial services sector is estimated to have contributed 10% to overall growth rate
of the service during the third quarter of 2013 (Ghana Banking Survey, 2014). The
financial services sector in Ghana has become essential in the resource mobilisation
as well as an integral part of Ghana’s payment and settlement system. The sector
assists start-up businesses and also enables existing businesses to expand their
horizon. This process allows citizens to generate income, ultimately improving
livelihoods. This also allows government to generate more revenue in terms of
corporate tax which it uses to develop various aspects of the economy.
The previous section discussed Ghana, its economy and the financial services sector.
The next session will outline the statement of the problem as well as the goals of the
study.
1.3. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
The body of knowledge on the practice of PR has experienced tremendous growth
since the latter part of the 20th century. Evidence shows that the field will continue to
evolve itself into an established discipline (Wilcox, 2006: 68). However, a
comprehensive review of the current scholarly body of knowledge on PR practices
indicates that the conceptual literature of the developments and practice of PR is
uneven. In the opinion of Sriramesh and Vercic (2009: xxxvi), the focus of theory
building has been restricted predominantly to the USA and a few western European
countries. Empirical evidence on the growth and practice of PR in different parts of the
world, especially non-western regions such as Africa, is very limited (Ming-Yi & Baah-
8
Boakye, 2008: 2). The result is that empirical evidence about the practice of the
profession in other parts of the world is very scarce. They advocate for a descriptive
account of PR practice from individual countries to enhance the body of knowledge
currently in existence, especially as PR is now a global enterprise.
In view of the on-going debate about the different theoretical underpinnings that
influence the practice of PR globally (as discussed previously), the question one then
asks is “what influences the practice of PR among corporate organisations in Ghana?
Is there a model that is unique to Ghana as it is in other parts of the world such as the
two-way symmetrical in North America, the reflective paradigm in Europe or the
strategist model as practiced in South Africa?” In consideration of these questions
and based on literature reviewed (such as Ming-Yi & Baah-Boakye, 2008), the
researcher believes that there is a significant gap in as far as knowledge of how PR is
practiced is concerned, especially in the corporate world. The problem to be
addressed will therefore be based on the following: To investigate how PR is practiced
among corporate organisations in Ghana by executing a qualitative cross-sectional
study of the financial services sector of the Ghanaian economy and developing a
theoretical framework which will guide the practice of PR in the sector.
The study will investigate how PR is practiced in relation to its roles (activities) and
models (purpose). This has become even more imperative as there is little or no
information on how PR is practiced in Ghana and the models used in such practice.
Available literature shows that the roles of PR, and for that matter the theoretical basis
of the practice, is fashioned from the western perspective, specifically the USA and
United Kingdom (UK) (Sriramesh 2009: xxxii; Verčič, van Ruler, Bütschi & Flodin,
2001: 373). Freitag and Stokes (2009: 183) admit that the practice of PR in sub-
Saharan Africa, of which Ghana is a part, does not follow the same format as that
which is practiced in the western world. The authors again note that the few studies
done on the practice in Sub-Saharan countries have been evaluated “unfairly” based
on western standards, as noticed by Gupta and Bartlett in their 2007 analysis of the
differences between Asian and Western approaches to business and PR. Grunig et al
(1995: 164) also acknowledge that many of the conditions that allow professional PR
to thrive in the USA may not even exist in organisations in other countries, hence the
practice of PR may not be as effective in other countries as it is in the USA as they
9
may not rely on the same models. The overall aim of this study is to develop a
framework that will guide the practice of PR in the financial services sector in Ghana.
1.4. GOALS AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
The goal of the study is applied communication research as it aims to investigate
issues of a practical nature, that is, determining the practice of PR among corporate
organisations in the financial services sector of Ghana. Bhattacherjee (2012: 3)
describes the goal of a scientific research as one that aims to discover laws and
suggests theories that help explain natural or social phenomena or build scientific
knowledge. Du Plooy (2001: 48) defines research goals as aims, purposes and overall
outcomes of a research. He however acknowledges the confusion among scholars
regarding the use of and meaning of the concepts of ‘goals’, ‘aims’, ‘purposes’,
‘objectives’, or ‘outcomes’ of research. Du Plooy (2001: 48) distinguishes between two
goals of research, namely “applied communication research” and “basic
communication research.” Du Plooy further states that a research study is regarded
as basic when the aim is to develop theories that explain a particular communication
phenomenon as a means of expanding communication as a science. On the other
hand communication research is applied when the purpose is to investigate practical
issues in order to ‘find solutions to problems that can be applied.’ A key aspect of
applied communication research is that it allows a researcher to evaluate current
practices of a phenomenon. Wimmer and Dominick (2011: 406) categorise research
into three types, namely applied, basic and introspective. Applied research focuses on
theory to solve “world problems.” In other words, it is used to solve specific problems
such as communication campaigns. Broom and Dozier (1990: 23) categorise applied
research into strategic (used to develop PR campaigns) and evaluative research
(assesses the effectiveness of a PR programme). Basic research on the other hand
attempts to proffer a framework for the practice of PR. It aims at creating knowledge
that cuts across PR situations (Dozier, 2010: 10-11). The introspective examines the
field of PR including experiences among members of the profession.
The overall objective of this research is exploratory. Exploratory objectives enable a
researcher to obtain new insight into an issue of interest. In this case it will allow the
researcher to obtain insight into how PR is practiced among selected corporate
organisations in Ghana. The aim of exploratory research (Sue & Ritter, 2012: 2) is to
10
formulate problems, clarify concepts, and form hypothesis. Bhattacherjee (2012: 6)
notes that exploratory research is mostly investigated in new areas of inquiry with the
purpose of determining the scale or extent of a particular concept, problem, or
behaviour, and to develop some preliminary ideas about that concept. Nagy, Biber
and Leavy (2011: 10) also describe exploratory research as an “investigation into an
area that has been under-researched.” Du Plooy (2001: 48) views exploratory
objectives as examining unknown research areas as a means of obtaining new insight
into a communication problem. These definitions agree with the nature of this research
which seeks to understand how PR is practiced in selected corporate organisations, a
view shared by Babbie (2008: 97).
Kothari (2004:36) also explains that exploratory studies allow a researcher to gain
insight into an issue and discover new ideas. Hesse-Biber and Leavy (2011: 10) put it
succinctly by indicating that the purpose of exploratory research is to investigate an
area that has been ‘under-researched’ hence such data gathered virtually helps shape
the direction of future research. In view of these assertions the researcher considers
exploratory research as the right method to use in investigating how PR is practiced
among corporate organisations in the studied organisations. The next section will
detail the research objectives and research questions.
1.5. RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
Specifically, the objectives of this study will be to:
Investigate how PR is conceptualised and practiced by means of literature
review.
Determine how PR is conceptualised by practitioners in the financial services
sector in Ghana.
Analyse the views of Ghanaian PR practitioners in the financial services sector
about the selected PR models.
Analyse the PR roles (activities) practitioners in the financial services sector in
Ghana are engaged in.
11
Table 1: Research objectives, goal of the study, methods of data collection, and
chapter
Goal of study
Research objectives Research method(s) Chapter
1
Applied communication
Chapter 1
2
To investigate how PR is conceptualised and practiced by means of literature review Literature review Chapter 1 to 4
3
To determine how PR is conceptualised by practitioners in the financial services sector in Ghana Interview Chapter 5
4
To analyse the views of Ghanaian PR practitioners in the financial services sector about the selected PR models Interview Chapter 5
5
To analyse the PR roles (activities) practitioners in the financial services sector in Ghana are engaged in. Interview Chapter 5
Source: Researcher’s own compilation
1.6. RESEARCH QUESTIONS
Based on the research objectives, the study will seek answers to the following
questions:
How is PR conceptualised and practised according to literature?
How is PR conceptualised by Ghanaian PR practitioners in the financial
services sector?
What are the views of Ghanaian PR practitioners in the financial services sector
on the selected PR models?
What roles (activities) do Ghanaian PR practitioners in the financial services
sector perform?
The next section will discuss the PR industry in general including the concept of
globalisation and its impact on the profession at a global level. It will also briefly discuss
the various models practiced in different cultural settings.
12
1.7. THE PUBLIC RELATIONS INDUSTRY
The PR industry has experienced a great transformation over the last 30 years. The
industry has moved from being mere publicity or one-way communication to become
a means by which organisations and their stakeholders engage in a two-way dialogue
aimed at creating a mutual understanding. PR, from its modern conception in the early
part of the 20th century to the present time, has undoubtedly developed into a multi-
billion dollar industry and the fibre of every successful business and democratic
process. In economic terms, the World PR industry report (The Holmes Report and
the International Communications Consultancy Organisation - ICCO1) of May 2015
reveals that the industry grew by 7% in 2014 to more than $12 billion in 2015. This
was however a decrease from the 11% increase in 2013, a situation attributed to
currency volatility. The fact however remains that the industry continues to outperform
the growth of the global economy. In terms of the number of practitioners, the Global
Alliance estimate the number of actual PR professionals in the region of three million
(Wilcox & Cameron, 2012: 5). However, this figure could be higher as more people get
into the profession annually.
In Africa, political stability and rapid socio-economic development has also accelerated
the growth of the profession. Several countries on the African continent, including
South Africa, Ghana, Nigeria, Kenya, and Uganda have their own institution that
supports the practice. Apart from this, Africa also has its umbrella body in the
Federation of African Public Relations Association (FAPRA), which was established in
1975. These associations are making valuable contributions to the development of
the practice. In Ghana, the Institute of Public Relations (IPR) constantly organises
courses in various aspects of PR as a way of sharpening the skills of practitioners to
come to terms with current practices. Practitioners on the continent are also making
efforts to contribute to the global discussion on the practice through publications on
the practice in Africa (Mersham & Skinner, 2009; Akpabio, 2009; Rensburg, 2007;
Ming-Yi & Baah-Boakye, 2008; Van Heerden, 2005). Although not widely
acknowledged due to the lack of literature, research on the practice has been growing
during the last two decades (Akpabio, 2009). Mersham, Skinner and Ronsburg (2011:
3) believe that the growing nature of the practice also means that there is the need for
1 The World PR Report was based on submissions from more than 400 public relations firms across the world.
13
African practitioners to build a body of knowledge of PR and theory based on African
perspectives. Scanlan (2004: 5) is of the opinion that African countries are the
originators of and the focus of intense PR efforts. This statement feeds into efforts by
practitioners, including those outside the continent, to evaluate the practice of PR
given the continent’s diverse cultural and ethnic background. Although Freitag and
Stokes (2009: 92) acknowledge the use of PR in many African countries as a tool for
development or nation-building, they nevertheless believe that the profession is
growing at a phenomenal rate.
1.8. GLOBALISATION AND PUBLIC RELATIONS
Available literature suggests a strong linkage between globalisation and PR practice.
Scholars believe that globalisation has opened enormous opportunities for the growth
of PR practice and scholarship (Sriramesh, 2009: 2; Sriramesh & Verčič, 2007: 335).
Indeed, Sriramesh and Verčič (2007: 335) argue that both globalisation and PR have
played a mutual role in contributing to each other’s growth while others such as
Butterick (2011: 179) and Morley (2002: 192) describe PR as a global phenomenon
permeating through cultures. This section will briefly review the concept of
globalisation and then discuss its linkage with PR.
1.8.1. Brief overview of globalisation
Much has been discussed about the concept of globalisation and how it has
encapsulated the political, economic, and cultural atmosphere of today. However, as
some scholars have pointed out, the term is not new (Walker, 2010: 219). Sriramesh
(2009: 2) for instance, argues that globalisation did take place at various points of
human history as civilisations exchanged values and artefacts. L’Etang (2008: 232)
also shows that globalisation began with “early human exploration and developed
through trade, imperialism, diplomacy, tourism and cross-cultural exchange.”
Globalisation has been defined in many ways to mean different things in various fields
including international business, global public policy and international relations. It has
been argued that the difficulty in settling for a single definition is primarily due to its
multifaceted nature. In the words of Lee (2005: 14): “although globalisation is a truly
multifaceted trend that makes it hard to define within one discipline, it obviously relates
to the emergence of new social relations that transcend traditional borders.” Diamond
14
(2006) links globalisation with the “growing interdependence and interconnectedness
of the world - politically, militarily, economically and technologically.” Ritzer (2004: 72)
also described it as “the world with diffusion of practice, expansion of relations across
continents, organisation or social life on a global scale, and growth of a shared global
consciousness.” L’Etang (2008: 231) describes the concept of globalisation as
“compression of time and space that has been facilitated by communication
technology and travel.” In simple terms, globalisation involves working with different
employees, customers, vendors, communities and government officials in multiple
countries (Wilcox & Cameron, 2011: 544). Sondzi (2006: 112) further describes the
many dimensions of globalisation to include environmental, military, social and
economic globalisation.
Globalisation is believed to have originated in the 1990s primarily due to the rapid
increase in international trade to refer to the expansion of the world as an
interconnection of economic, communications and social networks (Sriramesh, 2010:
692; Franklin, Hogan, Langley, Mosdell & Pill, 2009: 96). Globalisation was a term
mooted to describe the idea of a ‘global village’, a term coined by Marshall McLuhan
in the 1960s (Franklin et al 2009: 96). Sriramesh (2010: 692) notes that globalisation
is primarily used in an economic sense to mean elimination of factors that inhibit
effective trade among nations, thereby allowing for the smooth flow of goods, services,
and labour with communication driving such exchange. Globalisation now shapes the
way businesses, including small businesses, operate. Heath and Coombs (2012:
456), in affirming how globalisation has impacted on even small businesses, make the
following comment:
Globalization, especially with the advantages of the Internet, has
reshaped the way many small businesses can operate and has
created challenges for large multinational organizations. Once, small
businesses simply lacked the advertising and public relations budgets
to reach markets around the world. The Internet, with its many search
engine capabilities and specialized discussion groups and Weblogs,
has brought these small companies and interested customers
together. Search engines, discussion groups, and Weblogs create the
“awareness” that cannot be accomplished with limited advertising
15
dollars. Faxes, the Internet, and the Web bring people closer together
by speeding things up and making communication easier.
Thanks to globalisation, access to information has never been easier, especially with
the continuous advancement of technology, specifically the Internet. Sriramesh (2009:
2) attributes the growth of globalisation to three principal factors, namely: (i) the
elimination of trade barriers among nations of the world, causing countries to trade
within, and among, trading blocs rather than as individual nations, (ii) the rapid
development of ICT; and (iii) recognition among a majority of countries in the world of
the need to address common issues such as environmental pollution, terrorism,
nuclear proliferation, and overpopulation. Franklin et al (2009: 95) also attributes the
growth of globalisation to rapid change in the international communication landscape.
It is obvious that globalisation has made the world a smaller place by bringing together
individuals, groups and organisations. The happenings in one country can have a
ripple effect on others/organisations elsewhere. However, what does this mean for the
practice and advancement of PR as a profession? The next section addresses this.
1.8.2. Impact of globalisation on the public relations industry
There is a general agreement among PR scholars that globalisation has opened
immense opportunities for the development of PR. L’Etang (as quoted by Chudinova,
2015: 171) offers insight into such opportunities. According to L’Etang, globalisation
affects PR for several reasons including:
- Globalisation offers the opportunity to formulate new ideas and newly
presented goods and services in various markets.
- Globalisation increases communication opportunities and challenges.
- Globalisation changes organisations, key players, the public, key issues and
relationships.
- More and more organisations are being globalised and use international labour
and markets.
- PR is closely related to capital (economic power) and its maintenance
(searching for new markets and cheaper materials, markets and knowledge).
Sriramesh (2010: 693) also touches on the growth opportunities offered to the PR
industry by globalisation. According to Sriramesh, companies, especially multinational
16
companies that have entered emerging markets such as Asia and Latin America, are
now compelled to communicate with different stakeholders in different cultural
settings. Organisations are now required to develop effective communications
strategies not only to communicate with diverse publics but also maintain positive
relationships with these publics. The advent of globalisation means that the need to
ensure that businesses navigate cultural terrains has become even more imperative
(Kent & Taylor, 2011: 50; Wakefield, 2008: 138; L’Etang 2008: 230; Yannas, 2006: 1).
Gregory (2017: 172) note the need for practitioners who work for global organisations
to be able to communicate across timelines, cultures, languages and different
communication systems. Gregory further asserts that even the actions of local
businesses have global implication. Taylor (2001: 629) agrees with the assertions
made by Gregory. Sriramesh (2008: 409) acknowledges the role that globalisation
has played in international PR by promoting cross-national communication, which
every organisation needs.
On the business front, globalisation has opened new markets for multinational
organisations to enter. The entries of these multinationals have impacted the way
businesses run in these countries (Sriramesh, 2010: 698). Many western multinational
organisations such as Coca-Cola, Tullow Oil, Goldfields and Unilever have moved into
other countries, including developing countries like Ghana, and are using PR to build
and maintain strong relationships. Moreover, top PR agencies such as Ogilvy, Weber
Shandwick and Porter Novelli, have established offices all over the world (Ming-Yi &
Baah-Boakye, 2009: 84) to meet the demands of local and multinational agencies that
require their services in building and sustaining mutually beneficial relationships with
their publics. PR practitioners are at the forefront of driving these communication
activities to establish relationships that are acceptable within the culture of the society
that the organisation finds itself in.
1.8.3. Implications for global theory building
The discussion on globalisation and its impact on the practice of PR across cultures
has been a major study among scholars for decades. One area of concern commonly
studied is whether PR can be practiced the same way in every country. The debate
on whether the same theoretical concept can be applied to the practice of the
profession everywhere has continued to this day. Despite the phenomenal growth of
17
the PR industry, research and writing about the profession across the world tend to be
dominated by western models, suggesting a western bias in understanding the
profession (Mersham, Skinner & Rensburg, 2011: 1; Fitch & Surma, 2006: 1; Botan,
1992: 149). Sriramesh (2004: 1) articulate that the PR ‘body of knowledge’ is “largely
ethnocentric with the focus on theory building confined almost exclusively to the United
States with input from a few western European countries.” This situation is not lost on
other critics who argue that the debate over a generic model of PR has been largely
one-sided with a prejudice towards the application of models that are western oriented
to non-western, particularly developing countries, often with serious challenges (Halff
& Gregory, 2014; Mersham, Rensburg, & Skinner, 2011 & 1995; Gupta & Bartlett,
2007; Holtzhausen, Petersen & Tindall, 2002).
1.8.3.1. Different public relations models practiced in different regions
A key issue that makes the practice of PR even more complex is the fact that there
are different perspectives of how the profession is practiced in different countries. The
last two decades has witnessed PR scholarship putting forward theories which seek
to look at PR practice from both the local and global perspectives. For example, while
PR practice in Europe is based on the reflective paradigm, the Americans support the
relational paradigm. The European dimension of PR puts emphasis on the initiation of
relationships with stakeholders. Changes in behaviour by the organisation is therefore
deemed as essential for building and maintaining positive relationships with key
stakeholders (van Ruler, Verčič, Butschi & Flodin, 2004; Holmström, 2004; Benteke &
Verčič, 2002). The focus of PR in Europe is geared towards social responsibility,
legitimacy of operation, i.e. obtaining the appropriate licence, ethical behaviour,
focusing on long-term impact, and not focusing so much on profit. In view of this,
Europe prefers to use the term reflective communication management to PR, which is
seen as a US-based term (Van Ruler, 2003: 2, Verčič et al 2001: 377-382). In the bled
manifesto, Van Ruler and Verčič concluded on the practice of PR in Europe with the
following statement:
Seen from this standpoint public relations is not just a phenomenon
to be described and defined. It is first, a strategic process of viewing
an organisation from an “outside” view. Its primary concerns are
18
organisation’s inclusiveness and its preservation of the “license to
operate”. As marketing is viewing organization from a market view,
public relations is viewing organization from a public view (meant as
“public sphere”). We, therefore, like to broaden the relational and
communicative approaches to public relations with or into a public or
reflective approach of which the relational and communicative
approaches of public relations can be seen as parts (p. 16).
PR in Europe was categorised as being reflective (being socially responsible),
educational (where organisational members are taught to be responsible in their
communicative behaviour), and operational (implementation of communication plans)
(Van Ruler et al 2001: 172-173). In effect the reflective model of PR is seen as a
broadening of the relational and communicative approaches to public relations
practice.
The North American perspective, which is mainly from the USA, suggests that
stakeholders are selected by organisations and then relationships are formed with
them. It seeks a balance between public interest and organisational interest through a
two-way symmetrical system (Ledingham, 2003: 181). Within that viewpoint, PR is
described as “the management function that establishes and maintains mutually
beneficial relationships between an organization and the publics on whom its success
or failure depends” (Broom & Sha, 2012: 7). The focus of the American model is on
using communication as a tool to build a two-way mutually beneficial relationship
between an organisation and its publics. Dutta and Kumar (2015: 269) quote Allen
Center and Patrick Jackson’s observation of the relational paradigm: “The proper term
for the desired outcomes of public relations practice is public relationships. An
organization with effective public relations will attain positive public relationships.”
The relational paradigm attempts to define the function of PR within the organisation,
explain the role communication plays within that function, and offer guidelines for
determining how PR contributes to the bottom-line (Ledingham, 2003: 182) and is
consistent with the belief that public relations activities ought to benefit both the publics
and the organisations (Grunig & Hunt, 1984; Ledingham & Bruning, 2001).
19
Grunig, Grunig, Sriramesh, Lyra and Huang (1995), after comprehensive studies of
PR practice in India, Taiwan and Greece, proposed two other patterns of PR in the
Asian region - the Cultural Interpreter and Personal Influence models. The personal
influence model was mainly used to cultivate good relationships with external bodies
including government, media, political, social or activists’ groups. The cultural
interpreter model on the other hand is used by multinationals doing business in other
countries. Grunig et al (1995: 183) also postulate that the model can work within a
single environment with diverse groups. The cultural interpreter model allows global
businesses to use citizens of the country as they understand the culture, customs,
socioeconomic, legal and political systems of that society.
It is interesting to note that in all these scholarly discussions, Africa appears to be
missing, thus begging the question of what the role of Africa has in the quest to develop
a theory that reflects how PR is practiced globally. Most of the scholarly research on
this issue has emanated from South Africa while the rest of Africa lags behind.
Scholars in South Africa have variously explored the contribution of communication
management to organisational success for over two decades. One of the significant
contributions made was the distinction between ‘strategic communication
management’ and ‘communication management’ taking place on different
organisational levels (Steyn, 2007: 139-141). The result was a new paradigm which
became known as the corporate communication ‘strategist’ role which is at the senior
most/macro level of management. This role ensures that the corporate communication
manager monitors the environment for relevant development while anticipating their
possible effect on the policies and strategies of the organisation and consequences
for the organisation’s policies and strategies, especially when it comes to stakeholder
relationships (De Beer, Steyn & Rensburg, and 2013: 304). The PR strategist engages
in environmental scanning and applies the mission, vision and values of the
organisation to fit the environment (Steyn, 2007: 139, 141; Steyn & Puth, 2000: 17).
Steyn (2000a) conceptualised three roles of corporate communication, namely the
strategist, manager and technician. However, in a comparative study conducted by
Steyn and Butschi (2003), these roles were found to be ‘theoretically similar’ and
‘practically identical’ to three of the reflective paradigms of Europe - reflective,
managerial and operational (De Beer, Steyn & Rensburg, 2013: 308).
20
Africa as a continent does not have any identifiable means of verifying the models that
it operates with unlike in Europe and the USA. In fact, with the exception of South
Africa, there is no known model developed to reflect the role of PR in any particular
African country. Mersham, Skinner and Rensburg (2011: 1) advocated the need for an
African body of knowledge of PR and theory which is based on an African worldview.
However, the diverse and complex cultural, geo-political and socio-economic factors
make this task a challenging one. Moreover, research on the practice of PR on the
continent is, in the words of Mersham and Skinner, ‘sparse and fragmented’ (2009:
265). Literature on PR practice usually tends to look at the roles/functions and/or
contributions of PR to organisations. However, Van Heerden (2004), in her master’s
dissertation on practice of PR in Africa, identified three main models - reflective/two-
way symmetrical, two-way asymmetrical/symmetrical, and the public
information/press agentry which influences the practice of PR in Africa. In their
research on ‘Public relations in Ghana: work-related cultural values and public
relations models,’ Ming-Yi and Baah-Boakye (2009) also concluded that the practice
of public relations in Ghana tends to be a mixture of the Asian and American models,
i.e. the cultural interpreter and personal influence models/two-way
asymmetrical/symmetrical models. The Asian model however appears to be the most
dominant. Kiambi and Nadler (2012), in their pioneer study to explore PR models that
inform how the profession is practiced in Kenya, also identified the personal influence
model as the most dominant. This may not be surprising as, like Asia, activities in
Africa are based on strong cultural factors, including the fact that communities are built
on strong relationships and the concept of ‘one family.’
Despite the different models practiced in different cultural settings, scholars James
Grunig, Larissa Grunig and David Dozier (2002), based on a 15-year IABC sponsored
research, developed what they called the excellence theory of PR which, they claimed,
was applicable in every country regardless of cultural, economic or political
differences. The next section briefly addresses this theory.
1.8.3.2. Towards a generic principle of public relations
The debate over the applicability of western-based, especially U.S., models of PR in
a global context resulted in a series of attempts by scholars to develop a global public
relations model in the 1990s. Even though there is a general agreement regarding the
21
importance of PR in creating dialogue-based relationships (L. Grunig, J. Grunig, &
Dozier, 2002; Taylor, 2000a; Wakefield, 1997), there is no clear model that shows how
PR should be practiced internationally. Scholars within the field hypothesised that the
practice is based on either a localised design, globalised design, or a mix of both to
communicate with publics in different countries (Waiyachote, 2007; Grammer, 2000;
Molleda, 2000; Wakefield, 2000a; Mahler, 1996; Botan, 1992). Numerous studies
conducted internationally reveal different models being practiced in different countries
(Jo & Kim, 2004; Holtzhausen, Peterson & Tindall, 2003; Huang, 2000; Rhee, 2002;
Grunig et al 1995; Sriramesh, 1992). The first attempt towards a global PR model was
by Verčič, Grunig and Grunig (1996) following on from the original Excellence study
by James and Larissa Grunig (1992).
Based on the outcome of the Excellence study, which was commissioned by
International Association of Business Communicators (IABC), Verčič et al (1996) fused
the characteristics of the Excellence theory into 10 generic principles and proposed a
global PR theory, which they argued, can apply to every environment regardless of
culture, while identifying six variables that can apply to individual countries
(Chmielecki, 2012: 138). The Excellence principles were first applied in a research in
Slovenia by Verčič et al (1996). Since then they have been applied in several
jurisdictions (Sriramesh & Verčič, 2012; Sriramesh & Verčič, 2009; Grammer, 2005;
Lim, Goh & Sriramesh, 2005; Hung & Chen, 2004; Chen; 2004; Rhee, 2002;
Wakefield, 2000). Interesting the only known application of this theory in Africa is by
Eric Grammer in his 2005 Master’s thesis “An exploration of the generic principles of
public relations excellence in Australia, Italy, Mauritius, and Uganda.” This shows the
extent to which Africa has been involved in the discussion for a framework that truly
captures how PR on the continent is practiced. In Ghana, the situation appears to be
worse as there is a paucity of scholarly articles on the subject. This makes it difficult
to know how the profession is practiced in the country despite the many local and
international businesses being established daily. The Excellence Theory was given
further solidity in the field of PR practice by the Global Alliance for Public Relations
and Communication management with the creation of the Stockholm Accords in 2010.
The Accords consisted of a set of principles which affirmed the need for PR to play a
major role in governance and management (Grunig, 2011: 11). It must be pointed out
though that the Excellence theory has received its fair share of criticisms, but this is
22
not the focus here. This will be discussed in detail in chapter 2. The section below will
discuss literature on the profession including conceptualisation of PR, its history and
theoretical underpinnings.
1.9. LITERATURE REVIEW
To gain an effective insight into how contemporary PR is practiced in organisations, it
will be essential to investigate the practice from both the theoretical and roles
(activities) perspectives. Literature from the global perspective will be explored with
the aim of determining the current level of practice of PR.
1.9.1. An historical overview of public relations
To be able to understand current practices in the field of PR, it will be important to
understand how the profession begun. Butterick (2011: 7) argues for the importance
of knowing the history of PR because it is used by practitioners to explain how PR is
practiced and to produce theories. Broom and Sha (2012: 74) also state that
understanding the history of the profession is essential to the professionalisation of
the practice. It gives an insight into the beliefs and values that have shaped the
profession as well as overall perception of PR by the public.
Practitioners and academicians both agree that PR, as it is known today, started in the
latter part of the 19th century and early 20th century in the USA and it was mostly used
in politics. However, efforts to engage with others and influence public opinion existed
long before then (Broom & Sha, 2012: 74; Wilcox & Cameron, 2012: 37; Seitel, 2007:
23). Broom and Sha (2012: 74) make the point that the difference between modern
PR and ancient communication practice is the addition of the ‘tools, degree of
specialization, breadth of knowledge, and intensity of efforts.’ Cutlip et al (2000: 103)
map the use by American Revolutionaries during the War for independence.
Recognition of the social impact of poor business and immoral business, struggling
industries, and muckraking, resulted in the emergence of PR as a necessity for
corporations (Bowen, Rawlins & Martin, 2012: 21). The turn of the century saw the
setting up of a number of press agents who defended business interest against
journalists digging for scandals as well as government regulation development. PR
was aimed at supporting businesses, influencing public opinion and lobbying against
23
the increase of regulation of business by politicians (Tench & Yeomans, 2006: 5;
Heath, 2005: 32; Cutlip et al 2000: 103).
Ivy Lee, a journalist by profession who is regarded by many as the father of PR and is
credited with many of the techniques and principles currently practiced by
practitioners, indicated in his Declaration of Principles in 1906 about PR:
This is not a secret press bureau. All our work is done in the open.
We aim to supply news. This is not an advertising agency…… In
brief, our plan is, frankly and openly, on behalf of business concerns
and public institutions, to supply to the press and public of the United
States prompt and accurate information concerning subjects which is
of value and interest to the public to know about (Broom & Sha, 2013:
87).
Although Lee had a great impact regarding how PR ought to be practiced, it was
Edward Bernays who actually redefined the profession through his attempts to
introduce systems and science into PR, hence earning the name “father of modern
public relations”. He gained recognition for his theories on PR, through books, teaching
PR and public debate (Wilcox & Cameron, 2012: 47). Bernays’ books, including his
first book Crystallyzing Public Opinion which he wrote in 1923, were practitioner
focused, case study based and backed by insight from the social sciences into how to
control the public mind using persuasive techniques. His submissions and arguments
on PR greatly influenced a number of practitioners who had gained expertise in
propaganda during the war years and subsequently joined the profession (Tench &
Yeomans, 2006: 10).
Theorist such as James Grunig and Todd Hunt based three of their four models of PR
on the different ways in which Barnum, Lee and Bernays practiced public relations
(Butterick, 2011: 12).
In Africa, modern public relations is believed to be a relic of colonialism. PR is believed
to have been introduced in Africa by the British colonialist in the 19 and early 20th
century. Proto-public relations was used by the British colonial administration to
disseminate government information. It was often used to support the formation of
newspapers in British colonies in East and Southern Africa (Kiambi, 2014, Natifu 2014)
24
as it did in West Africa (Watson, 2014). Kiambi found evidence of a British colonial
information methodology that allowed PR to be practiced in a sophisticated way (i.e.
beyond the mere dissemination of information) and this may have been applied in
other colonies in Africa, Asia and the Caribbean in the early to mid-twentieth century
(Watson, 2017: 6)
1.9.2. Defining public relations
The concept of modern PR dates back to the late 19th century and the early 20th
century, although some scholars predate it back to earlier time (Wilcox, 2006: 68;
Cutlip, Center & Broom, 2000: 102). Since the formal practice of the profession was
determined, PR has gone through many definitions, often evolving alongside its
changing roles and technological understanding.
The global nature of PR means that identifying a single meaning for the profession is
very difficult. Scholars and practitioners do not seem to agree on a single definition of
PR (Butterick, 2011: 6, Hutton, 2007: 45; Verčič et al 2001: 374). PR has been defined
variously by both scholars and institutions over the years. Whereas the European view
of PR is based on four key dimensions, namely, reflective, managerial, operational
and educational (or what is known as the reflective paradigm), the American concepts
of PR focuses on the relational approach, that is emphasis is placed on the two-way
symmetrical model as a means of establishing mutually beneficial relationships (Van
Ruler & Verčič, 2002: 14; Verčič et al 2001: 380). The authors therefore defined PR
as a communication activity based on sound strategy to maintain mutually beneficial
relationship. For the Institute of Public Relations (IPR, UK), PR is about “reputation -
the result of what you do, what you say and what others say about you” (Franklin et al
2009: 175). The use of reputation management is based on the belief that good
reputation enhances credibility which leads to several benefits including higher sales
and earnings, price premiums, higher stock price, better community relations, among
others (Therkelsen, Fiebich, Groehler, Freeman, Piltingsrud & Hutton et al 2008). In
2012, the Public Relations Society of America came up with a new or modern definition
of PR. The definition focuses on PR as a communication process that is strategic in
nature and also places emphasis on mutually beneficial relationship.
Hutton (2007: 46) suggests that PR pioneer Ivy Lee, in his description of PR, focused
on honesty, understanding, and compromise, to create a “proper adjustment of the
25
interrelations” of public and business rather than promoting a formal definition. Lee
described himself as a provider of information as well as a lawyer representing his
clients in the court of public opinion. Another pioneer of the history of PR, Edward
Bernays, also included the notion of adjustment: “Public relations is the attempt, by
information, persuasion and adjustment, to engineer public support for an activity,
cause, movement or institutions.”
Harlow (1976), after scouring through over 472 different definitions coined between
1900 and 1976, came up with what he considered to be a definition that was all-
inclusive. The first global definition of PR, as he called it, consisted of common
elements found within the various definitions he sampled:
Public relations is a distinctive management function which helps
establish and maintain mutual lines of communication, understanding,
acceptance and cooperation between an organisation and its publics;
involves the management of problems or issues; helps management to
keep informed on and responsive to public opinions; defines and
emphasizes the responsibility of management to serve the public
interest; helps management keep abreast of and effectively utilize
change; serving as an early warning system to help anticipate trends;
and uses research and ethical communication techniques as its
principal tools. (Tench & Yeomans, 2006: 4).
Grunig and Hunt (1984: 6) construct a simple definition by describing PR as “the
management of communication between an organisation and its publics.” Cutlip,
Center and Broom (2000: 6), three key scholars in the field, define PR as “the
management function that established and maintains mutually beneficial relationship
between an organisation and the publics on whom its success or failure depends.”
Here PR is seen as an essential part of management which gives it clout and
credibility. Burson (2011), after reviewing a number of definitions, offers his own
definition of the profession to mean “an applied social science that influences
behaviour and policy, when communicated effectively, motivates an individual or group
to a specific course of action by creating, changing or reinforcing opinions and
attitudes.” Lattimore, Baskin, Heiman, Toth and Van Leuven (2004: 4) also used the
26
concepts of ‘leadership and management’ to describe the profession. Johnston,
Zawawi and Brand (2009: 7) add ethical dimensions to the definition of PR by defining
it as the “development and management of ethical strategies using communication to
build relationships with stakeholders or publics.” These definitions are mainly from the
American and western European perspectives. Freitage and Stokes (2009: 5) suggest
that such definitions may not work in developing countries and countries going through
a transitional period such as Eastern Europe, Latin America, Africa and Asia. This is
also emphasised by Sriramesh and Verčič (2009: xxxiv) who link the definition of PR
to globalisation by adding a cultural dimension to the practice. The authors believe
that the practice of PR should reflect the cultural and political diversity that impact on
its practice worldwide. L’etang (2008: 230) uses the term ‘international
communication’ to mean the “over-arching field which includes intercultural and
multicultural communication, diplomacy and development communication.” Wilcox et
al (2012: 532) also describe international PR as “planned and organized effort of a
company, institution, or government to establish and build relationships with the
publics of other nations.”
Regardless of the debate on the actual definition of the profession, a cursory look at
the various definitions shows that PR is about communication management aimed at
building and maintaining good relationship and mutual understanding between an
organisation and its publics. The debate has further been enhanced by new
developments such as the increasing use of social media and new ways of engaging
the publics.
The previous section discussed the varied definitions associated with PR. The next
section discusses a brief historical overview of public relations as well as
conceptualises PR by some theoretical underpinnings including the models and roles.
This section will also discuss how the profession functions within the selected
industries.
27
1.9.3. Towards a conceptualised theory of public relations
Austin and Pinkleton (2006: 271) believe that theories are essential in generalising
about the way people think and behave and also assist in determining the most
suitable goals and objectives of a communication programme. Although a number of
theories have attempted to capture the practice of PR for the purpose of this research,
two main theories namely the Excellence Theory and Systems Theory will be used. It
is believed that these two theories will enable the researcher to adequately put the
investigation into its proper perspective, that is, how corporate organisations utilise PR
and the models used in these practices. These theories are considered fundamental
to determining the practice of PR.
1.9.3.1. The Excellence Theory
The Excellence Theory is an essential and defining statement of what constitutes
effective PR in an organisation. The theory was a result of a 15-year study by Grunig,
Grunig and Dozier (Grunig, 2008: 1620) to determine the features of what they called
‘excellent communications’ and of the organisations that engage in excellent PR. The
theory discusses the how public relations contributes to organisational effectiveness,
its organisation and management, environmental conditions within an organisation
that makes the organisation more effective, and how organisations determine the
monetary value of PR (Grunig, 2008: 1620). The Excellence Theory is an
amalgamation of a number of theories including the four models of PR identified by
Grunig and Hunt in their earlier studies, and is based around the Systems Theory
(Waterman, 2012: 1). The Excellence Theory is regarded as an amalgamation of
strategic management theories of PR into a greater whole and seeks to address the
question: How, why and to what extent does communication contribute to the
achievement of organisational objectives? Again they sought to answer what they
called the excellent question: How must PR be practiced and the communication
function organised for it to contribute most to organisational effectiveness? (Grunig,
1992: 5).
28
1.9.3.2. Systems Theory
One of the well-known theories that has been used in the field of PR is the systems
theory, which was developed by Ludwig Von Bertallanfy in 1986. The theory is
premised on the belief that organisations consist of subsystems that depend on each
other for survival. It sees organisations as having different but interconnected parts
which adapt and adjust to changes in their environment, be it political, economic, or
social (Lattimore, Baskin, Heiman & Toth, 2012: 52; Tench & Yeomans, 2006: 27).
Broom and Sha (2012: 151) define systems as consisting of various “interacting units
which endure through time within an established boundary by responding and
adjusting to change pressures from the environment to achieve and maintain goal
states.”
The systems theory provides a context within which an organisation and its
relationship with the environment are assessed. In the view of Mehta and Xavier, the
purpose of an organisation is to create and achieve goals that will benefit both the
organisation and the environment it operates in. Such goals can consist of growth in
profits and sales, gaining investor confidence/support, improving employment ratio,
creating new products, or a lower carbon footprint (2009: 194).
Within the systems theory PR is regarded as a boundary spanner whereby
practitioners act as a link between the organisation and its environment. PR
professionals provide important information to the organisation’s stakeholders and
interpret the environment to the organisation’s decision makers, that is, by constantly
providing information about the problems and opportunities in the environment and
help the decision makers respond to such changes (Mehta & Xavier, 2009: 195).
1.9.3.3. Models of Public Relations Practice
PR models provide the means for identifying the central ideas that guide the practice
and how these ideas relate to each other. Grunig et al (2002: 307) argue that before
the 1970s there was no research conducted in the USA to explain the behaviours of
PR practitioners. Scholars generally accepted the conduct of practitioners as the ideal
way and tried to find means by which they could describe, evaluate, and improve the
actions of practitioners in the name of PR. The last two decades has witnessed the
influx of several models indicating how PR ought to be practiced globally. Some of
29
these include the European model of PR articulated by Van Ruler, Vercic, Butschi and
Flodin (2001), the generic principles proposed by Vercic, Grunig, and Grunig (1996),
mainly from the North American perspective, but which, as stated by the promoters of
the model, had a global appeal, and the cultural interpreter and personal influence
models (Grunig, Grunig, Sriramesh, Huang & Lyra, 1995: 164). However, the most
dominant of these models is the four models of PR described by Grunig and Hunt. In
1984, Grunig and Hunt published a book Managing Public Relations in which they
proposed four models of PR which describe the nature of modern public relations and
how it is practiced.
The first model, which was based on the work of press agents and publicists (hence
the name press agentry) in the middle of the 19th century and the early part of the 20th
century, is based on one-way communication. The main goal of practitioners who
operated under this model was to get their organisation’s name favourably mentioned
in the media. It included the use of propaganda tactics - from a conventional press
release to a range of publicity stunts and events - which were incomplete, selective,
distorted and partially true (Lattimore, Baskin, Heiman & Toth, 2012: 62; Butterick,
2011: 25; Grunig, 1984: 22).
The second model, known as the public information model, is an improvement of the
press agentry as its purpose is to tell the truth. The model is based on the work of Ivy
Lee and the “public be informed” approach where information is sent out by an
organisation (Butterick, 2011: 26). However, the public information model, like the
press agentry, is also one-way and does not consider the needs or attitudes of the
stakeholders (Moffit, 2003: 319; Grunig & Hunt, 1984: 22). Its aim is to persuade, and
more importantly, it is based on an honest approach to communication (Butterick,
2011: 26).
The final two models proposed by Grunig and Hunt (1989) are the two-way
asymmetrical model and the two-way symmetrical model. These two models show the
essence of research as a means of understanding the organisation, the situation, the
audience, and any other outside factors, and show the importance of feedback (Heath,
2005: 25; Moffitt, 2003: 319; Grunig & Hunt, 1984: 22). Even though both models are
effective and found in excellent organisations, the two-way symmetrical model is highly
30
regarded as the most effective as it provides an avenue for dialogue with publics,
which tends to result in long-term relationship building and maintenance. The two-way
symmetrical model dwells on bargaining, negotiations, and strategies of conflict to
ensure interdependent changes in the ideas, attitudes, and behaviours of both the
organisation and its publics (Grunig, 1989:29).
The four models are used to describe the various approaches and methods used by
practitioners, governments, organisations and activists in managing relationships with
publics. L. Grunig and J. Grunig (1992: 286) state that the models are viewed as a set
of values and patterns that describes the various approaches used by practitioners.
However, Grunig et al (1995: 163) recognised that the models of PR may not apply in
every culture. Grunig et al (1995: 164), in studying the practice of PR in other cultures,
identified two new patterns of PR practice namely the ‘personal influence model’ and
the ‘cultural interpreter model.’ They however argued that these are variations within
the four known models. They asserted that regardless of the differences in cultures,
PR practice in most countries contains elements of the two-way symmetrical model
only they are applied differently, suggesting that the models are applicable in every
region including a developing country like Ghana.
The next section will discuss the different public relations roles as well as PR practice
in the financial services sector.
1.9.4. Public relations roles
PR ‘roles’ are defined to mean the day to day activities that practitioners perform.
Broom (1986: 2) identifies the function of PR as “gathering, assimilating, interpreting
and disseminating intelligence about the environment.” Dozier and Grunig (1992: 395)
clearly indicate that the concept of ‘role’ is key to understanding PR. Petersen,
Holtzhausen and Tindall (2002:1) also point out the importance of examining PR roles
in international settings so as to understand how the profession is practiced in a
particular country.
Broom and Sha (2012: 31) quote Broom and Smith (1979) as originally
conceptualising the practice of PR into four key roles, namely the communication
technician, expert prescriber, communication facilitator, and problem solving
facilitator. Dozier and Broom (1995: 3-26) later categorised it into two dominant roles:
31
the technician role - engages mainly in implementation of strategic decisions by
management but not directly involved in decision making - and the manager role -
plans and manages PR programmes, advises management, makes communication
policy decisions and oversees their implementation. The role of the manager was also
conceptualised into three types: expert prescriber, communication facilitator, and the
problem solving facilitator (Moss & DeSanto, 2011: 16; Tench & Yeomans, 2006: 29).
These roles are mainly viewed from the American perspective. Van Ruler, Vercic,
Flodin and Bṻtschi (2001: 380) suggest that there are distinguishable differences in
the way PR was practiced; the most overwhelming difference being the reflective role.
The reflective role provides information on changing the expectations, standards and
values of society as well as adapting organisational values and norms. The reflective
PR role focuses on behaviours considered social accountability as a means of
increasing its legitimacy in the eyes of society. Styen (2000: 65-108) conceptualised
a third role of PR known as the strategist role, and empirically tested it in the South
African context. Styen believes that many parallels can be drawn between the
reflective role and the strategist role. He articulates that the most senior practitioner in
an organisation usually takes the position of a strategist.
1.9.5. Public relations in the financial services sector
A review of literature shows that not much research has been done on how PR is
practiced within the financial services sector worldwide. Most of the literature on PR in
the financial services sector has centred mainly on the banking sector. PR plays an
essential role in the financial services sector as it provides the opportunity for
organisations to interact with their publics. Simply put, PR functions within service
firms such as financial firms are perceived as relationship functions. A study by Sandin
and Simolin (2006: 3) suggest that public relations is now an important branding tool
in spite of the fact that it receives only a small portion of the overall marketing budget
of most organisations. This assertion has been corroborated as evidenced by many
other studies (Jiang, 2002: 14; Wall, 2001: 3). Jiang (2002: 14), in his study of how
American and Chinese Banks apply websites as public relations tools in a culturally-
evolving Chinese society, found that although the two-way symmetrical model is used
by Chinese banks in their effort to use websites as a tool for building a relationship
32
with their publics, cultural influences however affect the use of the two-way
symmetrical model specifically. Jiang asserts that Hofstede’s individualism versus
collectivism (1984), Confucianism, proposed by Huang (2000) and Chen (1996), as
well as Sriramesh’s personal influence model, play a significant role in how PR is
practiced among Chinese banks as opposed to the symmetrical model practiced by
American banks. Jiang concludes that in view of the similarities and differences among
the websites of the banks studied, culture plays an essential role in how PR is
practiced internationally.
Sandin and Simolin (2006: 59), in their study to understand how Swedish banks utilise
PR in communicating with their publics, found that banks do not identify their activities
as PR but nevertheless utilise it highly. The activities of these banks are primarily
aimed at building and maintaining relationships. Most importantly PR is seen as crucial
to the success of the organisations and is thus placed at the top management level.
This conforms to Grunig’s belief that PR should be part of strategic management. This
section looked at the literature review. The next section will define key terms used in
the study.
1.10. DEFINITION OF TERMS
This section defines the key concepts used in the study. They include management
function, PR, organisations and framework.
Public Relations: Numerous attempts have been made to define the concept ‘public
relations’. It has been defined variously to include as part of management, involved in
strategic planning, having ethical dimension, management of communication, and
based on mutual and beneficial relationship between an organisation and its publics
(Burson, 2012; Broom & Sha, 2012: 4; Johnston & Zawawi, 2009: 6; Grunig & Hunts,
1984: 6).
Public relations models: Models refer to the various theoretical concepts used in the
practice of PR. A number of models such as Grunig and Hunt’s (1984) four models of
PR and the generic principles of Vercic, J. Grunig, and L. Grunig (1996), have been
used extensively in the practice of the profession, however other models such as the
33
personal influence model and the cultural interpreter model have also been identified
as affecting the practice of PR in countries other than the USA.
Organisations: Miller (2012: 60) describes organisations as consisting of complex
open systems requiring interaction among component parts. Organisations are part of
a social system made up of different groups of individuals and the duty of PR is to
ensure the maintenance of relationships.
Culture: Hofstede defined culture as “the collective programming of the mind which
distinguishes the members of one human group from another. Culture in this sense,
includes systems of values; and values are among the building blocks of culture”
(Hofstede, 1980: 21).
Management Function: PR is seen as part of strategic management which uses
communication to build strategic relationships with key publics (Grunig et al 1995:
164). The concept of PR as a management role elevates it from the view of simply
applying a number of communication techniques such as promotions, publicity or
industrial journalism to competency functions such as counselling, internal and
external communication, media relations, community relations as well as the four-step
process function, that is, research, strategic planning, implementation, execution, and
communication and evaluation (Accredited in Public Relations, APR).
Framework: The Cambridge Dictionary defines a framework as a set of rules, ideas
or structure used in the planning of something. The framework for the financial
services sector will consist of guidelines that can be used in the practice of excellent
PR.
1.11. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
Harwell (2011: 148) stresses on the importance of research design due to its ability to
communicate information concerning essential aspects of the study. Creswell (2002:
3) describes three approaches to research design: quantitative, qualitative and mixed
methods. The research design refers to the overall plan for connecting research
problems to empirical research. It is regarded as the “blueprint” for gathering data that
answers specific research questions or test hypotheses Bhattacherjee (2012: 35). In
other words, a research design lays out the kind of data needed, methods to be used
in collecting the data, and how all the processes will answer your research questions
34
(Richards & Morse, 2012: 74). As this research is exploratory in nature, the qualitative
design is deemed appropriate. The choice of qualitative is further explained below.
The study will utilise the qualitative method to gather and analyse data. Qualitative
research attempts to understand a phenomenon from the viewpoint of the population
involved. Lindlof (1995: 5) makes the point that qualitative research allows a
researcher to interview people as a means of understanding their views “on a scene,
to retrieve experiences from the past, to gain expert insight or information, to obtain
descriptions of events or scenes that are normally unavailable for observation, to foster
trust, to understand a sensitive or intimate relationship, or to analyse certain kinds of
discourse.” In the words of Denzin and Lincoln (2005: 3):
Qualitative research is a situated activity that locates the observer in the
world. It consists of a set of interpretive, material practices that make
the world visible. These practices transform the world. They turn the
world into a series of representations, including field notes, interviews,
conversations, photographs, recordings, and memos to the self. At this
level, qualitative research involves an interpretive, naturalistic approach
to the world. This means that qualitative researchers study things in
their natural settings, attempting to make sense of, or interpret,
phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to them.
A qualitative approach is considered necessary to investigate the topic in detail.
Details provided by participants can be used in developing a comprehensive
framework for the practice of PR. Another reason for the choice of qualitative research
is based on the fact that the face-to-face interaction allows the researcher to draw
meaning from participants’ experiences. Hesse-Biber and Leavy (2011: 4) articulate
that qualitative research allows researchers to draw out the social meanings that
people attach to their experiences, circumstances and situation. Mack, Woodsong,
McQueen, Guest and Namey (2005: 14) also assert that using a qualitative strategy
in exploratory research allows the researcher to probe the mind of the participants
using open-ended questions. The researcher can glean responses that are meaningful
and have cultural significance, not anticipated and rich and descriptive in nature. Also,
the purpose of PR is to build and maintain relationships, and this makes PR an activity
35
whose value depends on quality. Thus, a qualitative approach seems a very
appropriate way of investigating how it is carried out.
1.11.1. The research method
The research method consist of the various techniques/methods used for the conduct
of a research (Kothari, 2004: 7). Adams, Khan, Raeside and White (2007: 25), in
distinguishing the difference between research methodology and research method,
argue that research method deals with how a research is conducted and implemented
whereas research methodology describes the “science and philosophy behind all
research.” Research methodology is viewed as the broad category under which
research method falls. Research method therefore deals specifically with the analytical
tools of research.
Due to the broad nature of the research, it will be divided into two main phases. The
first will be a review of all relevant literature on the subject. This will include an analysis
of the historical development of the subject as well as a review of theoretical
foundations and a number of studies conducted on the subject. Information will be
gathered from available documents on how PR is practiced in organisations in the
selected sectors, journals, books, research publications, relevant websites and other
research publications.
The second will be the empirical study which will consist of a qualitative study. In-
depth interviews will be conducted with a number of PR specialists in the sectors
studied. The study will use a semi-structured interview guide to collect in-depth
information.
1.11.2. Population
Population of a study refers to the complete set of individuals that a researcher is
interested in (Gravetter & Forzano, 2009: 128). It constitutes the overall collection of
all units of analysis that the researcher wishes to make specific inferences (Johnson
& Christensen, 2008: 224). Wimmer and Dominick (2011: 87) describe a population
as a “group or class of subjects, variables, concepts or phenomena.” The target
population for this study will consist of public relations practitioners from the financial
services sector in Ghana.
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1.11.2.1. Accessible population
Accessible population refers to the portion of the population who are accessible to be
selected as participants for the study. A sample from the study is taken from this group
(Gravetter & Forzano, 2012: 138). The accessible population can be regarded as the
subset of the target population (Rovai, Baker & Ponton, 2014: 35). Since the study will
focus on the financial sector, it will be easy to narrow down the target population. A
list of the accredited financial institutions will be obtained from the website of
organisations such as the country’s central bank, the Bank of Ghana, and the Ghana
Investment Promotion Center. These institutions usually have updated information on
all organisations concerned. Once the targeted organisations are identified, the
researcher will then contact the practitioners either by telephone or make personal
contact to make an arrangement to undertake the research. The population parameter
will consist of practitioners who work in the financial services sector. Du Plooy (2001:
100) defines a population parameter as dealing with the nature, size and unique
characteristics of the population. Johnson and Christensen (2012: 218) also consider
it to mean the numerical characteristics of a population; a definition corroborated by
Lee (2008: 592). The unit of analysis will however be the individual PR practitioners
who will be selected for the interview. The unit of analysis refers to a different aspect
of a research’s content, that is, the element that is counted (Austin & Pinkleton, 2008:
186; Dozier, 2011:121). Babbie (2010: 98) concurs by describing the unit of analysis
as the “what or whom is being studied.” In his view, a typical unit of analysis refers to
the individuals within a group, especially where the researcher is interested in
exploring the behaviour of different groups of individuals. Since this researcher is
interested in interviewing individual PR practitioners, these will constitute the units of
analysis for the research.
1.11.3. Sampling design
The term ‘sampling’ refers to the scientific process of selecting respondents from a
population of interest (Babbie, 2008: 200). The process of sampling allows a
researcher to use a small portion of a population to draw relevant conclusion about
the entire population (Austin & Pinkleton, 2008: 98).
Wimmer and Dominick (2011: 87) describe a sample as a ‘subset of the population’.
Hogan, Langley, Mosdell and Phill (2009: 206-9) indicate that the practical limitations
37
of a research project makes it almost impossible for a research to be conducted on
every member of a population. Researchers are therefore allowed to carefully take a
sample from the population to investigate.
Sampling design can be grouped into two main categories, probability and non-
probability sampling. Probability sampling ensures that every unit of the population
has an equal chance of participating in a research. This allows for generalisation to be
done (Bhattacherjee, 2012: 65; Babbie, 2008: 188; Heath, 2005: 793). Probability
sampling is primarily used in quantitative studies and uses a relatively large sample
size. It aims at achieving generalisation (Teddlie & Yu, 2007: 77).
Non-probability sampling on the other hand selects participants with a specific purpose
in mind. Adler and Clark (2011: 103) note that non-probability sampling does not allow
every member of the population an equal chance of being selected. Non-probability
sampling, also sometimes referred to as purposive sampling, involves selecting
particular units or cases “based on specific purpose rather than randomness” (Teddlie
& Yu, 2007: 80). For the purpose of this research, the non-probability sampling
procedure will be used to select participants within the selected organisations. Since
the research will purposively target PR practitioners within selected corporate
organisations, using non-probability sampling will be appropriate. Using non-
probability sampling will also allow participants with the pre-established criteria to be
selected.
Although non-probability sampling is sometimes viewed as an inferior alternative to
probability due to its non-random nature, it is still appropriate for a study such as this.
Non-probability sampling may not involve and/or represent a larger population, but it
still uses scientific techniques in selecting its units or cases. That is to say, participants
are not selected arbitrarily or without any specific purpose in mind (Blackwell, 2012).
Non-probability research is mostly qualitative in nature where the researcher looks for
in-depth understanding rather than more general understanding. Blackwell (2012) also
notes that researchers interested in contributing to social theories whether by
expansion or modification can use non-probability sampling procedure techniques.
Non-probability sampling is also useful for exploratory research. Using non-probability
sampling will therefore enable better investigation of the phenomenon.
38
Crouch and McKenzie (2006: 485) note that since non-probability sampling (such as
interviews) allow the researcher to go beyond the normal set of questions through the
development of fruitful relationships, a sample size less than 20 is enough to improve
the validity of an in-depth inquiry in a natural environment. Considering this, it is
believed that using 22 participants for the research will be appropriate to gather a
wealth of information. However more research participants would be involved if the
saturation point is not reached. Based on their research, Guest, Bunce and Johnson
(2006: 59) found that saturation mostly occurred during the first twelve (12) interviews
even though elements of saturation appeared as early as the sixth interview. Bertaux
(in Guest et al 2006: 61) therefore suggested 15 as the smallest acceptable sample
size for all qualitative research. Mason (2010: 1-2) asserts that the intensive nature of
qualitative research means that analysing a large amount of data can be time
consuming and impractical. He asserts that qualitative data must be large enough to
ensure all important perceptions are uncovered but small enough to avoid
repetitiveness. Following the principles of qualitative research strictly should lead on
to the point of saturation, that is, where the collection of new data does not lead to any
new information.
The basic principle that underpins sampling is that it takes on a representative form,
that is, the result of a study on a sample must be generalisable to the entire population.
This principle applies to both qualitative and quantitative methods. However, unlike
quantitative research, qualitative research does not have statistic representation as its
goal and does not follow a rigid formula (Coyne, 1997: 623).
Although the sample size of a qualitative research is usually small, some researchers
(Patton & Cochran, 2002: 9) believe that one can continue interviewing respondents
until the researcher reaches the point of ‘saturation’, that is, nothing new comes from
the data during analysis.
1.11.4. Study area
The study area will be in the greater Accra region, the capital of Ghana. This particular
region was selected because it serves as the host of the head offices of the various
organisations in the financial sector. Again the practitioners mostly work from the head
offices.
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1.11.5. Data collection method
Data collection methods refer to the tools used in gathering information on a subject
of interest. Data collection techniques allow the researcher to learn about a
phenomenon by gathering information from individuals, groups, and text in any
medium (Biber et al 2011: 5). Approaches to data collection in qualitative research
usually consist of interacting directly with participants either on a face-to-face level or
in a group setting. Qualitative methods of data collection allow the researcher to gather
rich information and also gain a deeper insight into the topic under investigation. Data
can be collected by observation, through personal interviews or in a group setting
(Kothari, 2004: 98). The researcher intends to employ the personal interview technique
to collect data from the research participants.
The data collection technique section will provide detailed discussion on the personal
interview technique.
1.11.5.1. Data collection techniques
The researcher will use the interviewing technique to gather data from research
participants. Interviewing involves a process of communication between a researcher
and a respondent. It is a ‘conversation with a purpose’ whereby the interviewer adopts
a plan of action consisting of areas of conversation, direction of the interaction and a
set of questions which are not necessarily followed in any particular order (Babbie,
2008: 335). Interviews can be conducted over the telephone, via email or in person.
For the purpose of this research the semi-structured interview will be used (See
Addendum A: p. 337). The semi-structured interview allows the interviewer to use an
interview guide with specific questions but not necessarily in the same order and is
also able to probe for further information (Heath, 2005: 446). Interviews will be held
with PR practitioners in the organisations studied to determine their conceptualisation
of the PR role and models and how these affect the practice of PR.
1.11.6. Data analysis method
Data analysis involves the application of statistical and/or logical methods to define
and explain, summarise, and evaluate given data. Shammoo and Resnik (2009: 46)
contend that modern science allows researchers to use various analytical techniques
to draw “inductive inferences from data and distinguish any real phenomena or effects
40
from random fluctuations present in the data.” Data analysis usually consists of
cleaning and organising the data, describing, and testing hypothesis. However, this is
mainly from a quantitative perspective. There are fundamental differences between
quantitative data analysis and qualitative data analysis some of which include the
following: qualitative data tends to focus on meaning rather than quantification, entails
collecting in-depth information by using a small sample rather than a small amount of
data using a large sample size, and is sensitive to context rather than trying to
generalise (Adams, Khan, Raeside & White, 2012: 235).
In analysing qualitative data the researcher can use either the traditional text analysis
- manually placing pieces of data into various categories - or computerised text
analysis - the use of a computer software programme in analysing data by creating,
applying, and refining categories (Adams et al 2007: 350).
Data collected from the field will be analysed using a computer assisted software
programme, that is, computer text analysis. Even though the traditional text analysis
has its benefits, such as its availability, human interpretation of data, and ability to find
words not in the English Dictionary, Bright and O’Connor (2007: 1-2) believe that it is
limited in the sense that coders tend to “read between the lines” when coding data.
This means that such coding gives room for making individual inferences from their
reading of the document. This has the tendency of skewing a result. Apart from this,
the researcher needs a number of people as well as time to properly code the data, a
process which is slow and time consuming. Using computerised text analysis on the
other hand ensures “speed, rigour, team research, and generalisability.” This allows
the computer to draw out common themes within the shortest possible time (Seal,
2005: 188). Although there may be possible challenges regarding wrong coding based
on sentence structure and missing essential categories and patterns, it is nevertheless
regarded as the best technique for managing data as it also ensures human error and
researcher bias is greatly reduced. Moreover, Adams et al (2007: 350) articulate that
the steps involved in computer text analysis are similar to the traditional text analysis
(analysing notes, documents or interview transcripts including preparation, coding,
analysis, and reporting). They also indicate that in a situation where the number of
interviews is more than 40, computer text analysis can be used. There are a number
of computer text analysis software programmes. The researcher will however use the
Atlas.ti, a computer-based programme for analysing qualitative research. It allows one
41
to store, segment and organise field notes that are extensive. It also enables the
researcher to find themes/patterns in the field notes.
1.11.7. Data interpretation
Brewer (2003: 164) describes data interpretation as ascribing meaning to data. He
articulates that:
Interpretation is a creative enterprise that depends on the insight and
imagination of the researcher, regardless of whether he/she is a
qualitative analyst working closely with rich in-depth interview transcripts
or ‘thick description’ based upon intense observation 1 or, at the other
extreme, a quantitative researcher carrying out a complex multivariate
statistical analysis of a massive dataset. In both instances, interpretation,
the way in which the researcher attaches meaning to the data, is not
mechanical but requires skill, imagination and creativity.
Brewer categorises interpretation in qualitative research into two, namely that which is
generated by the researcher/analyst, and the interpretation given by the participants,
and argues that none should be ignored when interpreting data, especially in a
qualitative research. Marshall and Rossman (2011: 219) are of the opinion that
effective interpretation of qualitative data ensures some level of significance and
consistency in the themes, patterns, and categories. Patton (2002: 480) also describes
interpretation as “attaching significance to what was found, making sense of the
findings, offering explanations, drawing conclusions, extrapolating lessons, making
inferences, considering meanings, and otherwise imposing order.”
The data will be categorised into sections based on the research objectives. This will
allow for patterns and themes to be drawn from the data. This conforms to what Flick
(2009: 218) identifies as the two basic strategies used in working with text; coding the
material so as to categorise them/or develop theory (known as Grounded Theory), and
the sequential analysis of the text which tries to reconstruct the structure of a text.
42
1.12. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
The essence of every research is to inform an action. The significance of the study
makes it worth investigating as it seeks to answer the following questions: Why is the
study important? To whom is the study important? And what benefit(s) will the study
have on the community? (Thomas, 2006: 151).
PR has become a global business and scholars, especially those from
western/developed countries, are contributing immensely to the practice of the
profession. The findings of this research can make a valuable contribution by adding
to the existing body of global literature on PR practice. The global discussion on the
practice of PR focuses mostly on the western world (Domm, 2013). Africa is often left
out when it comes to the development of conceptual models for how the profession is
practiced on the continent. This is reflected in the comment of Sriramesh and Verčič
(2003: xxv) when they acknowledge that despite the body of knowledge in PR
increasing and continuously evolving into a strong discipline, growth of knowledge has
been largely focused in the USA and some western European countries. The result is
that knowledge of how PR is practiced and the conceptual models that underpin such
practice is limited. It is essential that developing countries also engage in these
discussions from the African perspective. However, it appears contributions from
countries in Africa, including Ghana, are severely limited. A cursory look at literature
on contributions to the discussion on PR in Africa has mainly come from South Africa.
This study will therefore provide information on a broad understanding of the study of
PR in Ghana. Empirical data gathered will contribute to the global discussion of the
field and expose Africa and Ghana for that matter, to the world of PR.
At the end of the research insight would have been gained into how PR is practiced
among organisations in the financial services sector in Ghana, especially in relation to
their functions and the models used in the practice. The result will establish whether
PR practice in Ghana is based on western models or other models. This will allow for
the development of an appropriate framework for PR practice for the sectors studied.
Moreover, the research is essential to the development of the PR profession globally
as well as public relations education locally.
43
1.13. FEASIBILITY OF THE STUDY
It is believed that since the head offices of the selected organisations are based in
the capital, Accra, contacting the accessible population will not be a problem.
However the researcher anticipates that participants may delay in agreeing to be
interviewed which will likely delay the data collection process. This should however
not pose a serious challenge in the effort to gather data.
1.14. VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY
Qualitative research has been noted for its subjectivity due to its sense of personal
interpretation. This leads to loss of consistency of measurement and results. It is
therefore important to ensure reliability and validity if qualitative research is to retain
some form of credibility (Roux, 2010: 171). Joppe (2000) defines reliability as “the
extent to which results are consistent over time, and an accurate representation of the
total population under study is referred to as reliability. If the results of a study can be
reproduced under a similar methodology, then the research instrument is considered
to be reliable.” Joppe defines validity as that which “determines whether the research
truly measures that which it was intended to measure or how truthful the research
results are. Consequently, does the research instrument allow you to hit ‘the bull’s eye’
of your research object?”
Validity and reliability are conventionally used for evaluating the quality of a research.
Although validity and reliability are purely used for quantitative measurement, some
scholars (Silverman, 2001; Hammersley, 1998; Maxwell, 1996; Kvale, 1996) argue
that it can also be used for qualitative analysis. They argue that the testing of any good
qualitative study is its quality. In the words of Hoepfl (1997: 48), a good qualitative
study can “help us understand a situation that would otherwise be enigmatic or
confusing.” Stenbacka also believes that the purpose of reliability in quantitative
research is about “explaining” while the main purpose of reliability in qualitative
research is “generating understanding” (2001: 551). Cho and Trent (2006: 320) also
stress the need for qualitative researchers to be concerned about validity and reliability
in the process of “designing a study, analysing results and judging the quality of the
study.” Although the ability of a qualitative study to use reliability has been questioned
by a number of researchers (Simon, 2011: 154), due to its inability to demonstrate
generalisability, scholars have also developed what they describe as criteria for
44
determining the quality of qualitative research. Seal (1999: 472) is an advocate for the
examination of trust in determining the quality of a qualitative research, Lincoln and
Guba (Daymon & Holloway, 2002: 92) emphasise authenticity and trustworthiness -
determined by credibility, transferability, dependability and confirmability - while
Denzin (1978) proposed triangulation, i.e. “a validity procedure where researchers
search for convergence among multiple and different sources of information to form
themes or categories in a study.” To address the issue of validity and reliability, the
study will employ Lincoln and Guba’s construct of trustworthiness which focuses on
credibility, transferability, dependability and confirmability as a means of ensuring
rigour in qualitative inquiry.
Lincoln and Guba, in their seminal works in the 1980s, replaced the concept of
reliability and validity with the concept of “trustworthiness”. Lincoln and Guba (1981)
argue that while all research ought to have “truth value”, “applicability”, “consistency”,
and “neutrality” in order to be regarded as meaningful, the way knowledge is
developed within the quantitative paradigm is different from that of the qualitative
(naturalistic) paradigm. What this means is that the two paradigms do not approach
inquiry the same way and therefore criteria for assessing trustworthiness should be
different. They therefore proposed different criteria for establishing trustworthiness in
qualitative research:
i. Credibility - confidence in the 'truth' of the findings.
ii. Transferability - the extent to which findings of a research in one setting can be
applied or transferred to another setting.
iii. Dependability - showing that the findings are consistent and could be repeated.
iv. Confirmability - a degree of neutrality or the extent to which the findings of a
study are shaped by the respondents and not researcher bias, motivation, or
interest.
Within these techniques are a series of strategies that can be used to demonstrate
rigour. These include prolonged engagement, triangulation, thick description, audit
trail, reflexivity, member-checking in the process of coding, categorising, confirming
results with participants, peer debriefing, negative case analysis, inquiry audit and
referential adequacy.
45
Although the evaluative criteria have been criticised bypositivists, it continues to be
the reference point for measuring qualitative research.
1.15. ANTICIPATED FINDINGS
The outcome of the research will enable the researcher to know how PR is practiced
among corporate organisations in Ghana especially in relation to their functions (roles)
and the models used in the practice of the profession. By the end of the research,
there should be an indication as to whether Ghanaian PR practitioners follow the
western model of practice or other models are used based on certain factors such
culture. Knowledge and understanding of the practice of PR in Ghana is fundamental
to the development of PR education and growth as information gathered will contribute
broadly to the global discussion of the profession from an African perspective. As
Sriramesh (2008:421) noted, models of public relations can be regarded as globally
acceptable only when there is empirical evidence from other cultures. Evidence
reviewed show practitioners using western based models in different cultural settings
are likely to face problems in the management of communication activities in their
organisations. This research will provide insight into PR practice from the perspective
of an African country with a unique and different cultural environment, especially in
the light of globalisation. This study will also contribute to the discussion towards the
development of an African body of knowledge and theory based on African philosophy
and culture.
1.16. ETHICAL CONSIDERATION
Ethics simply refers to the moral principles or values that govern the actions of a
researcher, that is, it deals with what is right and wrong (Wimmer & Dominick, 2011:
65; Babbie, 2008: 66). The notion of ethics, especially in qualitative research, has been
discussed at length by researchers. Questions about ethical issues in research have
assumed a very important dimension in recent times. Issues of ethics are regarded as
essential to the research process from its inception stage to the publication of findings
(Hesse-Biber & Leavy, 2011: 59). An important ethical element is informed consent,
which deals with ensuring that the subjects under investigation are notified about the
nature of the research project and permission sought prior to their participation in the
46
study. This is usually done through a letter which details all that the respondents need
to know in order to make up his or her mind. This protects the individual from harm
and protects the researcher from being sued or having his or her research considered
invalid or unethical. To address this, a letter will be sent to the various respondents
spelling out the nature of the research and seeking their consent to interview them.
Regarding confidentiality, respondents will be assured that information given by them
will be used strictly for academic purposes. Also, their names will not be used in any
written document concerning the project and interview materials will not be exposed
to any third party. This is in line with the views of Babbie (2010: 67) who believes that
confidentiality is assured when the researcher identifies a person’s responses but
promises not to do so publicly. The study will also work with the ethical guidelines of
the University of South Africa (UNISA 2016 – Refer to Addendum E for Unisa’s
research policy on ethics in relation to the research, p. 349). It will comply with the
code of conduct of the university. Sources consulted and used in this research will be
duly acknowledged.
1.17. SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
The scope of a research deals with the parameters under which a research study
operates, that is, the problem to be studied within a certain boundary/domain (Simon
& Goes, 2011: 286). The parameters of this research are reflected in the research
objectives, formulated questions, the target population, and the conceptual framework
that focusses on the practice of public relations within the financial services sector.
This study will involve samples of selected corporate organisations within the financial
services sector in the Greater Accra region of Ghana. This study takes cognisance of
the fact that the head offices of the selected organisations are based in the national
capital.
Limitations of a research are issues that arise in a study that the researcher has no
control over. Such matters limit how far a study can go and can sometimes affect the
overall outcome of the result (Simon & Goes, 2011: 286). Since the study involves
practitioners from only one sector of the economy, the result might not necessarily be
enough to generalise to practitioners in other parts of the country. Another limitation
is that since the research used the qualitative approach, the findings cannot be
extended to a wider population in the same manner that a quantitative approach can.
47
Due to the exhaustive and labour-intensive nature of a qualitative research, only a
limited number of samples can be utilised, and this cannot be statistically tested for
significance. The current study was however, not meant to be generalised but to
explore meaning and gain insight into a phenomenon rarely studied in Ghana (see
chapter 4 section 4.2.1 for detailed discussion). Again, getting the approval letters from
the organisations took longer than expected as some of the organisations were
reluctant to give their approval. This affected the length of time it took to conduct the
interviews.
In using exploratory study, the researcher is wary of the fact that such research is
subject to bias and subjectivity. The researcher therefore engaged in saturation,
constant comparisons with similar research as well as core strategies to ensure validity
and reliability as suggested by Hammersley (in Daymon & Holloway, 2011:83-84).
1.18. DELIMITATION OF THE STUDY
Overall the focus of the study is on exploring and describing the practice of PR in the
financial services sector in Ghana through theoretical and empirical literature.
Specifically, the study will focus on determining how PR is practiced within the financial
services sector. This means that only practitioners working within this sector will be
sampled for the study. The study will address the following issues: conceptualisation
of PR by practitioners, views of practitioners about selected PR models, and analysis
of the roles (activities) practitioners engage in. Altough PR practice is found in every
sector, this study focuses on the financial services sector because of the reputational
and credibility issues the sector has faced (and is still facing) as a result of major
scandals within the last half a decade.
1.19. ORGANISATION OF THE THESIS
The study will be divided into six chapters as follows:
Chapter One: Background and Orientation
This chapter includes the general background to the study, the statement of the
problem, objectives of the study, research questions, significance of the study, an
overview of the PR industry and the impact of globalisation, and a brief background
on theoretical arguments, limitations and delimitation.
48
Chapter Two: Worldviews, paradigms and theories of the study
This chapter will review the various models that underpin PR practice. The chapter will
also discuss the selected sector in relation to the research.
Chapter Three: Development and practice of public relations
This chapter will focus on the historical development of public relations. It will discuss
PR development from three perspectives. First it will look at the western perspective
(North America and Europe) and then focus on PR practice and end with the
development of the practice in Africa and finally Ghana.
Chapter Four: Research design and methodology
This chapter presents the research methodology that will be adopted by the study.
This includes the research design, the study area, population, sampling procedure and
sample size, data collection instruments, and procedures of data analysis.
Chapter Five: Presentation and discussion of research result
Chapter six will present the findings from the study in an attempt to answer the
research questions. The results will be presented and discussed in a way as to provide
nuances with necessary interpretation to make the data and findings meaningful.
Chapter Six: Conclusions and recommendaton
This chapter presents the conclusions and recommendations and implications of the
study for the field. The recommendations will include the proposed framework for PR
practice in the financial services sector. Finally, the chapter will propose further
research opportunities for future studies.
1.20. SUMMARY
The chapter examined various aspects of the study including the problem setting,
objectives and the general research questions. It also discussed the problem
statement, globalisation and PR practice. The significance of the study and the
limitations/delimitations were also discussed.
49
The chapter first discussed the nature of PR, especially since the 21st century. The
discussion was mainly based on the growth of PR worldwide and the contributing
factors to the profession’s growth as well as the value of PR to achieving
business/organisational objectives. The chapter also discussed the need for an
expansion in the scholarly research on how PR is practiced across cultures due to a
gap in literature. This will increase knowledge in the body of literature on the subject
of PR and how it is practiced.
A brief profile of the country of Ghana, including its geographical, political and
economic characteristics, has also been discussed. Emphasis was placed on the
Ghanaian economy and some of the essential sectors that holds the economy. This
was followed by the purpose of the study where the reason for the current attempt to
undertake this research was discussed. It briefly discussed the paucity of research in
PR practice in Ghana and the subsequent effect on discussions about the overall
nature of the practice in developing countries such as Ghana.
An overview of the PR industry worldwide was also discussed. This discussion centred
on the financial worth of the PR industry, the factors that affected the profession’s
growth, the concept of globalisation and how it has affected the expansion and growth
of the profession, and what it means for global theory building. A significant portion of
the chapter was devoted to the different PR paradigms propounded by scholars in the
attempt to project a common framework for the practice of public relations. The
reflective model of Europe, the relational model of America and Asian models of
cultural interpreter and personal influence were discussed at length.
The literature review examined the various definitions of PR from its beginning to the
present, the profession’s history and some of the theories that underpin the practice.
The theories include the Systems Theory, the Excellence Theory and the four models
of PR practice. The roles of PR as identified by Cutlip, Center and Broom (2000) were
also examined. The literature concluded with a brief discussion on PR practice within
the financial sector.
The goals and objectives underlining the research were discussed. This was followed
by the problem statement which examined the issue to be investigated. The specific
research objectives and research questions were further developed with the
50
importance of the study also being discussed. Key terms used in the research were
defined, including concepts such as public relations, models, culture, organisation etc.
The methodology consisted of a discussion on the means by which data will be
collected. There was a discussion on the various areas of research design - qualitative,
quantitative and mixed mode - with a particular focus on the qualitative. The overall
methodological approach examined the population, sampling design, sampling
method, study area, data collection method/techniques and data analysis method as
well as interpretation. The issue of validity and reliability was examined as well as
anticipated findings and how the study will contribute to the body of knowledge on the
subject. The chapter concluded by discussing the limitations and delimitations of the
work as well as how the work will be organised.
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CHAPTER TWO
WORLDVIEWS, PARADIGMS AND THEORIES OF THE STUDY
2.1. INTRODUCTION
The goal of this study is to investigate the practice of public relations (PR) among
selected corporate organisations in Ghana with a focus on the financial services
sector. The overall goal is to develop a conceptual framework that will guide the
practice of PR in the sector. To this end, the previous chapter examined the problem
setting, goals and objectives of the research, the statement of the problem as well as
the concept of globalisation and its impact on the practice of PR. The chapter also
discussed the significance of the study, limitation/delimitation as well as a brief history
of Ghana and an overview of the PR industry in Africa and Ghana.
This chapter focuses mainly on the various theoretical concepts that underpin the
practice of PR. The chapter is based on the first research objective which states “to
investigate how public relations is conceptualised and practiced by means of literature
review.” This will consist of a discussion on the existing models and how they have
shaped the practice of PR. The chapter will first provide an analysis of the various
worldviews and paradigms relating to PR practice, and this will be followed by a
discussion on the selected theoretical statements namely, the Excellence Study, the
Systems Theory, and the Relationship Management Theory. It will conclude with a
brief discussion of PR practice in the selected sector.
2.2. CONCEPTUALISATION OF THE STUDY
Much has been said about the need to provide the appropriate framework that guide
the practice of PR. The primary goal of much PR studies has been aimed at providing
a body of theory that is all-inclusive (Motion & Leitch, 2001: 659). Grunig (2001: 2-3)
is of the view that PR used to be practiced as an occupation guided by mainly
techniques rather than having any theoretical basis. Thus, securing media coverage,
preparing press releases, writing speeches, writing and designing of brochures,
lobbying representatives in government, staging of special events etc., were used as
a basis for PR practice. However, the situation is no longer the case. PR is now
practiced as a profession with the development of a body of knowledge. Much of
today’s practice is based on knowledge of how an audience behaves. The practice
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worldwide and the swift advancement of ICT means that more ought to be done to
develop a common body of knowledge that aids in the growth of the profession in
terms of practice. The efforts to establish a solid theoretical foundation that guides PR
has seen the practice evolve with different paradigms/worldviews vying for the
attention of practitioners. Of concern though is that most of these bodies of knowledge
or theories are structured to suit the practices in the western world, although the belief
is that such frameworks can also be used in other cultures (Mersham, Skinner &
Rensburg, 2011: 195). Mersham et al (2011:195) believe that the time has come for
scholars to develop a body of knowledge of a conceptual framework that speaks to
the African situation of PR especially in view of the tremendous growth of the
profession on the continent as a result of globalisation.
This study will be anchored on a strong theoretical foundation. To properly investigate
the issues raised in the previous chapter, a theoretical framework is necessary for the
study. The framework will provide a sound theoretical and empirical basis for the study.
The discussion will include worldviews and paradigms, Meta-theory and theories.
Table 2.1 gives an overview of the chapter.
Table 2.1. Conceptualisation of the study
Paradigms
Domain
Relational
paradigm
Reflective
paradigm
Two-way
symmetrical
paradigm
PR
Meta-theory
Theories
General Excellence Theory
Systems Theory
Relationship Management Theory
Source: Researcher’s own compilation
2.2.1. The difference between worldviews, paradigms, meta-theories and
theories
Musa (2013: 46) acknowledges the importance of worldviews, paradigms, meta-theory
and theory to the research process. Musa contends that the three concepts represent
three hierarchical levels of decision making within the research process. The ability to
clearly articulate paradigms, meta-theories and theories is essential in clarifying and
justifying the research approach. Musa (2013: 41) concludes that the choice of theory
53
used in any research inquiry ultimately relates to the research paradigm and
corresponding meta-theory. He therefore establishes a clear interconnection between
the concepts. The purpose of this section is to discuss worldviews, paradigms, meta-
theories and theories and how they interrelate.
Much of the definitions and practice of PR have been underpinned by different
worldviews, paradigms and theories. These have ultimately shaped the evolution of
the practice across cultures. Sriramesh and Verčič (2012: 2), for instance, are of the
view that PR and other managerial practices are strongly influenced by a myriad of
worldviews and habits from different cultural settings, which agrees with the views of
Leonard and Ströh (2000: 35), who believe that different people interpret PR differently
depending on their worldview. Ultimately though, the goal of such concepts is to
develop a model that can be applied to the practice of PR across cultures (Pieczka,
2006: 352).
A search through literature shows a lack of general agreement on the use of the
concepts ‘paradigm’ and ‘worldview’. While some authors (Babbie, 2010: 33; Pieczka,
2006: 352; Daymon & Holloway, 2002: 4; Grunig, 1989: 24) use the two words
interchangeably, others such as Steyn (2004: 27-58) clearly make a distinction
between the two.
Grunig (1992: 34), in his attempt to define worldview, categorised it as theories used
to understand and evaluate the various worldviews which influence PR practice. Steyn
(2004: 57), after reviewing a set of definitions, came up with what she called ‘extra-
scientific’ (non-scientific) worldviews to refer to attitudes, beliefs, views or mindset of
any individual or group of people. Du Plooy (2009: 27) also defines it as “a set of
attitudes, beliefs, values or views of social reality characteristic of particular social
groups.” Keaney (cited in Grunig & White,1992: 33), regards it as “a set of images
and assumptions about the world….organising principles that have variously been
called Gestalten, plans, structures, schemata.” Grunig and White (1992: 35) refer to
Meehan in describing worldview as a “conceptual framework through which
perceptions are screened,” while Suppe (1977) uses a German term Weltanschauung,
that is, a comprehensive mindset. Brown (1977: 101-103) also used the term
“presupposition” to refer to the concept of worldview. The various descriptions of
worldviews reveal a lack of common definition among scholars. What appears striking
54
is that the concept of worldviews is associated with personal beliefs or perceptions
about a phenomenon and these beliefs or assumptions influence how individuals act.
The worldviews may be borne out of personal experiences, one’s profession or even
educational background. In the academic field, worldviews of scholars then influence
their theoretical perspectives of issues. Worldviews are therefore subjective in nature
and not scientific hence one cannot rely on a single worldview to determine the cause
of an event.
Yaxley (2013) notes that discussions about PR ultimately reflect specific worldviews;
an issue that ought to be examined whether one is developing a theory, considering
practice or undertaking research in the field. This is clearly seen, for instance, in the
myriad of definitions and dispositions about how the profession ought to be practiced.
Indeed, Hutton’s assessment of the profession’s history led to the conclusion that PR
has evolved in terms of definitions and metaphors (1999: 200-201). Hutton categorises
the evolvement of PR into five stages, from ‘the public be fooled’ to ‘the public be
damned’ to ‘the public be manipulated’ to ‘the public be informed’ to ‘the public be
involved or accommodated’. Other scholars such as Grunig and Hunt (1984: 21-23)
also introduced the four models of PR which sought to explain the development of PR
through its history and practice. These models also reflect some of the different
worldviews regarding the practice of PR. For instance, practitioners who subscribe to
the asymmetrical worldview attempt to influence the public in ways that are geared
towards benefiting the organisation rather than the publics. On the other hand,
practitioners who believe in the symmetrical worldview practice an open system policy
that leads to mutual understanding between the organisation and the publics.
Grunig and White (1992: 32), in their discussion on the effect of worldviews on PR,
posit that several top communication professionals tend to rely on the scientific method
to produce a body of theoretical knowledge that will bring order to the confusion that
PR finds itself in:
Communication professionals often seem to flounder without direction
in their work. In actual practice, public relations has no consistent
definition. Realistically, it can be defined as little more than ·what public
relations people do·. The work of public relations people varies
55
tremendously from one organisation to another or from one practitioner
to another. To many critics, that work seems unprincipled, unethical and
atheoretical (p. 32).
The way people and organisations study and practice PR is greatly influenced by the
subjectivity of the human mind. Grunig and White (1992: 36) therefore posit that it is
important to address the subjective component of both popular and scientific theories
about PR as a means of fostering excellence in communication practice. However, in
order to distinguish between excellent PR and less excellent PR, Grunig and White
argue that one must be able to compare and evaluate worldviews. Some scholars
(Bohm, 1977; Kuhn, 1970; Feyerabend, 1970; Collingwood, 1940, in Skinner, 1994:
15) suggest that worldviews are simply subjective, and that individuals and institutions
select one worldview or the other through arguing, fighting, voting, or mobilising
supporters rather than through reason, negotiation or compromise. For example,
Kearney (cited in Grunig and White 1992:37) argues that worldviews can be evaluated
on the basis of internal and external criteria. From the internal perspective, he states
that some worldviews have assumptions that “are logically and structurally related to
each other better than others.” From an external perspective, some worldviews enable
people to relate better to their environments than others. Kearney also believes that
worldviews can be judged by “some presumably more valid historical perspective.”
Philosophers such as Suppe (1977) and Shapere (1984, in Grunig and White, 1992:
37), also argue that neutral direct or indirect observations premised on strong
background information or background theories can allow theories generated by
competing worldviews to be compared. Laudan (in Grunig, 1992: 37) suggests that
perhaps the most useful criterion for evaluating worldviews is to determine how
worldviews (and the theories these generate) can solve critical issues. For example,
in PR, one may ask which worldview generates PR programmes that can lead to
conflict resolution and management of issues at the societal, national and international
levels while making organisations socially responsible and more effective. After
reviewing the myriad of definitions regarding worldview, Grunig and White (1992: 38)
conclude that excellent PR is practiced in a logical, coherent, unified and orderly
manner - the internal criteria. An excellent worldview of PR is one that solves
organisational and human problems effectively, which they referred to as the external
56
criteria. The authors also emphasised on the concept of ethical PR that allows
organisations to show love and care to individuals and groups that they affect within
the society.
Before the discussion on paradigms, this discussion will briefly look at another
worldview that has been proposed by African scholars in what is termed as the “African
worldview”.
The concept of African worldview is not new as it has been applied to the way Africans
relate to each other and how such relations affect the business environment (Tilson,
2014; Van Heerden, 2004: 121). Van Heerden points out that one can only understand
the nature of the African business environment by first understanding African
worldview and cultural foundations. Africans generally see themselves as social
beings and this consciousness greatly influences the way they behave, how they
express themselves and how they engage in spiritual self-fulfilment. There is a strong
interconnectedness and brotherliness as opposed to individualism. This is even more
profound especially as the continent is steeped in poverty and being one another’s
keeper is the only means by which survival is ensured (Van Heerden, 2004: 121).
Mersham and Skinner (2009: 309) describe the African worldview as one of the most
powerful influences/concepts that shapes the way Africans behave. The worldview is
based on the concept of collectivism and recognition of the value of all individuals.
This act of collectivism is framed in the African philosophy of ‘Ubuntuism’, which
means “I am because of others…..stressing interconnections and collectively”
(Worthington, 2011: 611). Ubuntu is a value-based traditional philosophy premised on
African humanism that runs deeply throughout African thought and action (de Beer &
Mersham, 2004: 338) and emphasises communalism rather than individualism
(White, 2009: 220). The concept of Ubuntu is a cultural philosophy inherent among the
Bantu people of Africa (Natifu & Zikusooka, 2014: 224) and has been in existence as
a cultural virtue for centuries (Rensburg, 2008: 253). Fourie (2008: 63) points out that
different African cultures and African languages interpret the philosophy differently to
mean ‘a person is defined in relation to the community’, ‘that I am because we are,
and since we are, therefore I am’, that ‘it is through others that one attains selfhood’,
and that ‘a person is born for the other’.
57
Mersham, Skinner and Rensburg (2011: 198) state that when applied to PR, the
concept of Ubuntu moves beyond the individual and individual rights while emphasis
is placed on community and collectiveness. The African is seen as a participatory
being who depends on others for his/her development. There is therefore a high
emphasis on negotiation, inclusiveness, transparency and tolerance. For example,
among the Bantu people in Uganda, PR means “relating well with people,” (Natifu &
Zikusooka, 2014: 224). Mersham and Skinner (2009: 309) again note that the African
philosophy may explain why PR theorists tend to find African PR intriguing, posing
challenges to accepted normative approaches, in the attempt to develop a new and
sustainable global model of PR. Therefore, to be able to develop a model that truly
reflects the global practice of PR, efforts must be made to understand the context in
which PR is practiced in Africa. The implications of the Ubuntu philosophy for post-
modern thoughts and western view of PR is framed in the words of Christians (2004):
Since the self cannot be conceived without necessarily conceiving of
others, Ubuntu adds a universal and compelling voice against the
Enlightenment’s atomistic individuals who exist prior to and
independently of their social order. In the West, where ‘individualism
often translates into an impetuous competitiveness’, the cooperation
entailed by ubuntu‘s ‘plurality of personalities’ in a ‘multiplicity of
relationships’ is an attractive, though overwhelming concept. The
modernist concept of individuality now has to move from solitary to
solidarity, from independence to interdependence, from individuality vis‐
à‐vis community to individuality a la community (p. 245).
A study by Angus and Kapanga (2007) on the key drivers of brand growth in Nigeria,
Kenya, Ghana, Zimbabwe, Malawi and Mozambique, for instance, identified among
others, the power of the community, word of mouth, tradition and trust, which are key
values that permeate through everyday life in ways important to communication
management.
Currently, there is a deficiency of African literature on PR from the African worldview.
This means that African scholars and practitioners are forced to approach and teach
PR based on a western framework. In as much as this is not necessarily bad, Van
Heerden (2004: 128) points out that it leads to conflict within the individual once they
58
are confronted with African realities. The practice, education and research for PR in
Africa can only be effective if there is an African body of knowledge based on African
philosophy. Mersham, Skinner and Rensburg (2011: 201) posit that Africa is capable
of providing a unique contribution to the global practice of PR. The authors found
significance in the words of Steve Biko, a celebrated South African anti-apartheid
activist, for contemporary PR:
Westerners have on many occasions been surprised at the
capacity we have for talking to each other - not for the sake of
arriving at a particular conclusion, but merely to enjoy the
communication for its own sake.
And:
We believe that in the long run the special contribution to the world
by Africa will be in this field of human relationships. The great
powers of the world may have done wonders in giving the world
an industrial and military look, but the great gift still has to come
from Africa - giving the world a more human face.
However, Mersham and Skinner (2009: 310) admit that the field of PR and
communication management has some way to go before it can be recognised and
given the legitimacy sought for by scholars for decades. Van Heerden (2004: 238)
concludes by indicating that the core of social responsibility is summarised in the
African worldview and social structures.
Nevertheless, in the light of the global expansion of PR, the question one needs to ask
is whether the African worldview has not been influenced in as far as the practice of
PR on the continent is concerned? A review of the various worldviews/paradigms and
models shows some similarities between them and the African worldview. The concept
of African worldview in a way reflects the relational and symmetrical paradigms of North
America and to some extent that which is practiced in Asia (personal influence and
cultural interpreter models). The little literature available (Kiambi & Nadler, 2012; Ming-
Yi & Baah-Boakye, 2009) shows that PR in Africa is based on relationship building and
that good interpersonal relationship is regarded as key to organisational-public
relationship (henceforth referred to as OPR). Practitioners play a central role in the
59
OPR process as both parties socialise and build good relations (Kiambi & Nadler, 2012:
506). It will be interesting to determine how far the African worldview exists in the
practice of PR in Ghana. With the number of multinational organisations growing each
day in all sectors, including the financial sector, the question is whether the practice of
PR will be based on African influences or whether it will be a mixture of other
worldviews as determined by the few research studies on the continent. In this study
PR practice will be explored and tested based on its roles (activities) and models
(purpose). Results will enable the researcher to develop the appropriate framework
that will guide the practice of the discipline, not only in the organisations studies but
also in Ghana as a whole.
Roux (2010: 54) suggests that the concept of paradigm can be found within
worldviews. According to Grunig and White (1992: 35), Kuhn was the first to coin the
term ‘paradigm’ to describe worldview, which stands for “the entire constellation of
beliefs, values, techniques and so on shared by the members of a given community.”
Wimmer and Dominick (2011: 115) define paradigms as consisting of theories,
procedures, and assumptions about how researchers perceive their environment or
world. Babbie (2010: 33) also defines a paradigm to consist of essential
theories/models or frameworks researchers use to “organise observations and
reasoning.” Kent and Taylor (2011: 60) assert that paradigm is similar to an ideology
but agree that paradigms are much more personal and represent models,
assumptions, beliefs and values that shape how people perceive reality. According to
the authors, paradigm can vary by a number of factors including age, gender, ethnicity,
and social class. Finally, Chalmers (in Willis, 2007: 8), defines a paradigm as being
“made up of the general theoretical assumption and laws, and techniques for their
application that the members of a particular community adopt." Chalmers categorises
paradigm into five basic components:
• Explicitly stated laws and theoretical assumptions.
• Standard ways of applying the fundamental laws to a variety of situations.
• Instrumentation and instrumental techniques that bring the laws of the
paradigm to bear on the real world.
• General metaphysical principles that guide work within the paradigm.
60
• General methodological prescriptions about how to conduct work within the
paradigm.
By way of explanation, a paradigm consists of a comprehensive belief system,
worldview, or framework that guides research and practice in a field. Although Steyn
(2004: 58) regards paradigm as representing a scientific worldview (i.e. the views of a
group of scholars), and worldview as consisting of ‘extra-scientific’ worldviews held by
any group of people regardless of their background, it is the view of this researcher
that the terms are related. Indeed, this research agrees with Roux (2010: 54) and Van
Heerden (2004: 30) that the term worldview is used as a bigger umbrella under which
paradigm operates, hence the two can be used interchangeably. Roux (2010: 54)
contends that paradigms consist of theories, models, and assumptions which guide
the conceptualisation and research methods within a discipline. A worldview enables
the researcher to appreciate the world and the paradigms used and this in turn directs
the specific issue under study. This view is shared by Sefotho (2015: 25) who argues
that paradigms are selected based on how researchers view the world and make
sense of it, and Huitt (2011) who states that worldviews form the basis of paradigms.
Steyn (2004:55) is of the view that it is possible to use a variety of contrasting
paradigms that are aligned to each other, regardless of the discipline. It is therefore
possible for a researcher to base their research on different paradigms. To Steyn,
there is no right or wrong paradigm hence a paradigm concerning a particular issue
under study can be used as long as it is applicable to that situation.
Roux (2010: 55) emphasises the importance of identifying and declaring the paradigm
within which a research study is categorised. Paradigms provide the framework for
understanding observations (Babbie, 2010: 33), which concurs with the conclusion by
Grix that “…all research takes place within a paradigm, whether it is explicitly stated
or not” (2010: 116). A declaration of the paradigm influencing the research ensures an
understanding of the particular theories used in a research study (Steyn, 2004: 55).
Since the key issue is to investigate how PR is practiced in terms of roles and models,
these would be regarded as PR paradigms. Steyn (2003: 74) believes that in as much
as the models of PR are considered to be worldviews, they can also be considered as
scientific worldviews or paradigms since they have gone through the traditional
research processes which have guided numerous research studies. Dozier (1992:
61
327) referred to the PR roles as abstractions of everyday activities of the practitioner.
The roles provide an understanding of the function of PR and organisational
communication. Steyn (2003: 74) is again of the view that PR roles, despite being
referred to as worldviews, can be regarded as scientific worldviews or paradigms since
research traditions have been applied to each of them and they have directed and
guided research studies.
Paradigms consist of meta-theories which guide thinking within the paradigm (Roux,
2010: 55). A paradigm is thus broader than a meta-theory (Ritzer, 1975). Meta-
theories are used to guide the thinking about a social phenomenon and to provide the
necessary assumption which also guides the theorising of a research study (McPhee,
2000: 3). Meta-theories are regarded as the philosophical component of a paradigm
that determines the construction of models and theories (Wood, 2012: 178). Hjorland
(2005b: 5) refers to meta-theories as “theories about the description, analysis or
criticism of the theories in a domain. They are mostly internal to a domain, and may
also be termed ‘paradigms’, ‘traditions’ or ‘schools’.” Holtzhausen (1995: 44) also
defines it as consisting of assumptions that extend beyond the content of a theory,
including philosophical questions about the basic assumptions of the field (in
Holtzhausen & Verwey, 1996: 25). Holtzhausen therefore projects the need for the
meta-theoretical aspect of PR to play a critical role in the determination of the
parameters of the field of study as well as the extent to which PR is defined. Leeper
(2001: 93) considers a meta-theory as consisting of “assumptions about the
fundamental nature of the phenomena of interest.
These assumptions are frequently unrecognized and influence choices of theory as
well as method.” Hazleton and Botan (1989: 7) are of the view that before theorists and
researchers can consider alternatives it will be essential to recognise meta-theoretic
assumptions. Suls and Rothman (2004: 119) argue that the field of science cannot
advance without an implicit or explicit set of meta-theories. This corroborates the
conclusion of Guba and Lincoln (1994: 105) who used the term ‘paradigm’ to refer to
meta-theory; describing it as “a basic belief system or worldview that guides the
investigator, not only in choices of method but in an ontological and epistemologically
fundamental way.” In effect, paradigm is considered as a broader philosophical view
within which meta-theories exist. Hazleton and Botan (1989: 7) contend that meta-
62
theory summarises the models and theories within a paradigm by providing critical
assumptions about the discipline within the paradigm. Meta-theory thus consists of a
broader conceptual understanding of situations rather than theories but is less
expansive than paradigm (Rioux, 2010: 10).
The selection of any theory is premised on a researcher’s worldview, paradigm, and
meta-theory ( Le Roux, 2010: 55). It is therefore important for the meta-theory to be
well understood as it can “blind researchers to certain paths for understanding and
learning” (Hazleton & Botan, 1989: 4). Grunig (1989e: 17) notes the importance of
meta-theory to the practice of PR by indicating that improving the ethical quality and
chances of resolving PR issues can only be possible when scholars understand the
meta-theory used. A clear identification and articulation of assumptions at the meta-
theoretic level enables the researcher to select a particular theory or theories that will
provide a deeper understanding of the issue under investigation (Musa, 2013: 46). A
theory is a systematic explanation of observations relating to a social phenomenon
(Babbie, 2010: 10). Within the meta-theoretical approach there can be many theories.
However, selection of a particular theory or theories is dependent on its applicability to
the research problem (Le Roux, 2010: 56). In view of the above discussion the
Excellence Theory will be used as the meta-theory. The Excellence Theory posits that
excellent PR must be practiced symmetrically. Therefore, a mutual cooperation
between organisations and stakeholders is needed if the organisation is to achieve its
goals and objectives.
Within the meta-theory, specific theories which influence a researcher’s understanding
of the issue under investigation are clearly identified and articulated. A theory is a set
of “interrelated set of constructs (or variables) formed into propositions or hypotheses
that specify the relationship among variables (typically in terms of magnitude or
direction)” (Creswell, 2008: 51). Theories essentially guide the researcher in defining
the research question and in analysing and interpreting data.
Worldviews, paradigms, meta-theory and theory assist the researcher to present data
from an underlying philosophical perspective. These concepts allow the researcher to
clearly articulate the research process as well as justify and clarify the research
approach (Musa, 2013: 46).
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2.2.2. Paradigms framing the study
Literature (Roux, 2010; Gupta & Bartnett, 2007) depicts a general acknowledgement
of the differences in how PR is practiced across cultures. As discussed in the previous
chapter (see section 1.5.3.1), PR as practiced in Europe is different from that of the
USA and to some extent Asia. Whereas Europe practices the reflective paradigm, the
American system supports what they call the relational paradigm. In Africa and Ghana
in particular, it is not clear which kind of paradigm is practiced and this is exacerbated
by the paucity of literature on the subject, although research by Ming-Yi and Baah-
Boakye (2009) gives an indication of PR practice in Ghana being influenced mostly by
the personal influence and cultural interpreter models and a little bit of the symmetrical
model. However, with the influx of multinational organisations and other national
organisations with international links, it is significant to determine if this is still the case
or whether there has been a paradigm shift in PR practice in Ghana.
Although there are a number of paradigms, this research will restrict itself to the
following paradigms:
The relational paradigm;
The reflective paradigm; and
The two-way symmetrical paradigm.
2.2.2.1. The relational paradigm
PR research, since the early 80s, has increasingly focused on the management of
relationships between organisations and its publics (Ki & Hon, 2007; Ledingham,
2003; Hon & Grunig, 1999; Ledingham & Bruning, 1998). Ledingham & Bruning (in
Bortree, 2015: 145) proposed a definition of the organisational- public relationship as
“the state which exists between an organisation and its key publics in which the actions
of either entity impact the economic, social, and political and/or cultural well-being of
the other entity.” Specifically, PR must be perceived as “…the management of a
relationship between organisations and publics” where there is a common
understanding of each other’s interest (Ledingham, 2003: 181). The relational
paradigm sees PR as a management function concerned with building mutually
beneficial relationship between publics and the organisation using a two-way dialogue
to build trust, preserve or reduce conflict, and build community (Heath, 2001: 3; Grunig
64
et al 2002: x; Ledingham, 2003: 181; Cutlip et al 2000: 7; Van Ruler & Verčič, 2005:
240). At its core, the relational paradigm emphasises reciprocity, trust, mutual
legitimacy, openness, mutual satisfaction, and mutual understanding (Szabo, 2014:
116). What this means is that both the organisation and the stakeholders recognise
their interdependence to ensure survival and growth (Cutlip et al 2000: 15, 17).
Ledingham argues that this is consistent with the systems theory and the two-way
symmetrical model and also accommodates middle range theories (2003:181). In
effect, the purpose of PR is to generate mutual benefits and understanding for both
the organisation and its publics (Grunig & Hunt, 1984: 4). Grunig (2015: xxiii) argues
that organisations cannot achieve their goals without developing a relationship with
their stakeholders. At the heart of relationship development is PR. Grunig points out
that PR provides essential support to organisations, publics, and societies through
relationships.
In their edited book “Public relations as relationship management: A relational
approach to the study and practice of public relations”, Ki, Kim and Ledingham (2015,
in Valentini, 2016: 15) offer a detailed account of current research on relationship in
PR scholarship. The core argument of the book is premised on the fact that
relationships are essential for achievement of organisational goals and that PR can
provide critical support in relationship management, beyond image/impression
management through communication. The relational paradigm reflects the many
definitions of PR as the management of a mutually beneficial relationship between an
organisation and its publics (Cutlip et al 2000; PRSA, 2012). Heath (2001: 3), in the
introduction to his book Handbook of public relations, pointed out that “the new view
of the practice of public relations is the mutually beneficial relationships that an
organisation enjoys… the new view of public relations assumes that markets are
attracted to and kept by organisations that can create mutually beneficial
relationships.” Heath (2001: 8) posits that PR is “a relationship-building professional
activity that adds value to organizations because it increases the willingness of
markets, audiences, and publics to support them rather than to oppose their efforts.”
Other scholars such as Hutton (1999), Ledingham and Bruning (2000) and Center,
Jackson, Smith and Stansberry (2014), have variously described PR as based on
“relationship building between an organisation and its publics.” Within the framework
of the relational approach, communication is viewed as the central tool in the initiation,
65
nurturing, and maintenance of OPR. The quality of the OPR is therefore dependent on
the value of the communication (Ledingham, 2006: 413). Dutta and Kumar (2015: 262)
concur when they acknowledge the conceptualisation of communication as a tool used
to aid in the management of relationships with strategic stakeholders and publics.
Verčič and Van-Ruler (2002: 5-6) however, in their discussion on whether PR is based
on relationships or communication, argue that in Europe at least, there is no difference
between communication and relationship. They note that the argument that
communication is a necessary but not sufficient foundation for PR cannot be valid as
one cannot make a distinction between communication and relationship. They
conclude that the idea of PR as either being “all about communication” or “all about
relationships” is a matter of different perspectives, that is, “what one sees as
communication is what another uses the word relationships for.” Dutta and Kumar
(2015: 263) however posit that attempts to address the issue of relationship building
led to varying definitions of OPR. For instance, Broom, Casey and Ritchey (2000:18)
defined it as follows:
Organization-public relationships are represented by the patterns of
interaction, transaction, exchange, and linkage between an
organization and its publics. These relationships have properties that
are distinct from the identities, attributes, and perceptions of the
individuals and social collectivities in the relationships. Though dynamic
in nature, organization-public relationships can be described at a single
point in time and tracked over time
Regardless of the different perspectives, the core idea behind the relational paradigm
is reflected in the concept of mutual benefits for the organisations and their relevant
stakeholders. Ehling (1992: 662) sums up the relational approach to PR by
categorising it as “an important change in the primary mission of PR.” Dozier (1995:
85) similarly posits that “the purpose and direction of an organisation (its mission) is
affected by relationships with key constituents (publics) in the organisation’s
environment.” From this perspective communication is viewed as “a strategic
management function (that helps) manage relationships with key publics that affect
organisational mission goals and objectives.”
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The relational paradigm, in essence, serves as a platform for relating PR strategies
and organisational goals in ways that will show its value to the organisation
(Ledingham & Brunning, 2000: xvi). The objective of PR is to maintain and improve
the relationship between the organisation and its publics. Hence strategies and tactics
developed are assessed in relation to their effect on organisational-public
relationship. This requires a lot of work on the part of the practitioner. PR therefore
contributes to organisational effectiveness and performance by developing,
sustaining, and maintaining relationships (Grunig & Haung, 2000: 30).
Valentini (2016:17), after reviewing the discussion on the relational approach to PR,
concluded that these discussions failed to answer a number of questions such as the
actual role of communication in developing mutual and beneficial relationship
processes, how communication discursively constructs a relationship and provides
relational meanings in a relationship process, how relationships can be formed
between an abstract entity such as an organisation and its publics, and how to deal
with non-linear, dyadic relationships where organisations are not the centre in the
relationship process, but only one of the actors among others. The relational
approach has also been criticised for being overly focused on the organisational-
public relationship while seemingly ignoring the most essential problem in PR, which
is the societal legitimisation of organisations (Van Ruler & Verčič, 2005: 239). Van
Ruler and Verčič (2005: 240) argue that the orientation of PR towards relationship
management is insufficient as the idea of relationship management fails to account
for the plural nature of the purpose of PR to organisations and their publics. Based
on these arguments a new paradigm was proposed which reflect PR at the societal
level. This paradigm will be addressed next.
2.2.2.2. Reflective paradigm
The reflective paradigm, which Van Ruler and Verčič (2005: 253) call “reflective
communication management”, looks at public relations from a different perspective to
that of the relational paradigm. The paradigm is premised on the continuous
adjustment of the corporate decision-making processes to the norms and values of
society. It lays emphasis on the need for organisations to play a critical role in the
development of society as it is their duty to do so. This allows the organisation to stay
inclusive and preserve its license to operate (Van Ruler & Verčič, 2005: 253, 2002:
16). Holmstrom (2005: 502) also indicates that “reflection increases sensitivity to
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interdependence and increases the independent identity.” Thus, through reflection,
organisations are able to look at themselves within a larger social context. The
organisations in turn develop restrictions and coordinating mechanisms in their
decision-making processes. The reflective paradigm therefore shows PR as the social
consciousness of the organisation and it is the responsibility of the practitioner to
understand and convey to the organisation the perspectives, values, and views of the
stakeholders/society (Roux, 2010: 36). The reflective paradigm is mostly used in
Europe and is regarded as an extension of the relational paradigm (Van Ruler &
Verčič, 2002: 16).
Interestingly, the reflective paradigm does not appear to have any critiques. Review of
literature did not reveal any criticism of the approach. Instead, its usage appears to be
supported by further research (Marsh, 2010; Burger, 2009). Perhaps the lack of
criticism of the reflective paradigm may be due to its close links with the relational and
symmetrical paradigms as well as the fact that it takes on a broader dimension by
looking at communication practice from the societal perspective and not focusing on
just organisational-public relationship. What is notable though is that the theory also
appears to neglect PR practice from non-western perspectives. It also introduces the
European bias hence its validity and reliability in terms of whether it will work outside
of Europe and possibly the USA is not really known. Although Steyn (2003) found
some semblance between South African PR roles (strategist, manager and technician)
and the reflective roles of Europe, this is not enough to empirically conclude that the
European paradigm exists outside of Europe. Moreover, Steyn’s research was
confined to European PR roles.
2.2.2.3. The two-way symmetrical communication paradigm
One of the earliest and most dominant paradigms is Grunig and Hunt’s (1984: 21-24)
asymmetric and symmetrical models of PR. The models reflect the different ways that
PR was practiced throughout its history. The first three models, press agentry/public
information/two-way asymmetric, portray the one-sided nature of communications.
Power is maintained by the organisation and aims to influence stakeholders. Grunig
(1992: 43) categorises the asymmetric model under seven assumptions: internal
orientation (inability to see the organisations as outsiders do), a closed system
(information flows out but not in), efficiency (control of cost more important than
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innovation), elitism (leader of the organisation knows best), conservatism (resistance
to change), tradition (as culture-generating, thus providing the organisational glue),
and central authority (autocratic organisations, no autonomy for employees). Although
the asymmetrical model shows a form of two-way communication, its purpose is still
one way persuasive communication. Grunig (2001: 17) further states the true purpose
of the asymmetrical model is to attempt a change in public behaviour without
necessarily changing the organisation. Practitioners of this worldview operate through
propaganda (press agentry) or disseminate information that favours the organisation
(public information). Grunig further articulates the selfish nature of the two-way
asymmetric model by intimating that practitioners tend to use scientific persuasion by
utilising the services of research firms to plan messages. This is done because the
organisations believe it is right. L'Etang and Pieczka (2006: 353) sum it up by
describing the asymmetrical model as a closed system model corresponding to the
mechanistic system of organisations. Grunig and White (1992: 39), in effect, view the
asymmetrical model as the ‘dominant worldview’ in PR that is widely practiced. The
authors call it an “alluring mind-set” for most organisations.
The symmetrical model on the other hand highlights PR as dialogue-based
communication based on relationship building. This type of model portrays the
organisation and stakeholders as partners aiming to find a solution to a common issue.
Grunig and White (1992: 31) believe that “for public relations to be excellent, public
relations must be viewed as symmetrical, idealistic and critical, and managerial.” This
means that the practitioner must aim for a mutual understanding by serving the interest
of the organisation and the publics. The symmetrical model espouses holism,
interdependence (with other systems in the environment), an open system (free
exchange of information across the boundary) and moving equilibrium (with other
organisations) (Grunig, 1992: 43-44).
Since their inception, the two-way asymmetrical and the two-way symmetrical
paradigms, have been discussed greatly in PR scholarship. Botan (1993: 109) for
instance, describes the symmetrical model as the reason why there is a discussion
about PR paradigm. In effect, the discussion on PR paradigms cannot be complete
without the symmetrical model. Botan and Hazleton (2006: 6) expressly state: “Over
the last 20 years, a leading body of work has developed around Symmetry/Excellence
theory which has probably done more to develop public relations theory and
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scholarship than any other single school of thought.” Other scholars (Laskin, 2009;
Sallot, Lyon, Acosta-Alzuru & Jones, 2003; Cutlip et al 2000: 409; Dozier & Ehling,
1992: 177) have discussed the impact of the symmetrical model on PR practice
worldwide. Grunig and Hunt (1984: 100-101) argue that the symmetrical model reflects
PR practice in its advanced form. Grunig and White (1992: 40) are of the view that
each of the two dominant worldviews is influenced by presuppositions regarding the
social role of PR. They argue that whereas the asymmetrical engages in selfish,
unethical and socially irresponsible behaviour by undertaking activities that benefit the
organisation, the two-way symmetrical worldview tries to gain a mutual understanding
by balancing the interest of the organisation and its publics. Its activities are based on
research and use communication to manage conflict with strategic publics (Grunig,
Grunig & Dozier, 2002: 15).
Grunig and White (1992: 50-55) and Grunig (1994: 69), in their discussion on the
dominant worldviews of PR, noted that in dealing with the role that PR plays in society,
both the asymmetric and symmetric worldviews are influenced in four ways - the
pragmatic, conservative, radical, idealistic, and critical social roles. With pragmatic
role, practitioners see themselves as representing the interest of the client and to help
the client achieve their set objectives. The pragmatic worldview perceives society as
comprising of markets, target audiences, and competing groups, from whom one can
win commercial advantage. There is a lack of attention paid to ethical standards and
social responsibility of the client’s organisation. The conservative PR practitioners see
their role as a defensive one that is, defending the privileges of the economically
powerful. Practitioners ensure the status quo is maintained by defending and
protecting the capitalist system from attacks by activists, unions, government, and
socialists. Radical practitioners see society as a system where power and influence,
which can be used to bring about change, are obtained through knowledge and
information. Essentially PR makes a crucial contribution to change, not only in the
organisation, but society at large. Contribution to change is carried out through
provision of information which can be used in public debate, to establish links between
groups in society, and bring resources together that can be brought to bear on the
solution of social problems. The pragmatic, conservative, and radical social roles are
viewed as asymmetric in nature. The idealistic worldview - which is symmetrical in
nature - presupposes that public interest is paramount to the practice of PR. The
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practitioner serves the public interest, develops mutual understanding between an
organisation and their publics, contributes to informed debates about issues in society,
and facilitates dialogue between an organisation and their publics. The element of
reciprocity is crucial under this worldview. This is in sharp contrast to the radical
practitioner who sees change as being one dimensional. Grunig (1994: 70) contends
that the idealistic social roles have been articulated for many years and that much of
the practice of PR really follows the pragmatic, conservative, and radical social roles,
which are asymmetrical. Grunig and White (1992) again identified another worldview
which sought to view PR more as a technique than a theory. This worldview conforms
to the press agentry and public information models of PR and is asymmetrical. They
argue that for PR to be excellent it must be both technical and managerial (p. 55).
2.2.2.3.1. Criticisms of the symmetric paradigm
The worldview of excellent PR, especially the symmetrical model, is not without its
critics. Edward (2006: 148) for instance, argues that classifying the symmetrical model
as a management function is taking a narrow approach which risks oversimplifying the
complex nature of human behaviour. She points outs that unofficial organisational
structures and internal power struggles can interfere with the communication process.
Karlberg (1996) and Leitch and Neilson (2001) also criticise the model for failing to
take into account the diversified nature of the publics. According to Leitch and Neilson
(2001: 138), “publics are not fixed categories waiting to be identified but rather are
constructed and reconstructed through the discourses in which they participate.”
Karlberg on the other hand argues that the models propounded by Grunig tend to
portray publics as “primarily consumers and the public sphere (as) primarily a market
place” (p. 266). Szondi (2006: 122) also points out the cultural specific nature of the
model, and views the public as a “liberal democratic marketplace in the US.” Although
Thurlow (2015: 301) acknowledges that “the assumption that asymmetrical and
symmetrical worldviews influence the selection of models and consequently the
effectiveness of public relations is central to Grunig’s theory of public relations
excellence,” she argues that available literature does not show the existence of such
worldviews, nor does it link them to PR practice. Indeed, the authors of the Excellence
project were not oblivious of the perceived flaws in the four models, especially the two-
way symmetrical model. “The four models of PR, and especially the two-way
symmetrical model, have been the most controversial and the most debated
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component of the Excellence Theory since our theory book was published” (Grunig et
al 2002: 307). Others (L’Etang, 1996; Pieczka, 1995; Kunczik, 1994) describe the two-
way symmetrical model as utopian in nature. The argument of these scholars points
to the fact there is no true symmetrical relations and that even if communications
appear two-way, the end result is likely to be asymmetrical. That is, corporations will
end up advancing their positions rather than work on equal terms with the
stakeholders. Laskin (2009: 46) notes that the asymmetric and symmetric models fail
to recognise the relationship-building aspect of PR. Leitch and Neilson (2001: 129)
conclude by saying:
Two-way symmetrical model, thus, is being engaged when asymmetrical
communications fail and it helps the company “to dilute the negotiating
power of those (critical) stakeholders” by making compromises that in the
long run are still in the interests of organization rather than society or
critical stakeholders.
Regardless of these criticisms, the general characteristics of the two-way symmetric
and to some extent two-way asymmetric model, which emphasises on PR as a
management function and the importance of research, makes it an acceptable model
for the practice in today’s society as has been suggested by Ferreira (2003: 134).
Others also believe that, despite the arguments against the symmetrical model, they
are still relevant today as when they were first promulgated (Waddington, 2012; 2013).
Laskin (2009: 37) describes it as the most dominant theoretical perspective in PR.
Although Grunig and Grunig (1992: 312) acknowledge the idealistic and normative
nature of the symmetric model, they also believe that the two-way symmetrical model
represents excellent PR and is more ethical and effective than other models (1992:
303-308). Grunig and White (1992: 31) conclude by insisting that for PR to be excellent,
it must be symmetrical, idealistic, critical, and managerial.
2.2.3. Meta-theory used in the study
This section will discuss the meta-theory used in the study. Roux (2010: 67)
asserts that before discussing how a theory is used in a study, it is important
to understand how the theories were used by the researcher.
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2.2.3.1 Inductive versus deductive reasoning
Roux (2010: 67) points out that knowledge of the kind of research a researcher
is doing, that is, whether inductive or deductive, is crucial to determine the
nature of the research, as well as how theories are used in the research.
Inductive reasoning moves from the specific to the general. It starts with a set
of specific observations and moves to a general set of propositions about the
observations under study. The inductive approach therefore collects data,
analyses patterns in the data, and theorises from the data (Blackstone, 2012:
41; Babbie, 2010: 22). Babbie however indicates that the inductive approach
does not fully explain the reason for the existence of the pattern. Meaning it
does not answer the “why” (Babbi, 2010: 22).
Figure 2.1: Inductive Reasoning (adapted from Blackstone 2012)
The deductive method on the other hand moves from a more specific approach
to the specific, sometimes known as the “top-down” approach. The deductive
approach usually starts with a social theory about a topic of interest which is
then narrowed to a more specific hypothesis that can be tested. The approach
therefore develops hypotheses based on a theory, collects data that can be
used to test the hypotheses, and assesses whether the data collected supports
the hypotheses (Blackstone, 2012: 43: Babbie, 2010: 23; Trochim, 2006).
Figure 2.2: Deductive reasoning (adapted from Blackstone, 2012)
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The inductive method tends to be open-ended and exploratory at the initial
stages while deductive reasoning tends to be narrow focused in nature and
concerns itself with testing or confirming hypotheses. Unlike the inductive
approach, the deductive approach moves from the “why” to the “whether”, that
is, seeking confirmation. Blackstone (2012: 44) indicates that regardless of the
seemingly different approaches to research, inductive and deductive
reasoning can complement each other. The two can be seen as a circular form
where one leads to the other, what Bhattarcherjee (2012: 3) refers to as “two
halves of the research cycle that constantly iterates between theory and
observations” (Figure 2.3). Due to the exploratory nature of this study,
inductive reasoning is essential in examining the applicable theories to
establish how PR is practiced among the organisations studied whereas
deductive reasoning is essential in testing concepts and patterns that are
known from theory using empirical data. Roux (2010: 69) points out that used
together, deductive and inductive reasoning means that the theory used
serves as a guideline and framework in the study “but not as the boundaries
within which results should be fit.” The following figure illustrates the
complimentary nature of inductive and deductive reasoning
Figure 2.3: The cycle of research (adapted from Bhattarcherjee, 2012)
2.2.3.2. General excellence theory as a metatheory
In reviewing the Excellence Theory, the researcher realises the importance of the
theory to this study. One of the key elements of this study is to determine how PR is
practiced in the financial services sector. Dozier, Grunig and Grunig (1995: 4), based
on their study, conclude that excellent PR is universal across countries regardless of
the industry or type of organisation one works with. The authors point out that
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communication excellence consist of knowledge or expertise that is beyond any
public, organisational division or unit, industry, organisational type, or national setting.
In view of this and due to the little available literature on how PR is practiced in Africa,
and especially in Ghana, the Excellence study provides the right meta-theoretical
foundation on which to base this research. Le Roux (2010: 69) postulates that the
Excellence Theory describes the characteristics of the PR practitioner and the
organisational culture that the PR practitioner needs to practice excellent PR and be
able to contribute to organisational performance.
The Excellence Theory is one of the most discussed and critiqued theories in PR.
Laskin (2009: 37) considers it the most dominant theoretical perspective in the field of
PR. A number of publications have indeed tried to show a link between effective
organisations and what is called excellent PR (Kent & Taylor, 2006: 10). Sallot, Lyon,
Acosta-Alzuru and Jones (2003: 51) also suggest that the theory has “the largest
share” of theory building in PR. Browning (2010: 1) calls it the “most dominant and
influential paradigm in PR theory.” The Excellence Theory is an essential and defining
statement of what constitutes effective PR in an organisation. The theory was a result
of a 15 year study by Grunig, Grunig and Dozier (Grunig, 2008: 1620) to determine
the features of what they called ‘excellent communications’ and of the organisations
that engage in excellent PR. The theory discusses how PR contributes to
organisational effectiveness, its organisation and management, environmental
conditions within an organisation that makes the organisation more effective, and how
organisations determine the monetary value of PR (Grunig, 2008: 1620). The theory
attempts to explain the role of the communication manager in the dominant coalition.
It presupposes that a communication/PR manager can contribute to the overall
effectiveness of an organisation by being part of the dominant coalition; That is, PR
can be part of the planning and decision-making process (a management function)
and play a key role in ensuring the organisation achieves its set objectives (Heath &
Coombs, 2006: 199). When PR is practiced as a management function, it can be used
by the various departments within the organisation, such as the legal team, to help
advise the organisation on important decisions. Practitioners are empowered to
engage in symmetric (two-way) communication rather than one-way messaging. The
Excellence Theory is an amalgamation of a number of theories including the four
models of PR identified by Grunig and Hunt in their earlier studies and is based around
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the Systems Theory (Waterman, 2012: 1). The Excellence Theory is considered as an
integration of strategic management theories of PR into a greater whole and seeks to
address the question: How, why and to what extent does communication contribute to
the achievement of organisational objectives and what are the characteristics of a PR
function that are most likely to make an organisation effective? Again, they sought to
answer what they called the excellent question: How must PR be practiced and the
communication function organised for it to contribute most to organisational
effectiveness? (Grunig, Grunig & Dozier, 2002: 24; Grunig, 1992: 5). At its core, the
Excellence Theory attempts “to build good long-term relationships with strategic
publics” (Grunig, Grunig & Dozier, 2002: 57), but for this to occur, PR must be
practiced in an excellent way. Bowen (2013: 323) notes that the main objective of the
Excellence Theory is to provide understanding of how PR as a management function
can contribute effectively to the planning and response processes necessary for
organisational effectiveness. This contribution has monetary value for the organisation
(Grunig, Grunig & Dozier, 2002).
Public relations contributes to organizational effectiveness when it helps
reconcile the organisation’s goals with the expectations of its strategic
constituencies. This contribution has monetary value to the organisation.
Public relations contributes to effectiveness by building quality, and long-
term relationships with strategic constituencies. Public relations is most
likely to contribute to effectiveness when the senior public relations
manager is a member of the dominant coalition where he or she is able
to shape the organisation’s goals and to help determine which external
publics are most strategic. (p. 10)
PR, thus achieves excellence when it facilitates the reconciliation of the organisation’s
goals with the expectations of key stakeholders (Franklin et al 2009: 83). Grunig,
Grunig and Dozier (2006: 24-50) categorised the theory into four levels:
Organisational level: At this level PR must be recognised as a management
function. That is, it must be part of the dominant coalition that takes decisions
for and on behalf of the organisation. PR practitioners must report directly to
the senior-most person in the organisation. This allows the practitioner to
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develop strategies and programmes that truly reflect two-way symmetric
communication.
Programme level: PR programmes should be strategic in nature in order to
meet objectives.
Societal level: Organisations should realise their impact on other organisations
and stakeholders. This means they must be socially responsible.
Functional level: PR is seen as an integrated function not sublimated to any
other department, including marketing, and reporting to senior management.
When this happens, the organisation is less likely to focus on long-term
relationship with its constituents and likely to engage in asymmetrical
communication.
Excellent communication is therefore deliberate and proactive in its activities and is
backed by research (Waters, 2013: 69). When practitioners are allowed to practice
proactive PR (as a management function) they are more likely to engage with
stakeholders to the benefit of the organisation. For example, clients of the financial
services can send feedback about the activities of the institutions. The practitioner then
sends the feedback to the dominant coalition and helps them make a decision that
serves everyone’s interest. Waters (2013: 70) cites an example where American
owners of football teams in the UK who employed excellent communication had more
hospitable reception from fans than those who did not. What this means is that
organisations that employ the excellence principles are in a better position to achieve
effectiveness compared to those who employ the asymmetric position. Van Heerden
(2004: 5) states that the ability of PR in contributing to organisational effectiveness is
premised on the concepts of autonomy, interdependence, and relationships. So for
organisations to be effective they must be able to adapt, cooperate, and interact with
groups capable of limiting their autonomy. She concludes by asserting that
organisations that have good relationships ultimately become more effective due to
their high level of freedom and autonomy. The core duty of PR is therefore to build
relationships and manage interdependence.
The Excellence Theory shows the value of PR to organisational effectiveness. The
quality of relationship between an organisation and its internal and external
environment is based on their level of interaction and how they view each other.
Organisations must be able to solve problems and satisfy the needs of stakeholders
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as well as management. Failure to do this could result in stakeholders putting pressure
on the organisation to change or oppose it in ways that add cost and risk to policies
and decisions (Grunig, 2008: 1620). Positive relationships are therefore crucial to
organisations as they reduce cost of litigation, regulation, legislation, and negative
publicity caused by poor relationships, reduce the risk of making decisions that affect
different stakeholders, or increase revenue by providing products and services needed
by stakeholders (Grunig, 2008). PR involvement in strategic management empowers
them to develop strategies that strengthen the relationship between the organisation
and its stakeholders.
The excellence study itself, like any dominant theory, has been subjected to critical
examination with diverse opinion regarding its usefulness, particularly in different
settings and among organisations with self-interest. The excellence study tends to
follow the same principle as two-way symmetrical communication which is regarded
as ethical and the best way to practice PR. Critics such as L’Etang (2006) describe it
as a misrepresentation of the reality of the communication process in organisations
where the practice of PR is influenced by the interest of the organisation. Cheney and
Christensen (2001: 181) also suggest that the theory be used with caution as it is
nothing more than ‘self-reports’ by managers. They argue that symmetric
communication, as postulated by Grunig, does not consider the various systems of
power and influence that shape PR practices. After critically analysing the theoretical
foundations for systems theories and the Excellence Theory, Pieczka (2006)
concluded that much as the theory has a good foundation, it was nevertheless filled
with many contradictions. For instance, although two-way symmetrical
communication is based on open dialogue and negotiation, practitioners can however
only be effective when they are part of the dominant coalition. She also argues that
the research questions that defined the theory and established effective PR in terms
of benefits resulted in a ‘self-fulfilling prophecy’ that presents two-way dialogue as the
best. Meaning, organisations that do not subscribe to two-way communication have
failed; a situation that is not acceptable especially when dealing with stakeholders in
environments where the culture greatly influences the nature of PR practice. The
idealistic nature of the Excellence Theory was not lost on Larissa Grunig when she
admitted to the likely elusive nature of two-way symmetrical communication during
the PRSA conference in 2010:
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The interactive nature of the social media, of the digital media, makes it
more possible than it was in the 60s or 70s or 80s or 90s or even 2000
to have a two-way balanced dialogue with the public. Before that, we
always talked about the importance of symmetrical balanced
communication but try to find any organizations that did this successfully
(L. Grunig & J. Grunig, 2011: 43).
This appears to support Macnamara’s (2009: 11) view that despite the rapid growth
of social media as a medium of interactive communication, key areas of PR practices
still remain firmly in a control paradigm that is focused on one-way, top-down
monologue. Browning (2010: 126) admits that the Excellence Theory does have its
strengths but still casts doubt on its efficacy and therefore rejected the idea of the
theory as the best model for PR practice. Larskin (2012: 365) also called it an
unrealistic utopia and normative and hence misleading in its principles. Kenny (2016:
87-88) reviewed the diverse criticisms of the theory and concluded that the theory
extends corporate capitalism selectively through globalisation, thereby perpetuating
inequalities of power. This occurs through the imposition of mono-cultural and
normative management models hence devaluing national traditions, minorities, and
cultural differences while subjecting the well-being of society to corporate profitability.
These criticisms have certain things in common in that they view the theory as being
unrealistic, normative, and disregarding environmental variables, especially culture,
that influences how PR is actually practiced. It will be interesting to see if these
criticisms are valid within a culturally sensitive environment like Ghana, particularly in
the financial services sector.
2.2.4. Theories used for the study
This section will discuss the various theories used to support the aim of the study.
Theories predict how things happen by relating actions to events (Lattimore et al 2012:
51). Theories serve as the foundation to understand how PR is described and
practiced. It also provides a framework that allows practitioners to understand,
organise, and integrate the various activities and purposes of PR (Broom & Sha, 2012:
148). There is no one single theory that explains the practice of PR. Lattimore et al
(2012: 61) note that in making a decision about building successful relationships
practitioners tend to consider a number of theories. For the purpose of this research,
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the author has selected the following theories for discussion: The Systems Theory and
the Relationship Management Theory
2.2.4.1. Systems Theory
One of the dominant theories used to explain much of PR practice and other
disciplines is the Systems Theory. The theory has its roots in the biological approach
of Ludwig von Bertalanffy and emphasises the interconnectedness of the human body.
The systems approach is defined as “a system of interacting units that endures
through time within an established boundary by responding and adjusting to change
pressures from the environment to achieve and maintain goal states” (Broom & Sha,
2012: 151). This agrees with Ludwig’s (in Brooks and Walls, 2008) definition of
systems as “an entity which maintains its existence through the mutual interaction of
its parts.” Systems are “characterized by an assemblage or combination of parts
whose relations make them interdependent" (Scott & Jaffe, 1995). In adopting this
theory, Grunig and Hunt (1984: 8) defined a system/organisation as a ‘sub-system’
that affects each other and continuously interacts with the environment. Organisations
are therefore viewed as systems set up to achieve goals that benefit both the
organisation and its publics.
The theory states that organisations depend on their environments with which it has
an essential relationship. This system is defined by “mutual interaction”, meaning that
organisations must see interaction with their environments as key to their survival
(Bowen, Rawlins & Martin 2012; Gregory, 2000; Weaver, 2011: 253; Mehta & Xavier,
2009: 193; Gregory, 2006: 27). As the external environment changes, organisations
must also change by adapting and evolving. Lattimore et al (2012: 52) describe it as
a set of interrelated parts, adapting and adjusting to changes in the political, economic,
and social environments in which they operate. The systems theory provides a context
within which an organisation and its relationship with the environment are assessed.
In the view of Mehta and Xavier (2009: 193), the purpose of an organisation is to create
and achieve goals that will benefit both the organisation and the environment it
operates in. Such goals can consist of growth in profits and sales, gaining investor
confidence/support, improving employment ratio, creating new products, or a lower
carbon footprint (2009: 194). Grunig, Grunig and Dozier (2002: 93) assert that the
systems theory emphasises the interdependence of organisations within their own
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environments. What this means is that organisations are systems that depend highly
on their environment, both internally and externally, for essential elements, including
raw materials, employees who provide labour, stakeholders or clients who purchase
the services and so on. In the same way if the environment is to survive then it needs
the organisation to provide it with essential services.
The systems approach can be considered as either open (organismic and adaptive)
or closed (mechanistic). A closed system organisation uses only internal processes
and interaction and is not dependent on external environment. Closed systems are
oblivious to changes in the external environment and are not sensitive to any external
deviations. Broom and Sha (2012: 155) describe the boundaries of a closed system
as “impermeable”, that is, it does not allow the exchange of information with its
environment. Managers in closed organisations operate independent of environmental
forces (Plowman, 2013: 907). Open systems on the other hand tend to respond to
changes within the environment. Open system organisations do not rely on internal
processes and interaction alone but depend on other organisations/groups in the
external environment. Such systems are adaptive to the external environment and see
mutual interaction with the environment as key to survival. Organisations therefore
focus on shared meaning and mutual understanding. Katz and Kahn (in Bowen,
Rawlins & Martin, 2012: 50; Gregory, 2000: 267) state that an open system identifies
the behaviour of an organisation by “mapping the repeated cycles of input, throughput,
output, and feedback between an organisation and its publics.” Thus, movement of
one affects the movement of another in predictable fashion. Organisations receive
input from the environment either as information or in the form of resources and
process them internally. This is then released into the environment (output) in an
attempt to restore balance. Feedback is a key component of the open system as it
allows an organisation to determine the success or otherwise of their attempts to
maintain mutual understanding and make adjustment where necessary.
An organisation can therefore be described as open or closed depending on their level
of sensitivity to their environments. Consequently, systems that are closed operate
with a set of principles that meets goals and objectives while maintaining equilibrium,
while organisations that practice an open system are responsive to the environment
by adjusting and adapting as a means to maintain equilibrium. Organisations are part
of social systems consisting of individuals or groups. They exist by accepting inputs
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(identifying a problem with the publics), processing the information received
(throughput), and transforming the inputs into outputs (organisations respond by
sending messages to restore equilibrium). Organisations then receive feedback from
the environment and make the necessary adjustment. The response from the
environment determines whether the problem has been resolved. This concept of
feedback is linked to cybernetics: communication that helps a source to control a
receiver’s behaviour (Smith, 2011). Smith (2014: 15) uses the term “linkages” to
describe interaction between an organisation and its various publics. He identifies four
linkage patterns that an organisation’s publics can fit into: customers who use the
product or service, producers who make it, enablers who create supportive conditions,
and limiters who create negative conditions. Smith suggests that every public can fit
into one of the linkages. The application of the systems theory demonstrates the
importance of linkages between organisational departments and functions as well as
the interdependence of organisations as a whole, and key stakeholders (Warnaby &
Moss, 1997: 13).
2.2.4.1.1. Systems theory as applied to public relations
The systems approach provides a means by which PR practitioners can understand
the relationship between an organisation and its environments/publics as well as the
critical role that PR plays in an organisation. It attempts to explain how organisations
interact with their publics (internal and external) and how the interactions are
managed. Gregory (2004: 49) states that the systems theory serves as a tool for
understanding the theoretical underpinning that relates to PR roles in an organisation.
The theory stipulates that the well-being (or otherwise) of an organisation is largely
dependent on the relationship it has with its internal and external environment. Spicer
(1997: 57), in reviewing the definitions of PR, concludes that the modern
conceptualisation of PR emanates, intentionally or not, from a systems perspective. In
lieu of this he redefined PR as “an organisational function that helps a set of
interdependent organisational units which work together to adapt to a changing
environment.” Smith (2016) suggests many of the issues that PR practitioners deal
with are because of the closed systems approach that some organisations tend to use.
Such issues arise when organisations:
- do not adapt or seek to adapt within their environment.
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- do not hold themselves accountable to their publics and stakeholders.
- do not engage in transparent and/or timely communication.
- do not focus on customers and other publics.
However, an organisation is a social system that consists of individuals or groups,
including suppliers, local communities, employees, customers, and governments who
interact with it. This means that an organisation ought to operate an open system if it
wants to be effective. PR therefore takes the role of being the link between the
organisation and its environment thereby strengthening the relationship. PR in an open
system is considered proactive as it anticipates, scans and monitors, detects issues,
and initiates corrective measures.
Cutlip, Center and Broom (2000: 149) state that the role of a PR practitioner is simply
to help organisations adapt and adjust to changes in the organisation’s environment,
that is, by helping to achieve balance (homeostasis) between an organisation and its
publics. This is done in two ways: 1) by maintaining interdependence between the
organisation and its publics, 2) by monitoring the environment and alerting the
organisation of the need to adapt (proactive) or respond (reactive).
Plowman (2013: 907) argues that although closed systems operators believe they are
independent of external influences, they nevertheless have to cope with factors within
their environment, especially in an increasingly turbulent environment. This means that
closed systems can simply not ignore the environment. Plowman’s assertion agrees
with the views of McKee and Lamb (2009: 1) that no formal organisation is an island
and organisations who think of themselves as having all the necessary resources to
be on their own are too short sighted for success. Plowman concludes that the primary
link in sustaining the interdependence between an organisation and its environment is
PR.
In the application of the systems approach to PR, Grunig and Hunt (1984) suggest
that the press agentry model and public information is a reflection of the closed system.
Communication tends to be one-way, outward from an organisation’s stakeholders.
This is corroborated by Dozier (1990: 8) when he points out that PR has traditionally
functioned as though organisations were closed systems. Broom and Sha (2012: 159)
further disclose that PR practice is a closed system when organisations react to
situations rather than be proactive. PR programme planning and management are
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based on the closed system and are only activated when disturbed. Practitioners
concentrate on publicity or information spreading regardless of whether the outcome
is beneficial to the publics or the organisation (Gregory, 2000: 226). Bell and Bell (
cited in du Plessis 2000: 42), describe this type of PR practice as functionary. Such
practitioners “attempt to preserve and promote a favourable image of the organisation”
without considering the dynamics of changing the organisational environments
(Dozier, 1990: 8). du Plessis (2000: 42) is of the view that such practices exist even
today since some organisations still believe that publicity can be used as a measure
for determining success of a programme. Functionaries produce programmes that
tend to affect the environment instead of having a mutual effect. They however do not
participate in any decision making, neither are they part of the dominant coalition. A
functionary practitioner therefore performs the role of a technician whose primary
responsibility is to prepare and produce communications. Functional practitioners on
the other hand attempt to change both the organisation and the environment. There is
a process of adaptation in the relationship between the organisation and its publics on
the basis of reciprocal output-feedback adjustment.
Van Heerden (2004:39) states that the closed system forces the practitioner towards
a technical role whose primary responsibilities are implementing decisions made by
the dominant coalition. The purpose is to make communication output more effective
and not necessarily make changes within the environment (Cutlip, Center & Broom,
2000: 243). In the open systems approach, practitioners are concerned with inputs
received such as public opinion and information from a variety of publics,
communication and throughputs such as the internal communication process and
views of employees, and advise on and monitor the communication and reputation
outputs of the system (Mackay, 2009: 58). The output eventually shapes how the
organisation is viewed and rated by the external publics. McKee and Lamb (2009: 2)
put it succinctly when they say that PR can only be practiced effectively through an
open systems approach. That is to say, building mutually beneficial relationship based
on a balanced flow of information from, and to the organisation and its key publics
underlies the maintenance of an open system. An open system in PR is thus a
proactive effort.
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Within the systems theory, PR is seen as playing a boundary spanning role by serving
as a link between the organisation and the external stakeholders. This role is
considered critical for the PR professional as he is responsible for the provision of
information about the organisation to the environment as well as bringing information
about the environment back to the organisation. PR practitioners serve as the go-
betweens by interpreting the publics to management and vice versa. Through
consistent monitoring and scanning of the environment, with one foot in the
organisation and one foot outside, they are able to advise the ‘dominant coalition’
about issues or opportunities in the environment and assist the coalition in responding
effectively to these changes (Grunig & Hunt, 1984: 9). From the perspective of White
and Dozier (1992: 93), boundary spanners are "individuals within the organization who
frequently interact with the organization's environment and who gather, select, and
relay information from the environment to decision makers in the dominant coalition.”
Reddi (2009: 93) gives a simple description of boundary spanners as “exchange
agents between the organisation and its environment”, who perform three key
functions: information gathering, information processing, and information feeding of
the external environment. Practitioners play the management role in the open system
and are seen as part of the ‘dominant coalition’. Being part of management allows
practitioners to gather information about key stakeholders through the use of formal
and informal research techniques. Knowledge of key stakeholder opinions and
attitudes allow the practitioner to develop strategic plans that bridge the gap between
the organisation and its publics (Gregory, 2010: 7; Reddi, 2009: 93; Van Heerden,
2004: 39).
Cutlip, Center and Broom (2000: 243) are of the view that the application of the open
systems theory to PR means deliberate monitoring of the environment in order to
anticipate and detect changes that affect the relationship between the organisation
and its publics. This calls for practitioners to be sensitive to issues that affect publics.
This also means having the research skills to monitor publics, and other environmental
forces both within and outside of the organisation. Spicer (1997: 57) acknowledges
the importance of the theory to PR practice in three ways:
Previously organisations were much concerned with studying an organisation
by largely focusing on the internal workings of the organisation. Systems
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Theory moved this locus to a focus on the interdependence of an organisation
and its environment.
Systems Theory guides research and theorising in scientific communities. This
theory is very prominent in the PR definitions, and the understanding of the
concept is encapsulated by an emerging organisational view of the field through
the General Systems Theory (Grunig, 1992; Pavlik, 1987 in Spicer, 1997). PR
concepts such as boundary spanning activities and adaptation to the
environment reflect a General Systems Theory approach.
The systems Theory serves as a useful heuristic tool in assisting the PR
function to conceptualise the complex nature of organisational
interdependencies. It also provides a framework for thinking about aspects of
importance in understanding organisational PR decision-making and
effectiveness. This type of thinking provides individuals with an understanding
of the world as an interconnected whole.
Steyn (2001: 24) also indicates that the systems approach is ideal for developing the
‘strategist’ role. According to Steyn, various elements involved in the systems
approach, input, throughput, output, and feedback, bind the environment with the
organisation and this process is facilitated by the PR practitioner. Dozier (in Grunig,
1992: 352) indicates that the systems theory addresses the many roles played by the
PR practitioner. It allows practitioners to understand the need to adapt to an
increasingly unstable and threatening environment.
2.2.4.1.2. Linking the systems theory to the study
The financial services sector consists of organisations with communications
departments that are considered key to the success of the organisation. The work of
the PR department of such institutions will greatly influence the bigger system, i.e. the
organisation. Eventually, the activities of a practitioner will influence how financial
institutions are seen in general. This will in turn influence how the practice of PR in
other sectors is viewed. The level of interdependency between the financial institutions
and the organisation and the role that PR plays in the communication between the two
ultimately determines the kind of PR that is practiced in the financial sector and the
models used in this practice.
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2.2.4.2. Relationship management theory
As discussed earlier in the relational paradigm (2.2.2.2), ‘relationship’, at least from
the North American perspective, is at the core of PR (although this is disputed by the
Europeans in the raging debate as to whether PR is about communication or
relationship). Grunig (2015: xxiii) for instance argues that “relationships have always
been the elephant in the room for both public relations practice and theory.” Grunig
further argues that “in order to have the PR valued inside organisations, the PR
practitioners must be capable of demonstrating that their efforts are playing a part in
reaching the objectives of these organisations by building long-term behavioural
relationships with strategic publics” (1993: 138). Grunig accuses PR professionals and
scholars of being overly preoccupied with media portrayals, public opinion, image,
reputation, brand, and persuasion while failing to realise that PR provides value to
organisations, publics, and societies through relationships.
The sentiments of scholars such as James Grunig shows how strongly the concept of
PR as based on relationships with communication as a tool for promoting that
relationship is viewed. The theory reflects the growing concern in PR for managing the
relationship between an organisation and its publics (Heath & Coombs, 2006: 202).
Relationship management implies mutually beneficial relationships between an
organisation and its stakeholders, which are developed and expanded over time. This
is reflected in some of the definitions of PR. Ledingham (2003) for instance defined
PR as “the effective and efficient management of organizational-public relationships,
based on common interests and shared goals, over time, to engender mutual
understanding and mutual benefit” (2003: 184). Cutlip, Center and Broom (2000: 6)
described it as “the management function that establishes and maintains mutually
beneficial relationship between an organisation and the publics on whom its success
or failure depends.” Heath (2013: 781) describes the concept of relationship
management to mean steps involved in the management of the relationship between
the organisation and its publics for mutual benefits. The concept of relationship was
defined by Ledingham as “the state which exists between an organization and its key
publics in which the actions of either can impact the economic, social, cultural, or
political well-being of the other” (2003: 184). PR is therefore used as a strategic
resource to manage relationships with communication as a tool. The quality of the
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relationship is used as a measure to determine the success or failure of PR (Heath,
2013: 558).
The idea of linking PR to relationship management is not a new thing. Ferguson (in
Chandler, 2014; Grunig, 2015: xxiii) in 1984 became the first scholar to advocate for
PR theory based on relationships rather than the organisation, the publics, or the
communication process. Since then, it has been the subject of PR research among
various scholars (Broom, Casey & Ritchey, 2000, Ledingham & Bruning, 2000; Hon &
Grunig, 1999; Grunig, 1992; Ehling, 1992; Broom & Dozier, 1990).
The concept of relationship is based on exchange that must benefit both sides if it is
to be maintained. Communication is used as a ‘strategic management function’ to
manage the relationship with key publics that affect the mission, goals, and objectives
of the organisation (Dozier, 1995: 85). Heath and Coombs (2006: 202) articulate that
the theory emanated from four key developments in PR: i) realisation that public
relationships are central to PR, ii) view of PR as a management function, iii) the
identification of key dimensions of the organisational-public relationship, and iv)
construction of models of the organisational-public relationship. By focusing on
relationship as the domain of PR, PR is not seen solely for its strategic functions, but
as an essential tool for building and maintaining mutually beneficial relationships with
publics who are instrumental in the achievement of the organisation’s goals.
Ledingham measured relationships based on three categories, namely interpersonal
relationship (personal interactions between the organisation’s representatives and the
public), professional (delivery of professional services to publics), and community
(support for community concerns) (2005: 741). Ledingham further identified 10
principles that, he says, should be used to build relationship: the essence of PR is
relationships, a successful relationship benefits the organisation and its publics, the
organisational-public relationship is dynamic, wants and needs drive the relationships,
effective relationships increase understanding between organisation and publics,
quality of relationship determines success or failure of organisational-public
management, communication is a strategic tool in relationship management,
relationship is influenced by relational history, nature of interactions, frequency of
exchange, and reciprocity, relationships are based on categorisation, and relationship
building is applicable to all aspects of PR (2005: 742-743).
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Grunig (2002: 1) suggests that relationships need to be measured as a means of
establishing the value and status of PR in management science literature. Grunig
(2002: 1) believes that organisations must test the health of relationships to
demonstrate the value of PR as a management function. However, this is not simple
as there is no single indicator for measuring OPR. Ledingham and Bruning (2000: 67)
therefore suggested the “need to develop a scale that includes several measures of
each of the relationship dimensions to ensure greater reliability.” Broom et al (1997:
95) also state that “to truly measure the properties of relationships, researchers must
develop relationships as phenomena distinct from the perception held by parties in the
relationships.”
Ferguson (in Jo, 2003) suggested a number of categories to measure OPR: dynamic
versus closed, open versus closed, mutual satisfaction, distribution of power and
mutual understanding, agreement, and consensus. Grunig and Ehling (1992:83)
suggested reciprocity, trust, credibility, mutual legitimacy openness, mutual
satisfaction, and mutual understanding, while Ledingham, Bruning, Thomlison and
Lesko (1997), after a review of extensive literature from various disciplines, came up
with 17 indicators for measuring OPR: investment, commitment, trust, comfort with
relational dialectics, cooperation, mutual goals, interdependence, power imbalance,
performance satisfaction, comparison level of the alternatives, adaptation, non-
retrievable investment, shared technology, summate constructs, structural bonds,
social bonds, intimacy, and passion. Ledingham and Bruning (in Jo, 2003: 18)
subsequently provided five OPR indicators: open communication, the level of trust, the
level of involvement, investment in the communities, and long-term commitment.
Huang (1997) proposed four key indicators for measuring relationships between
organisations and their publics: trust, control mutuality, relational commitment, and
relational satisfaction. Huang (2001) later included cultural elements of face and
favour. Hon and Grunig (in Hung-Beseacke & Chen, 2013) developed two indicators
which they added to the indicators developed by Huang: communal and exchange
relationships. Hon and J. Grunig’s (1999) measurement indicators have been adopted
in various studies on OPR (Ni, 2009; Ki & Hon, 2007; Hung, 2006, 2002; Hon &
Brunner, 2002; Brunner, 2000).
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The measurement of OPR is summarised in the table below:
Table: 2.2. Frameworks for organisational-public relationship measurement
Author(s) Relationship dimensions Sample and organisational-public setting
Ferguson, 1984 Dynamic versus static, open versus closed, mutual satisfaction, distribution of power, mutual understanding, mutual agreement
J. Grunig & Ehling
Reciprocity, trust, credibility, mutual legitimacy, openness, mutual satisfaction, and mutual understanding
Huang, 1997 Trust, control mutuality, relational commitment, relational satisfaction
311 legislative members and their assistants, 16 items (1997)
Ledingham & Bruning, 1988
Openness, trust, involvement, investment, commitment
384 residential telephone subscribers, 91 items (1998)
Hon & J. Grunig, 1999
Trust, control mutuality, commitment, satisfaction, communal relationships, exchange relationships
200 online users with 52 items (1999)
J. Grunig & Huang, 2000
Trust, control mutuality, commitment, satisfaction
311 legislative members and their assistants, 16 items (1997)
Huang, 2001 Trust, control mutuality, commitment, satisfaction, face and favour
1st stage: 311 legislative members and their assistants, 16 items (1997) 2nd stage: 235 public relations practitioners from Executive Yuan in Taiwan, 21 items
Kim, 2001 Trust, commitment, local and community involvement, reputation
1st stage: 160 undergraduate students, 58 items 2nd stage: 102 community residents, 16 items 3rd stage: 157 customers of online company, 16 items
Adapted from S. Jo (2003): Measurement of organization-public relationships: validation of measurement using a manufacturer-retailer relationship.
The relationship theory has been applied to various studies in PR including crisis
management, customer-service providers, and symbolic and behavioural influences
of employee volunteerism, relationship cultivation and maintenance, and its effects on
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an organisation’s reputation (Brønn, 2007; Ki & Hon, 2006; Hung, 2006, 2004; Rhee,
2004; Coombs, 2000; Wilson, 2000; Ledingham & Bruning, 2001, 1998). Studies
(Coombs, 2000; Kim & Lee, 2005; Park & Reber, 2011, in Hung Beseack & Chen,
2013: 227) show that a “positive OPR plays a significant role in an organisation’s
reputation during the time of a crisis.” Huang (2008) concludes that OPR can be
regarded as a subjective reality, objective reality, or both. Perception of relationship
will therefore affect how a specific incident or event that an organisation experiences
is perceived.
2.2.4.2.1 Linking the relationship management theory to the study
PR practiced in the financial services sector is mostly based on maintaining
relationship with clients/publics. In the financial services sector, especially the banks,
relationships are considered very important. The organisations within this sector have
relationship managers whose duties, among other things, primarily include satisfying
the needs of the publics and thereby maintaining existing relationships. The
Relationship Management Theory is significant to this study as it enables PR
practitioners to show their value to the organisation by managing and measuring
relationships. The practitioner is therefore at the centre of the OPR.
2.2.5. Public relations as practiced in the financial services sector
A review of available literature shows there is a lack of publication in as far as PR and
communications management in the financial services sector is concerned. The few
available studies focus on the banking industry. Africa is once again missing in this
area of discussion as there appears to very little or no discussion of PR practice in the
financial services sector. This feeds into assertions by scholars such as Skinner
(2011), Rensburg and Van Heerden (2005) that the attempt to develop a common
body of knowledge, especially a global model, on the practice of PR cannot be fully
appreciated until it is linked with how the profession is practiced in other cultures such
as Africa. If a country such as Ghana is to catch up with other countries on the
continent, especially South Africa, which has contributed so much to the body of
knowledge with regards to PR in Africa, there will be the need to assess how the
profession is practiced, what models practitioners use, and the various variables that
inform the practice of PR. Ghana clearly lags behind, both at the academic and
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professional level, in the attempt by Africa to contribute to the global discussion on
developing a common framework that can be applied to all countries in as far as PR
and communications management is concerned.
Several factors since the beginning of the 21st century, including the global economic
scandals, the highly competitive environment, and trust issues, have greatly shaped
the financial services industry. Sahin (2015) points to the intersection of four industry-
specific dynamics that pose a challenge to communication within the financial services
sector: lack of trust in financial institutions due to the financial crisis, the conservative
nature of the industry, the importance of trust and relationships in transactions, and
the ever-increasing oversight from policymakers and regulators. Moreover, studies
across several countries show trust and a good reputation remain major issues in the
financial sector (De Chernatony & Cottam, 2006; Breton & Cote, 2006; Hall, 2005).
These studies found that the financial sector has been unable to strategically manage
its relationship with its key publics. The financial sector has therefore become sensitive
to its current outlook and adjusted the way it approaches business as a means of
invigorating its adaptation to the business environment and in so doing enhance its
relationship with its stakeholders (García & Garraza, 2010: 180).
PR on the other hand is considered a key tool in influencing stakeholder views of an
organisation and successfully promoting organisational goals. Sandin and Simolin
(2006: 11) articulate that the nature of the financial sector means that credibility and
trust cannot be taken for granted and this is often reflected in extensive PR activities
engaged in as a means of monitoring and managing reputation. PR plays an essential
role in the financial sector as it provides the opportunity for organisations to interact
with their publics. Simply put, PR functions within service firms such as the financial
firms are perceived as relationship functions. García and Gazarra (2010: 196)
acknowledge the inseparable nature of strategic communication and organisational
excellence. They found that organisations within the financial sector are now operating
with a more “inclusive” policy. The authors conclude that communication plays a key
internal role in an ‘inclusive’ process thus ensuring that decisions made are based on
empirical data gathered through research from both the internal and external
environment. simply put, financial organisations are now practicing two-way
symmetrical communication with the intention of achieving trust and influencing
reputation with key publics. Sandin and Simolin (2006: 59) found that Swedish banks
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do not identify their activities as PR but nevertheless utilise it highly. The activities of
these banks are primarily aimed at building and maintaining relationships. Most
importantly PR is seen as crucial to the success of the organisations and is thus placed
at the top management level. This conforms to Grunig’s belief that PR should be part
of strategic management. Uduji (2013: 76) is also of the opinion that PR in the financial
sector has two main objectives: firstly, to establish and secure mutual understanding
and cooperation with three essential sections of the public - customers, shareholders,
and employees, and secondly, to promote the services and products of the institution
in a highly competitive business environment. This calls for PR professionals in the
financial services sector to be creative and engaging in an environment that
traditionally does not allow such a thing (Sahin, 2015).
From the above submission, it is clear that PR play a crucial role in the financial
services sector. PR promotes the activities of the organisation while building the
reputation of the organisation. Its role in ensuring restoration of confidence and trust
is essential if the financial sector is to survive the turmoil it currently finds itself in,
especially in the aftermath of the financial crisis.
2.3. SUMMARY
This chapter discussed the theoretical conceptualisations that underpin the practice of
PR including a variety of issues such as some of the worldviews that conceptualise
PR practice. The discussion started by looking at the attempt to develop a global model
that captures how PR is practiced across cultures and the seeming difficulties
associated with the discussions. One of the key issues discussed in the chapter was
the concept of worldviews and paradigms. A myriad of definitions were examined and
the differences/argument for or against clearly delineated. The argument as to whether
the term ‘worldview’ and ‘paradigm’ were the same or different was also discussed.
After a review of the various arguments, the researcher concluded that the two
concepts appear to mean the same thing although some authors agree that
‘worldview’ is a higher concept or a bigger umbrella under which paradigms exist. The
chapter also discussed the meta-theory and theories as applicable to the study.
Most of the worldviews looked at were based on western perspectives which, some
believe, might not work in different cultures such as Africa. In lieu of this the chapter
discussed what is termed the ‘African worldview’, which is strongly linked with the
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concept of Africans as social beings. The African worldview, as the discussion
showed, is premised on the philosophy of ‘Ubuntu’, which emphasises communalism
and collectivism rather than individualism and individual rights, which is more akin to
that of Europe and America. The business environment in Africa is greatly influenced
by societal values and influences and this cannot be ignored in the effort to understand
the factors that influence PR practice on the continent. The discussion on worldviews
was concluded with a look at the seeming similarities between the African worldview
and the symmetrical worldview/paradigm. The chapter discussed three key
paradigms: relational, reflective, and two-way symmetrical and concluded with a
discussion on the general Excellence Theory as a meta-theory.
Two main theories which served as the foundation for the study were outlined in this
chapter. The researcher first discussed the systems theory which deals with the
interdependence and interconnectedness of an organisation and its internal and
external environment. Here PR was viewed as part of a general subsystem that links
the organisation to its environment. PR was seen as playing a crucial role in how an
organisation is effectively run. The theory allows practitioners to understand the
relationship between an organisation and its environment and thus practitioners are
able to fashion the appropriate strategies to maintain the mutual link between the
organisation and its environment. The relationship management theory on the other
hand shows how PR thrives on relationship building. The theory posits that PR is about
maintaining a mutually beneficial relationship between an organisation and its publics.
Relationship building is however facilitated by communication. When PR is practiced
based on relationship, it drives business success.
The chapter concludes with a look at PR as practiced within the financial services
sector. Here the lack of literature on PR practice in Africa, Ghana and the sector were
clearly outlined. It was realised that the few research studies in this area focused
mainly on the banking sector, although there are other organisations within the sector
such as insurance, micro-finance etc. This calls for a broader discussion in order to
improve the body of knowledge in some of these areas, especially at a time when the
financial services sector is facing an issue of trust and good reputation as a result of
the economic crisis. PR does, however, play a critical role in managing the reputation
and increasing trust of customers in a sector that is riddled with suspicion, credibility
issues, and mistrust.
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The next chapter will examine the historical development and practice of PR and how
it shapes the practice as it is seen today. A variety of perspectives will be discussed
including the North American perspectives and the European perspectives. The
discussion will then look at the practice of the profession in terms of the roles (with a
focus on the technician and managerial roles) and conclude with an examination of
the development of the practice in Africa and Ghana in particular.
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CHAPTER THREE
DEVELOPMENT AND PRACTICE OF PUBLIC RELATIONS
3.1. INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this research is to investigate the practice of public relations (PR)
among selected corporate organisations in Ghana, especially in the financial services
sector. The research seeks to determine the models and roles that underpin the
practice of PR. The result will lead to the development of a framework that will guide
the practice of PR in the financial services sector. To develop an effective framework
that guides the practice of PR, it will be essential to recognise how modern PR
developed. The content of this chapter is based on the second part of the first research
objective, which is to investigate how PR is practiced by means of literature review.
The discussion will be in two phases. The first phase will focus on the historical
development of PR from three perspectives, namely the North America, European and
African perspectives. The second phase will examine the practice of PR from the
models and roles perspectives. The practice of PR in these three continents differs
due to a number of factors and these will be explored. In Africa in particular, one of
the key elements that shape Africans is their culture. Since the cultural environment
affects the overall behaviour of Africans, it cannot be delineated from the practice of
PR. In view of this, the chapter will explore how culture affects PR in Africa. The
chapter will then conclude by looking at the historical development of PR practice in
Ghana.
3.2. ORIGIN OF PUBLIC RELATIONS
Much has been written about the origin of PR. Van Heerden (2004:51) suggests a
disagreement among scholars on the exact origin of PR. Butterick (2011:8) also
points to the lack of a single history of PR’s development worldwide but a
conglomeration of different and unrelated PR histories. Butterick further suggests that
the fact that most of the research on the history and development of PR was
conducted in USA is problematic as one cannot rely or make conclusions on the
history of PR that is concentrated on a single country. Again, focusing on the history
and development of PR from one country could result in the belief that PR can be
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practiced in one way with one set of values while ignoring the contributions of other
countries, cultures, and traditions.
Lubbe (in Ferreira, 2003: 147) is of the view that the history of PR can be viewed
from two perspectives; systems or structural. The systems perspective of PR history
focuses on the socio-economic development of a society while the structural
perspective views the history of PR from the era of professionalism, including the
formation of professional bodies, codes of conduct, accreditation etc. The history of
PR is thus viewed from two main perspectives, namely the systems approach, which
deals with the antecedent to PR development, and the structural approach, that is,
PR as practiced in contemporary times.
Literature shows a general agreement among scholars that modern PR practice has
its root in ancient civilisation. Cutlip et al (2000: 102) put it succinctly:
The communication of information to influence viewpoints or actions can
be traced from the earliest civilisations. Archaeologists found a farm
bulletin in Iraq that told the farmers of 1800 BC how to sow their crops,
how to irrigate. Public relations was used many centuries ago in England,
where king’s maintained Lord Chancellors as ‘keepers of the king’s
conscience.’
Lattimore et al (2004: 26) also suggest that the antecedent to PR started with public
speakers (or rhetoricians), press agents and other promoters. Their job consisted of
providing communication services, including serving as spokespersons for clients,
writing speeches, training clients in persuasive communication skills, and answering
challenging questions. Many other authors (Wilcox, Cameron & Reber, 2015; Heath,
2013; Edwards, 2009; Wilcox, 2006; Sriramesh & Verčič, 2009) have traced the history
of modern PR or the practice of using communication as a tool to influence public
opinion to the ancient empires of Persia, Egypt, Greece, Rome, and India. Heath
(2013: 29) for instance, postulates that the forerunner to modern PR was birthed out
of a plethora of historical activities and was associated with the concept of propaganda.
Historical events show that powerful institutions including governments, monarchs,
religious institutions, particularly the Catholic Church, tended to use communication
and information as a means of generating support for their cause or attract and keep
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faithful converts (Grunig & Hunt 1984; Cutlip et al 2000). Rhetoricians such as Plato
and Leontinium used persuasive skills to influence public opinion. These scholars
believed that the job of a rhetorician is to use persuasive skills to determine the truth
or otherwise of arguments and claims. Public opinion was very essential in the
determination of issues whether large or small in classical Athens (Lattimore et al 2004:
26). The authors further pointed to the actions of Lady Godiva, Martin Luther and the
reformations, and the adventures of conquistadores seeking El Dorado as examples
of PR activities. The creation of the Congregatio de Propaganda in the 17th century by
the Roman Catholic Church (the congregation for propagating the faith) is pointed to
as a crucial element in the development of PR.
Bernays and other historians also believed that the practice of modern professional PR
has always gone hand in hand with civilisation. For them, most of the events of the
past can be interpreted as PR. Although some societies mainly ruled through fear and
intimidation, others who were more advanced used the elements of discussion and
debates to try and achieve compromises. Scholars and rulers of ancient civilisation
including Sumeria, Babylonia, Assyria, and Persia, depended on poems and other
writings to promote their achievement in the field of battle and politics (Bates, 2002: 6).
Wilcox, Cameron and Reber (2015: 66) suggests that strategies and techniques such
as interpersonal communication, speeches, art, literature, staged events, and publicity
were used as a means of influencing public opinion and accepting authority of
governments and religion. Although the idea of PR had not developed then, these
actions were common to what is associated with modern PR today. Herodotus noted
that the Greeks curved messages on stones close to watering holes to demoralise the
Ionian fleet during the Persian wars. Alexander the Great also publicised his victories
on the battlefield by sending ‘glowing’ reports back to the Macedonian Court. The
Egyptian pharaohs used the Rosetta Stone, dating back to 196 B.C., to espouse their
achievements while ancient Olympic games were used as a channel to promote
athletes as heroes. In Ancient Rome, Julius Caesar is reported to have published a
book, Commentaries, which he used to further his ambitions to become the emperor
of the Roman Empire. Caesar published a daily paper Acta Diurna (‘Daily Acts’ or ‘Daily
records’), which were records of public proceedings as a means of influencing public
opinion. The history of PR is said to have strongly influenced the spread of Christianity
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at the height of the Roman Empire. This is reflected in the argument of Grunig and
Hunt (1984: 15):
The apostles Paul and Peter used speeches, letters, staged events, and
similar public relations activities to attract attention, gain followers, and
establish new churches. Similarly, the four gospels in the New
Testament, which were written at least 40 years after the death of Jesus,
were public relations documents, written more to propagate the faith than
to provide a historical account of Jesus’ life.
Grunig and Hunt suggest that the early apostles of the New Testament era used these
techniques as a form of “Christian Messianic Communication,” and as a result gained
followers, swayed opinions, and impacted their society greatly. This assertion is further
corroborated by Smith (2014: 40-43) who outlines the use of persuasive techniques by
various religious leaders, especially key players in the Old and New Testament era, to
influence public opinion. The statements by Grunig and Hunt as well as Smith show
that persuasive communication or PR then was mainly one way and based on the
press agentry and public information model. The desire to promote the cause of
Christianity and Jesus can be likened to the press agentry concept. Information passed
on was also believed to be an accurate description of events as witnessed and testified
to by the apostles. This is also a reflection of the information model, which, though
premised on accuracy, is still a one-way mode of communication. The four gospels for
example relied on interpretation and audience segmentation to present four different
versions of the same story to appeal to the interests, experiences and needs of four
different audiences. The idea was to increase interest in Jesus, garner more supporters
for the new religious movement and sustain morale and order in the church (Smith,
2014: 41). Clearly, these techniques reflect some of the current practices of today’s
PR.
From the brief description of the antecedent to modern PR history, it is obvious that
the concept of PR is not a new thing, as Lee (2009: 8) puts it: “the practice of using
communication to influence the public is hundreds of years old, with its roots in ancient
civilisation…” Heath (2013: 30) also adds that “Although lost in time or unknown
because of the limitations of travel, many roots of public relations were well established
by Persian kings and the kings and emperors of China, Japan, and Korea.” Heath
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further posits that these kings used refined pageantry, sponsorship of inventions,
poetry, announcements about agricultural advice and technology, and scholarship as
well as military displays to influence public opinion. PR is an essential part of human
communication and has influenced social, political, and economic situations. Smith
(2008) adds that the concept of PR has been a critical and natural part of society. Smith
further notes that PR has been part of different cultural and social settings and only
separated by miles and centuries. Smith (2008) concludes that social interactions, then
and now, contain elements of PR including information, persuasion, reconciliation and
cooperation. Literature therefore clearly shows that the idea of PR, although not named
as such then, was and still is, part of human society.
The brief discussion above shows that the antecedent of PR is rooted in history and
ancient civilisation. Indeed, there are many more examples that can be cited to show
that PR as it is today has its roots in ancient civilisation. However, that is not the focus
of this chapter. The discussion now focuses on the development of modern PR from
various perspectives.
3.2.1. North American development of public relations
Literature traces the origin of modern PR to the USA. Most of the publications on PR,
especially on the history of the profession have come from American scholars (Cutlip
et al 2000; Center et al 2015; Butterick, 2011; Seitel, 2007; Grunig & Hunt, 1984).
L’Etang (2008a: 328) however, decries the tendency of American scholars to
constantly assume that PR was developed in the USA and later transferred to other
countries. The focus of the history from the American perspective is seen mostly
through the works of key institutions and figures such as Ivy Lee, P.T. Barnum and
Edward Bernays, who are deemed crucial in shaping the definition and practice of PR
today (Lee, 2009: 9). Literature links the history of PR in America to the early days of
the colonial settlements. Publicity and PR techniques were used to attract settlers and
promote various institutions. Harvard College is reputed to have established the first
systemic fundraising campaign by designing a fundraising brochure and sending
representatives to England to raise funds. Between 1745 and 1775 other colleges
similarly used promotional brochures, special events, lotteries, and cultivated wealthy
donors as a means of raising funds (Wilcox et al 2015: 69; Lattimore et al 2004: 26).
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The widespread use of PR in the US was however felt in politics during the American
War of Independence. A number of strategies including events, agenda setting (mainly
premised on the promotion of particular topics in an attempt to influence issues the
media covered), oratory, pamphlets, slogans, symbols, meetings and development of
long term campaigns, were used to incite the citizens against British rule. These
included Samuel Adams, Tom Paine, Benjamin Franklin and Adams Hamilton. Adams,
for instance, was labelled as the great press agent of the American Revolution (Wilcox
et al 2015: 69; Bates, 2006: 7). The 1800s consequently saw PR as a viable profession
mainly dominated by press agentry and political communication (Pritchard, Ahles &
Bardin, 2005: 421). Newsom, Turk and Kruckeberg (2013: 23-44) divide the history of
PR in the USA into five main stages:
Table 3.1. Stages of PR development in the United States
Stages of PR in USA PR historical highlights in USA
Stages 1: Preliminary development of channels of communication Development of PR tactics such as publicity, promotion, press agentry
1600 -1799 Initial colonisation American Revolution
Stage 2: Communication/initiating Era of publicists, press agents, promoters, propagandists
1800 – 1899 Civil War Western expansion Industrial revolution
Stage 3: Reacting/preventing Writers hired as spokespersons PR organised on behalf of people with special interest
1900 - 1939 PR in a progressive era Muckrakers World War I Era of depression
Stage 4: Planning/preventing PR reaches maturity Incorporated as a management function
1940 - 1979 Period of World War II Cold War of the 1950s Consumer movements
Stage 5: Professionalism Control over use and practice of PR on an international level Development of a body of knowledge, code of ethics, PR education
1980 - present Professionalism Global communication
Source: Newsom, Turk & Kruckeberg (2013: 28)
As the table above illustrates, Newsom et al (2013) attributes the beginning of PR to
the early years of American colonisation as well as during the American Revolution.
various communication tactics such as publicity, newsletters, newspapers, heroes,
slogans, rhetoric, rallies, parades, brochures etc. were used to promote the fight for
independence and the revolution (2013: 27-28). The period between 1800 and 1899
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was referred to as the era of press agentry and publicity. This period saw the use of
PR as a political tool by the American government and activists to sway public opinion.
Propaganda increased during this period and publicists such as Amos Kendall wrote
speeches and pamphlets, prepared strategies, conducted polls, and advised the then
American president, Andrew Jackson, on his public image. The 1850s also saw the
use of polling by activists for strategic planning and publicity. PR was used in political
campaigns and political activists made use of newspapers, pamphlets, fliers, and
campaign press bureaus in political campaigns. Agitators also used publicity to help
change the thinking of the American people. They appealed to public sentiments, got
newspapers to endorse their efforts, formed editorial alliances to extend the reach of
their messages and give them credibility and prestige. The era of the Civil War
witnessed what became known as the fund drive, a practice where PR was used to
raise funds for military purposes. PR was used in the development of the USA as
various activists engaged in publicity techniques to sell lands in the western part of
America. This also coincided with the development of industry as technological
advancement led to the Industrial Revolution. But it was not just in the business
environment that PR manifested itself; the entertainment industry was also influenced
by publicity stunts. PR tactics and techniques started progressing from the 1900s to
the late 1930s. Organisations hired people, most of whom were journalists, to be their
spokespersons while press bureaus were established by various governments mainly
to engage in propaganda, especially during the World War 1 (WWI). PR was used to
influence public opinion, especially by a number of US presidents.
Newsom et al (2013: 37-44) further note that PR reached its maturity during the 1940s.
PR grew and became a management function.It was used extensively during World
War II (WWII) and unlike in WWI, PR this time was more sophisticated, well-
coordinated and integrated. PR is believed to have developed into a fully-fledged
profession during WWII. The first school of public relations was established during this
time. The growth of consumer scepticism in the 1960s also coincided with the growth
of PR. the tactics and techniques were refined to gain credibility. This period also saw
the influx of women into the profession. The final stage, as outlined by Newsom et al
was the era of professionalism. This period was known as the era of global
communication. This period realised acquisition of PR firms and mergers of PR and
advertising agencies. These agencies expanded their operations into other countries
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largely due to globalisation. PR expanded as the techniques and tactics continued to
be shaped by efforts to engage in mutual understanding between organisations and
stakeholders. The advancement of ICT presented new opportunities as well as
challenges for practitioners. PR practice became more scientific as associations
engaged in various research studies in the effort to improve the practice and give
further legitimacy to the profession. Efforts to improve the body of knowledge increased
tremendously as PR became more ethical and socially responsible. The number of
universities offering courses in PR also increased worldwide. The authors conclude by
acknowledging the continuing and increasing sophistication of PR practice across the
world.
Aranoff and Baskin (in Ferreira, 2003: 148) also divided the historical development of
PR in USA into three major phases: Manipulation - this was mostly associated with
press agent techniques of the 19th century; Information - this era was characterised by
numerous publicity activities at the beginning of the 20th century, and Mutual influence
and understanding - PR was categorised as a management function in its modern form.
The most popular of these stages however comes from the publication of Grunig and
Hunt’s famous book Managing Public Relations in 1984. Grunig and Hunt (1984)
identified four stages in the development of PR in the USA: Press agentry/publicity,
public information, two-way asymmetric communications, and two-way symmetric
communications.
The emergence of Ivy Ledbetter Lee shaped the way PR was practiced. Lee helped in
the development of the many techniques and principles that still shape the practice
today. Lee believed that communication with the media must be transparent as he felt
that good publicity was key to understanding good corporate performance. Lee argued
that if organisations are to positively influence public opinion it was important for these
organisations to build bridges with the public. Lee was of the view that the key to
winning public support was to be honest, accurate, and open, which he formalised in
his famous Declaration of Principles in 1906. Part of the Declaration read:
In brief, our plan is, frankly and openly, on behalf of the business
concerns and public institutions, to supply to the press and public of the
United States prompt and accurate information concerning subjects
which it is of value and interest to the public to know about.”
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Lee therefore sought to establish publicity as based on openness and honesty. Public
information based on transparency is likely to endear organisations, which were facing
harsh public opinion due to their perceived negative behaviour, to positive public
reviews. The declaration meant that a positive reputation can only be gained by
providing accurate information to those who need it. Seitel (2007) describes Lee as the
one who actually ushered in 21st century PR practice and hence should be regarded
as the founding father of 20th century PR.
The 1920s witnessed a shift from the practice of PR as publicity to a more scientific
approach. Edward Bernays, regarded by many as the father of modern PR, was one
of the key proponents of this new approach. Bernays, whose work was heavily
influenced by social psychology, emphasised on the idea of “scientific persuasion”.
Bernays argued that the development of PR campaigns and messages can only
achieve the purpose of shaping perception and influencing positive behaviour if backed
by scientific research and behavioural psychology. He posited that PR should be
viewed as an art with a scientific background. In 1923 Bernays wrote the very first book
on PR titled Crystallizing Public Opinion, which indicated the scope, function, methods,
techniques, and social responsibilities of a PR counsel. He suggested that the public
could be effectively persuaded if the messages of organisations supported the values
and interest of these publics. To Bernays, PR was more or less synonymous with
propaganda, which he referred to as “the conscious and intelligent manipulation of the
organised habits and opinions of the masses.” Bernays (in Wilcox et al 2015: 79)
defined PR as the “science of creating circumstances, mounting events that are
calculated to stand out as newsworthy, yet at the same time do not appear to be
staged.” Bernays wrote severally about the profession of PR and its ethical
responsibilities including advocating the need to licence PR counsellors thus earning
the description as “the first and doubtless the leading ideologist of public relations”.
Other pioneers who were known to have contributed immensely to the shaping of
public relations in the USA included Arthur Page, Franklin Roosevelt, Rex Harlow etc.
Lee and Bernays are nevertheless regarded as the most prominent pioneers in the
field of PR.
Whereas modern PR in America developed rapidly, the same cannot be said of how
the profession developed in other countries. In Europe attempts to codify the body of
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literature on PR did not occur till the late 1990s. The next section discusses the
development of PR from the European perspective.
3.2.2. Historical development of public relations in Europe
Nessman (1995: 152) suggests that PR in Europe (although the Europeans prefer the
term communication management) developed concurrently but independently of that
of the USA. Nessman however, concedes that many ideas on the professionalism of
PR and the practice in Europe had their roots in America. Unlike the USA, PR in Europe
developed slowly (Newsom et al 2000: 31). Verčič (2000: 342) attributes the
differences in the development of PR in the two continents to environmental and
economic differences that resulted from the two world wars. Several authors have
written about the development of PR in many European countries. L’Etang (2008: 319),
in reviewing the history of PR, suggests that development of PR theory has been
largely affected due to the fact that most historical analysis of PR tends to be premised
on the “four models” which is US biased. L’Etang contends that this is not appropriate
as models cannot be appropriately applied to cultures with different paths of historical
evolution. Raaz and Wehmeier (2011: 256) also posit that modern PR is a product of
modernity and modernity itself has its roots in Europe. They conclude that it will be
erroneous for anyone to suggest a single unified history of PR.
It is widely believed that PR in Europe began in the 19th century, after WWII. Carl
Hundhausen, a German, was reported to have first used the term PR in 1937 when he
wrote an article on “Public Relations”. Nessman (2000: 213), on the other hand, cites
documentary evidence that shows PR actually started as far back as the 18th century.
Documents available point to Frederick the Great’s (1712-86) efforts to improve his
foreign policy by distributing favourable news while suppressing negative news.
Napoleon is also reported to have used a mobile printing press while on his military
campaigns. He set up a news office that actively provided information as well as
scanned foreign newspapers every day, which is similar to what has come to be known
as press clippings/cuttings. In Germany, an industrial giant, Krups, is believed to have
set up a department in 1870 dedicated to press relations (Watson, 2012: 43). There
are other examples of businesses and state institutions in Europe that engaged in
communication activities within the first 30 years of the 20th century. Activities of
scholars such as Wuttke (1866), Kellen (1908), and Max Weber (1910) provide
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evidence of PR prior to WWII. The communicative activities that took place before and
during the war were based on social criticism and scientific debates. After the war,
Hundhausen and Oeckle, two practitioners who are believed to have shaped the
practice of PR in Germany, hence earning the accolade ‘fathers of German PR’,
continued to encourage discussion on PR as a concept thereby enhancing its
development theoretically and in terms of practice. It is believed that the development
of PR theory has strong European influence. For instance, Bernays, who is a nephew
of Sigmund Freud, is believed to have been influenced by the work of Freud while
developing his PR works.
Nessman (1995: 152) suggests that although American practice and designation was
adopted in Europe, this does not mean the development of PR in Europe is linked to
that of the history of PR in the USA. European scholars agree that although
professionalisation of PR started in the USA and some of the ideas and approaches
were eventually adopted in Europe, nevertheless PR theory and practice between the
two continents developed independently of each other. The influence of PR theory
between the two continents has been mutual. For example, the ideas of Jurgen
Habermas, a German sociologist, were used widely in the USA. PR theory
development was heavily influenced by his teachings on symmetrical communications,
discourse, mutual understanding, dialogue and consensus building, which are all key
concepts in the definition of PR (Nessman, 1995: 153).
The mid-twentieth century witnessed a growth in the development of PR in Europe as
national associations of PR started springing up. Finland was the first country in Europe
to set up a national association. They were followed shortly by the UK. The series of
national associations culminated in the formation of the International Public Relations
Association (IPRA) in the 1950s. The idea of international PR in particular was nurtured
mainly in Europe as efforts were made to find a common platform for engaging in
international understanding and promotion of democracy through PR strategies and
practices. It initially had representatives from France, Netherland, Norway, UK, and the
USA, with Belgium and Finland joining shortly afterwards. The formation of the IPRA
was instrumental in the professionalism of PR. In 1965, the first international code of
PR the “Code of Athens”, which sought to govern the practice of PR in Europe, was
adopted.
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The historical growth and development of PR in Europe was further enhanced by the
formation of European transnational companies, which resulted in the setting up of
corporate communication departments as well as the rise of consumer led PR. Unlike
the USA which introduced formal university education in PR in the 1940s, formal
education in PR, at least at the university level, did not happen until the 1980s. PR
training in Europe was provided mainly by national PR bodies that sprang up in the
1950s and 1960s. During this time, the PR role was mainly filled by journalists, hence
the field was mainly focused on media relations. The 1990s saw the formation of a
number of international bodies in Europe including the Communication Consultants
Association (ICCO) and the Global Alliance for Public Relations and Communication
Management (GAPRCM). The IPRA also established the International Quality in Public
Relations (IQPR) to promote quality assurance in PR. The same decade saw attempts
by scholars to officially document PR in Europe. In 1998, the European Public
Relations Education and Research Association (EPRERA) began a move to codify the
existing body of PR literature of European origin. This became known as the European
Public Relations Body of Knowledge project (EBOK). The result of the EBOK project
was the publication of the book “Public Relations and Communication Management in
Europe: A Nation by Nation Introduction to Public Relations Theory and Practice “in
2004 (Van-Ruler & Verčič, 2004: 2).
3.3. MODELS OF PUBLIC RELATIONS PRACTICE
The development of the practice of PR is replete with models that seek to show how
the profession is and should be practiced. Much of the practice worldwide is premised
on American models. This is understandable as American PR practice has dominated
the industry for decades. Moss, Verčič and Warnaby (2002: 1) acknowledge this
imbalance when they suggest that most PR research work in Europe is largely
influenced by models and conceptual frameworks developed by US scholars. They
are however quick to point out that cultural and traditional variations between USA
and Europe, especially southern and central European countries, means that one
cannot easily accept the status quo. The authors therefore note the need to undertake
further research to determine the nature and practice of PR in such countries before
generalisations can be made regarding the adequacy of American-based models to
the practice of PR across Europe. Although efforts to develop a European body of
knowledge on the practice of PR and the models that influence such practice has led
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to the establishment of what Van Ruler and Verčič call “European models of public
relations”, the discussion on the appropriate model to use especially in the era of
globalisation continues. The following section will discuss the models of PR practice
from the North American (represented by the USA) perspective and then the
European perspective.
3.3.1. Models of public relations practice: North American perspectives
Initial attempts to explain the nature and purpose of PR, at least in the USA, led to
the publication of the ground-breaking book by James Grunig and Todd Hunt (1984)
titled Managing Public Relations. The authors categorised PR practice into four main
stages to reflect its past, present and future. Grunig (2001: 107) posits that before the
1970s PR research in the USA hardly attempted to explain the behaviour of PR
practitioners but rather looked for ways by which to evaluate activities of PR
practitioners. The four models of PR were therefore viewed as not only a way to
describe the historical development of PR in the US but also show how modern PR
ought to be practiced. Since their publication, the models have been widely used
across the world to analyse PR practice. The models have also been critiqued
severally as scholars debated the ability of the models to accurately describe PR as
practiced globally, especially looking at the differences in culture (Waddington, 2013;
Grunig, Grunig & Dozier, 2002; Grunig, 2001; Kim & Hon, 1998). Grunig (1992: 286)
nevertheless believes that the models ought to be seen as a set of values and
patterns that explain the activities performed by PR practitioners. The four models,
the press agentry, public information, two-way asymmetrical, and two-way
symmetrical, will be discussed briefly.
The purpose of the press agentry model is to generate favourable publicity for an
individual or organisation in the media. It is a one-way form of communication where
the truth is not an essential element. Grunig and Hunt (1984: 21) describe it as the
spread of information that is mostly incomplete or distorted. The public information
model disseminates information that is accurate but is also one-way in practice. In
the public information model, the practitioners act as journalists in residence who
distribute information considered accurate although the information tends to favour
the organisation more than the publics. Both the press agentry and public information
model are considered as one-way communication models that are meant to change
the behaviour of the publics rather than the organisation. The two models do not use
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any form of research nor do they follow any strategic thinking process. Practitioners
of the two models attempt to engender positive behaviour either through propaganda
(press agentry) or disseminating generally favourable information (public
information). The two-way asymmetric model is premised on persuasive
communication but also relies on feedback from its publics. The concept of symmetry
implies a move towards mutuality between an organisation and its publics. The two-
way asymmetric model therefore suggests activities that generate consensus
between the organisation and publics. Feedback is generated through research and
is used to formulate communication strategies that will enhance persuasion but not
necessarily to change the position of the organisation (Edwards, 2009: 150). The
model is considered as being scientific in nature as it uses research to develop
persuasive messages. Grunig (2001: 17) however calls it a ‘selfish’ model due to its
manipulative nature. Communication effect is actually one-way, that is, geared
towards persuading the publics as the organisation believes that any change must
come from the publics rather than the organisation. The two-way symmetrical model
which Grunig (2001: 17) describes as the most effective model, relies on using
research to determine the behaviour of publics and is dialogical in nature. The two-
way symmetrical model is viewed as both ethical and strategic because it uses
communication to manage conflict as well as enhance understanding through
negotiation and compromise (Grunig, 2001: 17). Grunig (2001: 12) sums it up with
the following statement: “with the two-way symmetrical model, practitioners use
research and dialogue to bring about symbiotic changes in the ideas, attitudes, and
behaviours of both their organisation and publics.” The dialogical nature of the two-
way symmetry leads to the building, strengthening, and maintenance of long-term
relationship between the organisation and publics. Collaborative efforts on the part of
the organisation and publics build mutual understanding and trust.
Both the asymmetric and symmetric models are based on social science research
that gauges public knowledge, understanding, and attitude towards an issue.
However, whereas the two-way symmetry uses research to understand public opinion
and develops strategies that take into account public concerns, the two-way
asymmetry uses research to develop strategies that alter opinion in favour of the
organisation. The aim of the asymmetrical model is to persuade publics to change
their beliefs because the organisation believes the public is wrong. Equilibrium is
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maintained in the symmetrical model through a dialogical process with each party
willing to adapt and compromise although this does not mean the organisation
accepts everything the publics say and vice versa. The point of a symmetrical model
is that each attempt to understand the other’s worldview and tries to fit in (Bowen,
2013: 903). This is explained by Grunig (2001: 15): “The concept of symmetry directly
implies a balance of the organization’s and public’s interests. Total accommodation
of the public’s interests would be as asymmetrical as unbridled advocacy of the
organization’s interests.” Grunig, essentially sees the two-way symmetrical model as
the standard for excellent PR. It is a model where each party alters their behaviour to
accommodate each other. The two-way symmetric communication is a dialogue-
based model unlike the other three, which are based on monologue-type
communication (Fawkes, 2012: 36).
Table 3.2. Characteristics of the four models of public relations
Characteristics
Model
Press agentry/ publicity
Public information
Two-way asymmetric
Two-way symmetric
Purpose Propaganda Dissemination of information
Scientific persuasion
Mutual understanding
Nature of communication
One-way: complete truth not essential
One-way: truth important
Two-way: imbalanced effects
Two-way: balanced effects
Communication model
Source → Rec. Source →Rec. Source → Rec. ← Feedback
Group → Group ←
Nature of research
Little; counting house
Little; readability, readership
Formative; evaluative of attitudes
Formative; evaluative of understanding
Leading historical figures
P.T. Barnum Ivy Lee Edward L. Bernays
Bernays, educators, professional leaders
Where practised today
Sports, theatre, product promotion
Government, non-profit associations, business
Competitive business; agencies
Regulated business; agencies
Estimated percentage of organisations practising today
15 50 20 15
Source: Theaker, A. (2012: 35)
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The models, especially the two-way symmetric model, have been applied to PR
research in both developed and developing countries with results generally showing
that PR practice in these countries, regardless of cultural difference, reflect the
models. The models have also been used as teaching tools to distinguish between
typical PR practice and more advanced practices (Grunig, 2001: 12).
Since their inception, the four models have dominated academic discussion with
different conclusions. Larskin (2009: 37) describes them as the most dominant
theories discussed in the field of PR. An assessment of studies conducted show that
generally, the models are practiced in nearly every jurisdiction (Kiambi, 2012; Larskin,
2009; Pētersone, 2004; Sriramesh, 2000; Kim & Hon, 1998; Grunig et al 1995).
However, these reports also showed that the models cannot work in all jurisdictions
and that there are factors that influence the practice of PR. Grunig et al (1995), for
instance, found that the conditions that allow PR to thrive in western countries may
not exist in organisations in other cultures. Their research produced two additional
models that influence PR practice in Asia: the personal influence and cultural
interpreter (Grunig et al 1995: 164). Kiambi (2012) also found that the personal
influence model is the most used by Kenyan PR practitioners, followed by the cultural
interpreter. The result corroborated the work of Ming-Yi and Baah-Boakye (2012) who
identified these same models to be the most practiced in Ghana, although the four
models were also practiced.
Numerous studies (as demonstrated earlier) have reached varied conclusions about
the viability of the models in organisations. Much of the discussions relate to the
purported overly simplistic nature of the theories to describe complex organisations.
The practicality of the two-way symmetrical model in particular has been questioned
with some calling it utopian, idealistic, and fanciful (For review of the criticism of the
models, especially the two-way symmetrical model, see Chapter 2: 2.2.2.3). Based
on these criticisms, Dozier, Grunig and Grunig (1995, 2001) reformulated the model
into what they called the ‘mixed motive’ symmetrical communication. Mixed motive
communication is based on the gaming theory of Murphy (1991) which sees social
relationship between an organisation and its public as a game based on strategies
from both sides. Mixed motive communication therefore argues that practitioners are
motivated by their loyalty to their organisation as well as the publics that are affected
by the behaviours of the organisations. PR practitioners develop strategies designed
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to reach a compromise with publics. Opportunities exist for each party to gain in a
win-win situation. Although the concept of symmetry was maintained, a new
perspective in the form of a ‘continuum’ was introduced. Within this continuum,
asymmetric communication is practiced in the interest of either the public or the
organisation. Mixed motive communication is where communication is used as a
dialogue mode to reach a mutual understanding. The win-win situation is
characterised by persuasion, negotiation, and compromise. Grunig (2001: 25) argues
that the mixed motive symmetry resolves the differences between the asymmetrical
and symmetrical models.
Despite these arguments by Grunig, what is of interest is that the revised models still
failed to take into account the complex circumstances within different environments
that affect PR practice. It appears the model was fashioned from a western
perspective without considering the complexities of how the business environment
works in developing countries like Africa and how these environments shape the
practice of PR. Evidence shows (as enumerated earlier) that factors such as political,
economic, social, and especially culture are instrumental in the shaping of PR
practice in different countries. For the model to be totally accepted it must take
cognisance of these critical factors. The findings from this research will throw more
light on the applicability of the model in different situations.
3.3.2. Models of public relations practice: European perspectives
In the USA, PR focus on relationship building is based on a symmetrical viewpoint.
Practitioners believe in the practice of symmetrical PR to build trust, reduce conflict,
and build community. European practitioners on the other hand believe that PR is
more than relationship building due mainly to the diversity of the profession’s service
to both organisations and society as a whole. In view of these differences, Van Ruler
and Verčič (2005: 240) proposed four models of communication management
premised on what they called a ‘two-by-two dimensional definition of organisation and
communication’. The four models are not seen as exclusive but complementary,
hence the need for organisations to use them at the same time. The models are
regarded as strategic approaches to daily communication practices. The models are
the information model, persuasion model, relationship model, and dialogue model.
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The Information model: The purpose of the information model is to disseminate
information about the organisation with a view to enlightening publics about decisions
and plans of the organisation and reduce uncertainty. The model focuses on content
and channels of communication and is focused on Harold Lasswell’s communication
formula of “who says what to whom with what effect,” while Smith (2017: 198) also
adds “how and why” to the concept. The model is based on early theories of mass
media work on which communication science is based. Van Ruler and Verčič (2005:
248) describe this kind of model as a “naïve concept of communication management”
and not adequate in the practice of communication management. Creation of
meaning in the information model is therefore restricted to the denotative meaning of
the organisation to target groups.
The persuasion model makes a deliberate attempt to influence publics through ethical
processes. This is done by attempting to promote the plans and decisions of the
organisation to key stakeholders. Persuasion uses the asymmetric approach to
present an organisation’s side of issues as an attempt to influence key parties to
agree with the organisation (Smith, 2017: 198). It is based on theories of rhetoric
promoted mainly by Greek philosophers. Latimore et al (2004: 26), for instance, notes
that rhetoric was a unique discipline in Greece and that Greek philosophers used
persuasive skills to determine the truth or otherwise of arguments and to influence
public opinion. Van Ruler and Verčič (2005: 249) describe it as “impression
management” where the creation of meaning is restricted to luring the connotative
meaning of certain target groups into the meaning of the organisation.
The relationship model seeks to establish and maintain a mutually beneficial
relationship between an organisation and its publics. It seeks to achieve consensus
on relevant issues and avoid conflict while promoting cooperation. The focus of
communication between both parties is to achieve equilibrium. It is premised on the
‘balance theories of communication’ hence each party resists the attempt to alter the
situation. Attempts are made to restore balance when imbalance is seen to have
occurred (Van Heerden, 2004: 63). In the relationship model, the organisation and
publics are both active participants in the negotiation process with each seeking
acceptable meaning of issues.
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The final model, which is the Dialogue model, sees PR as a crucial element in the
facilitation of interaction between an organisation and its publics. Smith (2017: 199)
put it this way: “it involves a sincere and competent attempt at mutual understanding,
paralleling the symmetrical model of public relations,” a process Sieberg (in Smith,
2017) calls “confirming communication” because its purpose is to heal and strengthen
relationships. Smith (2017: 199) further identifies four (4) goals of the dialogue model:
(1) to provide for an information exchange between individuals or groups, (2) to help
communication partners make responsible and personally acceptable decisions, (3)
to help revive the original vitality of a relationship, and (4) to foster a deep relationship
that continues to unite communication partners ever more closely. Essentially,
organisations and their publics do not exist just to see to their own needs but show
genuine concern about each other. The core of the model is based on new meanings
which are continuously generated through facilitation interactions. This is known as
‘dialogue management’ and creation of meaning is limited to the co-creation of
continuous learning processes of those related organisationally to the co-creation of
new connotative meanings.
Table 3.3. The four models of European public relations
Model
variables Information Persuasion Relationship Dialogue
Organisation
and
management Classical Human relations Contingency Learning
Managerial
intervention Directive Directive Interactive Interactive
Organisational
communication Mechanical Psychological
System -
interaction Interpretive
CM problem Knowledge Influence Trust Meanings
CM indicator Readability Image/reputation Relationship
Understanding
of meanings
CM focus
Dissemination
of information
Promotion of
plans/ decisions
Accuracy of
relationships
Co-creation of
new meanings
CM intervention Informational Persuasive Negotiation Discursive.
Source: Van Ruler and Verčič (2005: 252)
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With the exception of the press agentry model, the American and European models
share some similarities. Van Ruler and Verčič (2005: 251) are of the view that it is
possible to incorporate all major communication management theories within the four
models. But, unlike the four models of Grunig and Hunt which suggested the
symmetrical model as the best method, Van Ruler and Verčič believe it will be difficult
to categorise any of the models of communication management as the ideal or best
one. They were therefore sceptical about the result of any research that will indicate
one model as being better than the other. Commenting on this, Weick (in Van Ruler
& Verčič, 2005: 251) remarks: “the question is not: Is the model true? All models are
true in themselves. The question is: When and where is the model true?” Each model
is therefore used based on its relevance to the situation hence one cannot be said to
be better than the other. This is different from the symmetrical model which is seen
as the best of the four models of PR due to its ethical nature and the fact that its
emphasis is on a mutual understanding between organisations and stakeholders.
The authors pointed out the need for the four models to regarded as strategies that
can be used to solve specific problems as a means of ensuring long-term societal
survival.
Van Ruler and Verčič (in Van Heerden, 2004: 64) acknowledged that the models
indicated how organisations and publics behaved or should behave, thus neglecting
the legitimacy problem of organisations at the societal level. Public legitimacy is very
essential for business survival in Europe and the nature of the models is such that it
does not allow for public legitimacy. In Europe, societal legitimacy and legitimisation
are considered crucial elements for the success of any business. This is not about
businesses being morally upright or ethical but undertaking activities that are
considered acceptable from the perspectives of society (Steyn & Butschi, 2003: 13-
14). Kuckhelhause (in Van Ruler & Verčič, 2003: 14), in advancing the argument for
legitimation, categorised approaches to PR (communication management as it is
referred to in Europe): product oriented, marketing oriented, and societally oriented.
Societal orientation here describes the place of the organisation in society, not the
organisation itself, as the only possible approach to theory building in the 21st century.
In developing communication strategies, PR uses a unique way of thinking as
articulated by Verčič et al (2001: 373): “a special concern for broader societal issues
and approaches to any problem with a concern for implications of organisational
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behaviour towards and in the public sphere.” PR is therefore viewed as “in public,
with the public and for the public” (Nessman, in Moss, Verčič & Warnaby, 2000: 212-
225). This essentially means PR deals with the public sphere. PR in Europe is
therefore concerned with activities and values of public relevance and not just
relationships. From this perspective, PR is viewed as serving a democratic process
by contributing to the free flow of information and its meaning and also developing
the public sphere much like journalism (Van Ruler & Verčič, 2005: 257). Having these
concerns in mind, Van Ruler and Verčič (2005: 252-253) identified a fifth model of PR
which they called the reflective PR (communication management).
Reflective PR is seen as a bigger model within which all models of PR are subsumed.
Reflective PR views humans as reflective beings constantly engaged in the process
of societal construction, and organisations as institutions that construct social
legitimacy through a continuous reflective communication process. Within the
reflective perspective, PR understood to be a strategic process of looking at an
organisation from the “outside” or “public” view and not just a phenomenon to be
described or defined, nor as a means of viewing relationships between two parties.
Reflective PR, in effect, looks at an organisation from the perspectives of the society
or public. The reflective approach is principally premised on a combination of the
societal approach to PR, the constructivist approach to communication and
organisation, the institutional approach to organisation, and a reflection-in-action
approach to management (Van Ruler, in Steyn & Butschi, 2003: 14).
Organisations need a license to operate to be able to gain legitimisation. PR as a
management function can therefore be perceived as “…..maximizing, optimizing, or
satisfying the process of meaning creation, using informational, persuasive,
relational, and discursive interventions to solve managerial problems by co-producing
societal (public) legitimation” ( Van Ruler & Verčič, 2005: 263). Holmstrom (in de
Beer, Steyn & Rensburg, 2013: 311) conceptualises reflective PR into two tasks,
namely reflective and expressive tasks. She refers to the reflective role or task as
inward PR where information is selected based on socially responsible behaviour.
Organisations then shape their actions in accordance with societal expectations.
Expressive task on the other hand is regarded as outward PR, the purpose of which
is to regularly disseminate information about the organisation in order to gain and
strengthen public trust. The organisation turns to mass media in the dissemination of
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the information. The European models accordingly put emphasis on gaining public
acceptance and public trust for an organisation to be successful. In describing the
reflective model, Van Ruler and Verčič (2005: 265) developed a set of parameters
which states:
Communication management as a specialty helps organizations by
counseling the deliberations on legitimacy, by coaching its members in
the development of their communicative competencies, by
conceptualizing communication plans, and by executing communication
means, using informational, persuasive, relational, and discursive
interventions.
This definition sums up four key roles PR practitioners are supposed to play in Europe
as managers by counselling or advising the organisation on changes to the
environment. The organisation is then able to align its mission/vision, policies,
guidelines, and strategies to meet the societal standards and gain social legitimacy;
educating the members of the organisation on improving their communicative
behaviour so as to respond effectively to the demands of society. Here the internal
publics are the target group as they are coached on how to communicate competently
to gain acceptance; developing communication strategies that will help the
organisation not only to gain trust but also maintain the relationship it has with its
publics, and finally by implementing communication plans using a number of
strategies.
The models of PR, particularly the two-way symmetrical model, have been used in
several research studies, theses, and dissertations worldwide with varied results.
Many of these studies have generally acknowledged the use of the models in different
cultures but also suggested some variations in the models (Grunig, 2001: 12). Such
variations can be found in the personal Influence and cultural interpreter models in
part of Asia (Grunig, Grunig, Huang & Lyra, 1995). Whereas many scholars have
accepted these models, a number of them have also questioned the validity of the
models, which are mainly based on American practice, across cultures with some
claiming that the attempts to establish a normative theory of PR that can be
supposedly used in every jurisdiction renders cultural, regional, and other differences
in PR practice invisible (Holthausen, Petersen & Tindall, 2003: 309). Holthausen,
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Petersen and Tindall (2003: 305) found that PR in South Africa was practiced based
on culture specific models influenced by the economic, social, and political realities
of the country. These models included the Western Dialogic model, mainly rooted in
dissensus, the Activist model, which promotes change in organisations, the Ubuntu
system, which favours communality rather than individuality, and the Oral
Communication model, which focuses on oral media in the communication process.
Other studies have shown a mixture of the four models and local practices based on
cultural, economic, and political factors (Sriramesh, Kim & Takasaki, 1999; Pratt &
Ugboajah, 1985; Chen & Culbertson, 1992; Kim & Hon, 1998).
Grunig (2003: 29) suggested the need to move beyond the models and develop
theories consisting of continuous, rather than discrete variables as a way of ensuring
the progress of science and academic scholarship. In view of this, a new two-way
model of PR was developed consisting of four underlying variables described as
‘maintenance variables’. These variables are firstly symmetry and asymmetry or the
extent to which collaboration and advocacy describe PR strategy or behaviour. The
second set of variables consists of the direction of communication flow, that is,
whether PR practice is one-way or two-way. The set of variables shows how mediated
and interpersonal forms of communication were used with the final variable being the
extent to which PR practice was considered ethical (Grunig, 2003: 29-30).
3.3.3. Models of public relations practice: Non-western perspectives
The North American and European perspectives are not the only models known to
influence PR practice, although they may be the most popular. Due to the controversy
that arose especially with the introduction of the excellence/two-way symmetrical
model, several scholars from other jurisdictions tested these theories in different
environments. In Asia and to some extent Africa in particular, two main models have
been realised as influencing PR practice. These are the personal influence model
and the cultural interpreter model. These will be discussed briefly.
3.3.3.1. The personal influence model
Literature on personal influence is characterised by three schools of thought: firstly,
personal influence is based on the personal attributes and characteristics of
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individuals, secondly, it is a dimension of relationship management and based on
relational activities, and thirdly, it is a model of PR that is based on cultural values,
especially in Asia (Falconi, 2011). The focus of this section will be on the third school
of thought. The personal influence model is premised on developing personal
relationships with key individuals who act as contacts, especially in times when the
organisation needs favours. The model itself depicts how a PR practitioner builds
relationships, not as a representative of the organisation but as an individual (Gupta
et al 2007: 5). The model was first proposed by Sriramesh in 1992 (Sriramesh, 1999:
232) and later by Grunig et al (1995) to depict the importance of interpersonal or face-
to-face communication in the PR process. The model posits that cultivating
interpersonal relationships leads to long-term impacts in the relationship between
organisations and publics.
The personal influence model therefore looks at the ‘how’ of the relationship building
process by ensuring that the relationship is built on emotions, personal identities,
behaviours, attitudes, and individual characters (Somfai, 2009: 8). The personal
influence model is regarded as the fifth dimension of the four models of PR and refers
to the relationship that exists between PR practitioners and governments, media,
politics or activist groups (Grunig et al 1995: 181). However, its effectiveness is
dependent on the individual practitioner’s position and power in a social network
(Sriramesh, Grunig & Dozier, 1996: 285). Although the intent of the establishment of
these individual relationships is asymmetrical as practitioners take advantage of such
relationships to “get journalists to write stories about the organisation represented by
a public relations practitioner” (Grunig et al 1995: 180), Grunig et al (1995) still
conclude that the model can also be seen in symmetrical terms, that is, a personal
relationship that benefits both the organisation and its publics, such as “trusting
relationships with reporters or leaders of activists groups such as environmental or
consumer organisations” (1995: 184). Toth (2000: 207) postulates that the personal
influence model is essential in its contribution to the practice of PR in three ways: first,
it allows scholars to apply another worldview to the study of PR at the individual level,
second, it proposes an outcome separate from asymmetric and symmetric
communication, and third, it suggests an extension from personal influence to
interpersonal influence. Toth (2000: 214-215) therefore suggested that the word
‘personal’ be replaced with ‘individual’ - to read “individual influence model”.
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3.3.3.2 The cultural interpreter model
The cultural interpreter model depicts how PR is practiced by organisations operating
in other countries “where it needs someone who understands the language, culture,
customs, and political system of the host country” (Grunig et al 1995: 182). Basically,
multinational organisations hire the services of a local practitioner to explain cultural
norms and values to the foreign organisations. The model was first identified by Lyra
(1991) when studying PR practice in Greece. This model in particular is key to
effective PR in multi-national organisations with foreign chief executives.
Several studies have found a domination of the two models in PR practice. For
instance, Sriramesh, Kim and Takasaki (1999: 285) found that PR practice in Asia is
based on press agentry and publicity models as well as the personal influence and
cultural interpreter models. Further evidence from the research suggested personal
influence was used as a quid pro quo to grant favour to important individuals including
governments, media, regulators, and so on, and in return solicit favours in times of
organisational need. This usually occurs in the form of easy placement of stories in
the media and sometimes killing of stories that might be detrimental to the
organisation, provision of entertainment including food, drinks and gifts, mainly based
on informal relationships (Sriramesh et al 1999; Shin & Cameron, 2003). Personal
influence was also seen to strongly influence relationship management within the
Indonesian mining industry (Yudarwati, 2008). Kiambi and Nadler (2012: 506) also
noted that the two models dominate PR practice in Kenya while Ming-Yi and Baah-
Boakye (2009: 15) identified the cultural interpreter as the most dominant model of
PR in Ghana, followed by the personal influence model. Other studies (Huang, 2000;
Sriramesh, Grunig & Dozier, 2009; Chmielecki, 2012; Gupta & Bartlett, 2007;
Sriramesh, 2009) have acknowledged the influence of individual relationships at the
interpersonal level to influence the practice of PR.
What is significant is that most of these studies have been done in Asia with very little
coming from other environments. This in itself can be a criticism of the models.Even
though Grunig et al (1995) sought to link the personal influence model to the
symmetrical model, a closer look at the models shows they are open to unethical
practices by practitioners, a situation that flies in the face of symmetrical
communication which is based on strong ethics. Practitioners can use this form of
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relationship to lobby for issues of public interest to be held back such as convincing
reporters to ‘destroy’ a potentially harmful story or get regulators to bend the rules in
their favour. Despite these concerns the little evidence available suggests that the
two models are practiced in the USA and other non-Asian countries (Tindall &
Holthausen, 2012; Sriramesh & Verčič, 2009; Molleda & Moreno, 2008). A review of
literature shows that research on the two models in Africa is very limited. The only
known research in Africa is that of Kiambi and Nadler (2012), Ming-Yi and Baah-
Boaky (2009) and Holtzhausen, Petersen and Tindall (2003). Holtzhausen et al
(2003) discovered that South African practitioners developed their own models
depending on the social, economic, and political realities they find themselves in and
do not necessarily follow the symmetric and asymmetric models.
There is the need to conduct extensive research on these models from an African
perspective to determine their validity to the African situation. However, that is not the
focus of the current study. The current study will be based on previous models
discussed. It is believed that the result of the research will nevertheless shed some
light on the personal influence and the cultural interpreter models, especially the
personal influence model.
To be able to develop the appropriate framework that will guide the practice of PR, it
is essential to determine how PR in Ghana is practiced and on which model it is
premised on. The study will determine if PR as it is practiced currently is based on
the four models or, as other scholars have found in other cultures, there are other
factors such as culture, political, and socio-economic factors that influence the
practice, for which reason a new framework should be developed to guide such
practice.
The next section will review development of PR from the African perspective. The
discussion will be based on two key areas: the antecedent of African PR and the
development of modern PR in Africa.
3.4. PUBLIC RELATIONS IN AFRICA
This section discusses the historical development of PR from the African perspective.
It explores the early origin of PR within the African context as well as its modern
development and practice. This section discusses some of the factors, especially
culture, that influence the practice of the profession in Africa.
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3.4.1. Early beginnings
The practice of PR on the African continent, though not well documented (Skinner &
Mersham, 2009: 284), is understood to have its roots in ancient civilisation. The
application of certain PR techniques originated at the dawn of African civilisation. The
pharaohs of ancient Egypt, for example, used word-pictures on remarkable
monuments to announce their achievements (Rensburg, 2009: 358). Academicians
such as Rensburg (2009: 358) and Tench, D’Artrey and Fawkes (2009: 40) suggest
that long before Africa was colonised, activities relating to PR were already being
practiced on the continent. Nartey, for instance, drew similarities between the roles of
a PR practitioner and that of the chief linguist, who spoke on behalf of chiefs in
traditional African villages. In the traditional African rule, no chief or elder statesmen
spoke directly to their visitors. The chief spokesman, also known as the linguist,
became the channel of communication and interactions. These linguists were very
eloquent and knowledgeable in the norms and practices of the village. This practice is
still prevalent in most African countries, including Ghana, where the chieftaincy system
is still prevalent. The linguists were a group of people who had authority and were
greatly feared and respected.
The town crier is another person who plays the role of PR in communities. He stands
in the village square and beats his instrument (usually a gong) to gather the community
members. He then delivers his message, usually from the chief’s palace to the people.
Traditional means of communication such as the talking drums and wooden drums
were used as a form of mass communication due to their ability to reach large numbers
of people (Akpabio, 2009: 352; Wilson, 2008). Traditional African marriages are also
based on some form of negotiation or PR. The family of the man goes along with a
‘linguist’, who is mostly a woman, and negotiates for the hand of the bride to be.
Presents are given by the groom’s family with the linguist playing a key role in the
acceptance of the presents by the bride’s family. The concept of PR is also found in
African traditional music, dancing, and beating of drums. These are used as channels
of communication to send messages to communities. PR, albeit practiced in a different
form, is therefore not a new thing on the African continent (Rensburg, 2009: 258).
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3.4.2. Development of public relations practice in Africa
The development of contemporary PR in Africa has been attributed in a large part to
three key factors:
The era of colonisation - during which time the need for information
dissemination was identified,
the fight for independence - which resulted in the growth of nationalism and
the emergence of pressure groups and political parties, and
the move towards democracy (Tench, D’Artrey & Fawkes, 2009: 40; Akpabio,
2009: 352; Okereke, 2002: 2-3).
The period between 1940 and 1970 witnessed the setting up of PR departments to
address issues faced by commercial organisations. It was also a period that saw the
fight for and attainment of independence by many African countries with the practice
being more focused on targeted publics, programmes, and budgets (Okereke, 2002:
4-5). Akpabio (2009: 352) likened the African fight for independence to the American
revolutionary war, and the activities of political groups and individuals to that of Samuel
Adams, one of the leading American revolutionaries who was instrumental in using PR
activities in the fight for American independence from British rule. The fight for self-rule
in Africa used tactics such as peasant revolts, worker strikes, protests and mass
agitations, mostly organised by political activists or pressure groups.
PR practice during the 1980s had no focus or value in organisations. Practitioners were
mainly personal assistants to the chief executives or press/information officers. PR
practice was mainly based on the press agentry model as many organisations relied
more on media relations skills to enhance their reputation. Blankson (2009: 183) is of
the view that PR practice prior to the mid-1990s political and economic reforms had a
number of similarities:
It is a European import that has been adapted to African societies and structures.
Even so, there are marked differences between PR in Africa and in Europe or the
USA.
It is synonymous with national public communication campaigns or nation-building
programmes. This is because development and nation-building goals continue to
occupy government, organisational and individual attention owing to the region’s
endemic poverty, civil unrest, economic decadence, and ethnic diversity.
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Governments usually assume responsibility for national development plans and
expect loyalty and compliance from communication practitioners. Organisations
have to develop programmes to demonstrate their unwavering support of the
government.
African practitioners play a socially responsible role when they contribute directly
to national development.
African practitioners play largely a communication and information-generating
function. They follow what Grunig and Hunt (1984) refer to as press agentry,
publicity, and public information models. Most act as the information officers in
ministries or other government agencies and play a largely functional role -
informing and persuading people. This focus makes communication more of a
conduit for communicating “programmed” development news than for nurturing
development-oriented norms among the public.
PR campaigns in Africa generally involve one-way, persuasive messages from the
government to the people, using whatever media is available, but mostly a large
network of field staff including agricultural extension agents, public health workers,
community development specialists, and PR officers. Traditional communication
techniques such as radio broadcasting, storytelling, drama, and mounting
loudspeakers on cars or vans, are still common and effective for communicating
campaign objectives.
Interestingly, Kiambi (2014:70) found evidence to show that PR practice in colonial
Africa had similarities with the two-way symmetrical communication. The British
colonial administration used PR, not only to disseminate public information, but also to
build mutual understanding between the colonial government and the communities in
order to facilitate dialogue and engender a greater understanding of government
policies (Watson, 2014:3). Kiambi (2014:70) quotes the Chief Secretary to the colonial
government who described PR as “the art of establishing and maintaining within a
community a spirit of fellowship and co-operation based on mutual understanding and
trust.” Based on this definition, Kiambi concludes that the British public servant clearly
knew the relevance of PR in helping establish relationships with local communities.
The emergence of democratisation processes in Africa in the 1990s is regarded as the
greatest influence on the development of PR. The period ushered in political pluralism
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and neo-liberal policies. African countries were required by the World Bank and foreign
donors to undertake democratic and economic reforms as a prerequisite for continued
loans. The period also saw trade unions, students, business and academic
communities putting pressure on their governments to implement democratic reforms
and media pluralism and freedom of speech. The pressures from within and outside of
these countries eventually forced governments, most of whom were military dictators,
to introduce democratic elections, engage the public in civic discussions, open the
media landscape to allow for ownership of private media, and finally open up the
national economy to other markets (Blankson, 2009: 184-185). Former US trade
representative Charlene Barshefsky captured this new democratic and economic
reform in the following statement:
In many African nations, governments have adopted economic
reforms, from liberalizing exchange rates, to privatizing state
enterprises, reducing subsidies and cutting barriers to trade and
investment. These have been joined by free elections in many
countries, and our own exports to Africa are up by nearly 50 per
cent, African exports to the US have risen as well. (Pratt &
Okigbo, 2004: 283)
The reforms led to the establishment of multiparty democracy, relatively stable
political systems, and moderate economic growth in a number of African countries,
including Ghana. The reforms also transformed the media landscape with a number
of independent and private media being established, hence breaking the monopoly
of the state owned media. More than a hundred private radio stations were
established in many African countries between 1990 and 2006. This new
phenomenon allowed citizens to participate in civic discourse while businesses found
different means to engage their customers. The rapid growth of democracy and its
attendants rubbed off powerfully on PR practice. The growth of the media landscape,
for instance, opened up new opportunities for practitioners to carry out messages to
their publics using several avenues.
The advance of technology, the internet and globalisation have further developed the
practice on the continent as practitioners now have access to other sources of
information. There has been an endless stream of multinational corporations in Africa
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due to globalisation and the advancement of ICT. Countries with relatively stable
political environments and, who are experiencing economic growth, are benefiting
from the presence of investors from other countries. This has created new
opportunities for the growth of PR in African countries (Blankson, 2009: 186).
Sriramesh and Verčič (2007: 356) acknowledge that despite Africa lagging behind in
the development of PR, evidence available suggests the profession is increasing in
stature. This agrees with the view of Skinner (2013: 15-16) who emphasised the
steady progress that leading African nations are making in the field of PR and
strategic communication even if that progress is slow. Skinner suggests that
regardless of the disparities on the African continent, there is a light at the end of the
tunnel for PR leadership in Africa since practitioners are innovative and have the
ability to draw on global influence.
Opukah (in Van Heerden, 2004:112) identified some global issues that impact on the
practice of PR on the African continent. These are:
Increased emphasis on public power, democratisation and freedom,
Unsustainable population growth in poor countries,
The major consumer and voting block is the power of the youth,
A trend to multiparty of nations to US unipolarity,
Increasing global brands growth and power,
The increase in the power and influence of donors,
Increasing poverty,
Increasing literacy and multilingualism,
Increased urbanisation characterised by urban poverty and crime,
Rapid growth of technology - a world in which we now have virtual teams and
real-time communication,
Ongoing major wars and live media coverage,
The increase of mass killers such as the spread of AIDS despite sophisticated
scientific advancement, and
The increasing depletion of resources.
Skinner (2013: 16, 17) also identified some issues affecting the development of the
practice on the continent. Some of these challenges included the scarcity of
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information and technology infrastructure, the high cost of international bandwidth, the
dearth of local content as well as the lack of cooperation among development partners,
and political instability in many parts of Africa. On the media front, Africa’s media
landscape has expanded over the years with private stations, including international
stations such as the BBC, VOA and Canal France, Channel Africa satellite television,
and Multi Choice Africa. However, these foreign media have limited value as they are
unable to make impact as they attempt to be more “African” and therefore lose the
localism and relevance on which editorial communications depend. They are also
limited in terms of their targeted publics who are English-speaking, relatively literate
and affluent (Mersham & Skinner, 2009: 294). The discussion above gives an
indication that development of PR in Africa has been influenced by a number of factors.
Despite the disparities in the development, especially when compared to that of
Europe, USA, and Asia, Skinner (2013: 17) is of the view that PR in Africa has
operated successfully for over 50 years with more than 12,000 members in the various
professional bodies around the continent. These national PR associations are
overseen by the African Public Relations Association (APRA), which is the successor
to the Federation of African Public Relations Associations (FAPRA), established in
1975.
Africa is gradually becoming influential in the contribution to the body of knowledge on
the profession with South Africa leading the way. South Africa has a relatively mature
industry followed by Nigeria and other countries such as Ghana and Kenya.
Unfortunately, there is a dearth of information on contribution of African practitioners
to the global discussion on PR development. South Africa has done extensive work in
this area in an attempt to address this shortfall. As democratic processes expand, it is
expected that opportunities will open for the practice, especially in the private sector,
to further develop. Indeed, Skinner (2013: 18) comments on this when he notes the
continuous growth of political democratic institutions as well as the adoption of mixed
and market economies across the continent and how these have combined to reshape
the attitude of governments and the public and private sector towards PR activities.
Some public and private sector businesses continue to realise the importance of PR
in spreading their message across a terrain occupied by a multiplicity of media.
Skinner and Mersham (2009: 308) strongly believe the development of PR in Africa
will continue and eventually influence the growth of social and economic development
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on the continent. PR in Africa is growing steadily as organisations are becoming
increasingly aware of and appreciate PR as key to their success. Nigeria and Kenya
currently have a relatively strong PR environment while Ghana, Uganda and Tanzania
are also experiencing steady growth in the industry. Practitioners have been called
upon to “intensify training, change orientation, update knowledge of current issues,
engage in peer review mechanisms, self-criticisms, and assess their contributions to
Afro optimism” and to “provide better advice to African leaders and organisations to
enhance good governance and communication” (FAPRA, 2006).
3.4.3. Public relations and the African worldview
To understand the practice of PR in Africa, it is essential to place it within the context
of how African societies operate and how African communities relate to each other.
This is mostly referred to as the African worldview. Africans generally see themselves
as social beings and thus work with a collective consciousness. This is reflected in
their general behaviour. Africans are generally sensitive to each other’s needs and
see themselves as a collective group. This affects the way businesses on the continent
operate. The study will now discuss briefly the African worldview and how it affects the
business environment.
The concept of African worldview is not new as it has been applied to the way Africans
relate to each other and how such relations affect the business environment (Tilson,
2014; Van Heerden, 2004: 121). Van Heerden points out that one can only understand
the nature of the African business environment by first understanding African
worldview and cultural foundations. Africans generally see themselves as social
beings and this consciousness greatly influences the way they behave, how they
express themselves, and how they engage in spiritual self-fulfilment. There is a strong
interconnectedness and brotherliness as opposed to individualism. This is even more
profound especially as the continent is steeped in poverty and being one another’s
keeper is the only means by which survival is ensured (Van Heerden, 2004: 121).
Mersham and Skinner (2009: 309) describe the African worldview as one of the most
powerful influences/concepts that shapes the way Africans behave. The worldview is
based on the concept of collectivism and recognition of the value of all individuals.
This act of collectivism is framed in the African philosophy of ‘Ubuntuism’, which
means “I am because of others…..stressing interconnections and collectively”
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(Worthington, 2011: 611). Ubuntu is a value-based traditional philosophy premised on
African humanism that runs deeply throughout African thought and action (de Beer &
Mersham, 2004: 338) and emphasises on communalism rather than individualism
(White, 2009: 220). The concept of ubuntu is a cultural philosophy inherent among the
Bantu people of Africa (Natifu & Zikusooka, 2014: 224) and has been in existence as
a cultural virtue for centuries (Rensburg, 2008: 253). Fourie (2008: 63) opines that
different African cultures and African languages interpret the philosophy differently to
mean “a person is defined in relation to the community,” “that I am because we are,
and since we are, therefore I am,” that “it is through others that one attains selfhood,”
and that “a person is born for the other.”
Mersham, Skinner and Rensburg (2011: 198) state that when applied to PR, the
concept of ubuntu moves beyond the individual and individual rights while emphasis
is placed on community and the collective. The African is seen as a participatory being
who depends on others for his/her development. There is therefore a high emphasis
on negotiation, inclusiveness, transparency, and tolerance. For example, among the
Bantu people in Uganda, PR means “relating well with people” (Natifu & Zikusooka,
2014: 224). Mersham and Skinner (2009: 309) again note that the African philosophy
may explain why PR theorists tend to find African PR intriguing, posing challenges to
accepted normative approaches, in the attempt to develop a new and sustainable
global model of PR. Therefore, to develop a model that truly reflects the global practice
of PR, efforts must be made to understand the context in which PR in Africa is
practiced. The implications of the ubuntu philosophy for post-modern thoughts and
western view of PR is framed in the words of Christians (2004):
Since the self cannot be conceived without necessarily conceiving
of others, Ubuntu adds a universal and compelling voice against the
Enlightenment’s atomistic individuals who exist prior to and
independently of their social order. In the West, where ‘individualism
often translates into an impetuous competitiveness’, the
cooperation entailed by ubuntu's ‘plurality of personalities’ in a
‘multiplicity of relationships’ is an attractive, though overwhelming
concept. The modernist concept of individuality now has to move
from solitary to solidarity, from independence to interdependence,
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from individuality vis‐à‐vis community to individuality a la community
(p. 245).
A study by Angus and Kapanga (2007) on the key drivers of brand growth in Nigeria,
Kenya, Ghana, Zimbabwe, Malawi, and Mozambique, for instance, identified among
others, the power of the community, word of mouth, tradition and trust, which are key
values that permeate everyday life in ways important to communication management.
Currently, there is a deficiency of African literature on PR from the African worldview.
This means that African scholars and practitioners are forced to approach and teach
PR based on a western framework. In as much as this is not necessarily bad, Van
Heerden (2004: 128) points out that it leads to conflict within the individual once they
are confronted with African realities. The practice, education and research for PR in
Africa can only be effective if there is an African body of knowledge based on African
philosophy. Mersham, Skinner and Rensburg (2011: 201) posit that Africa is capable
of providing a unique contribution to the global practice of PR. The authors found
significance in the words of Steve Biko, a celebrated South African anti-apartheid
activist, for contemporary PR:
Westerners have on many occasions been surprised at the capacity
we have for talking to each other - not for the sake of arriving at a
particular conclusion, but merely to enjoy the communication for its
own sake.
And:
We believe that in the long run the special contribution to the world
by Africa will be in this field of human relationships. The great
powers of the world may have done wonders in giving the world an
industrial and military look, but the great gift still has to come from
Africa - giving the world a more human face.
In essence, the sense of belongingness is quite strong on the African continent.
Interpersonal relationships are created as the members of the communities see
themselves as one. This is reflected in the dialogical nature of African communication.
The African treasures human relations above all else as this is what builds their identity
and enhances their humanness.
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Mersham and Skinner (2009: 310) admit that the field of PR and communication
management has some way to go before it can be recognised and given the legitimacy
sought for by scholars for decades. Van Heerden (2004: 238) concludes by indicating
that the core of social responsibility is summarised in the African worldview and social
structures.
In the light of the global expansion of PR, the question one needs to ask is whether the
African worldview has not been influenced in as far as the practice of PR on the
continent is concerned? A review of the various worldviews/paradigms and models
shows some similarities between them and the African worldview. The concept of
African worldview in a way reflects the relational and symmetrical paradigms of North
America and to some extent that which is practiced in Asia (personal influence and
cultural interpreter models). The little literature available (Kiambi & Nadler, 2012; Ming-
Yi & Baah-Boakye, 2009) shows that PR in Africa is based on relationship building and
that good interpersonal relationship is regarded as key to OPR. Practitioners play a
central role in the OPR as both parties socialise and build good relations (Kiambi &
Nadler, 2012: 506). It will be interesting to determine how far the African worldview
exists in the practice of PR in Ghana. With the number of multinational organisations
growing each day in all sectors, including the financial sector, the question is whether
the practice of PR will be based on African influences or whether it will be a mixture of
other worldviews as determined by the few research studies on the continent. In this
study PR practice will be explored and tested based on its roles (activities) and models
(purpose). Results will enable the researcher to develop the appropriate framework
that will guide the practice of PR, not only in the organisations studied, but also in
Ghana as a whole.
The next section will discuss various roles (activities) that PR practitioners engage in.
The discussion once again will look at the American and European perspectives and
how these have influenced research worldwide. The discussion will also focus on PR
roles (if any) as practiced on the African continent.
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3.5. PUBLIC RELATIONS ROLES
One of the most dominant areas of research among scholars is the concept of PR
roles. The idea of PR roles has been discussed for decades as scholars seek to
establish PR as a professional discipline (Grunig, Grunig & Dozier, 2006: 36; Steyn,
2009: 95). The concept is premised on the day-to-day activities of a PR practitioner
and how these activities are categorised based on the practitioner’s status within the
organisation. Grunig, Grunig and Dozier (2006: 36) define the concept of roles as
“abstractions about patterned behaviours of individuals in organisations, a way of
classifying the myriad of activities that an individual might perform as a member of an
organisation.” The concept of roles was initially introduced by Broom and Smith in
1979 to define and understand the various functions of PR practitioners. As stated
earlier, roles research has been studied at length by both American and European
scholars with some misgivings, especially among the European practitioners. Part of
these debates stems from whether PR practices/roles are the same/similar across
cultures or generic across countries (Culbertson & Chen, 1996; Verčič, Grunig &
Grunig, 1996). To put the discussion into proper perspective, the two worldviews will
be looked at. Petersen, Holtzhausen and Tindall (2002: 1) are of the view that
examining PR roles in an international setting is essential to understand the practice
of PR in a particular environment.
3.5.1. PR roles: North American perspective
Glen Broom, in his seminal works in the 1970s and 1980s (Broom & Smith, 1978,
1979; Broom, 1982), attempted to establish a typology of PR roles that would clearly
explain the nature and scope of PR practice within the organisational environment.
Broom and Smith conceptualised the PR roles into four categories, the expert
prescriber, communication facilitator, problem-solving facilitator, and the
communication technician (Dozier 1992: 329).
The expert prescriber is described as the ‘informed practitioner’, that is, the
one with the authority to solve critical PR issues. These are practitioners
who are best informed on PR issues and who have the capacity to develop
solutions to such issues. Top management assumes a relatively passive
involvement and become highly dependent on the practitioner. In working
on PR issues, practitioners identify and analyse the issue, develop the
programme, and take full responsibility for its implementation (Broom &
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Sha, 2012: 33). In this role both the practitioner and management are in a
“seductive” state. Management believe that the practitioner is the expert
and so can competently handle the issues. They therefore become overly
dependent on the practitioner and show little or no commitment to the PR
programme. On the other hand, the practitioner is seduced into believing
that only he/she can handle such a situation. Practitioners therefore have
a sense of gratification as they are viewed as the authority on the issue at
hand. Grunig and Hunt (1984: 21) link this role to the two-way asymmetric
and publicity/press agentry models of PR practice.
The Communication facilitator plays the role of a go-between or liaison
between the organisation and its publics. Practitioners are viewed as
sensitive listeners and information brokers who serve as liaisons,
interpreters, and mediators. Their role is facilitating two-way
communication, removing barriers in relationships, and keeping the
channel of communication constantly open. Essentially, practitioners play
the boundary-spanning role by linking the organisation and the publics to
each other as a means of improving the decision-making process of both
organisation and publics (Brooms & Sha, 2012: 33; Dozier, 1992: 330).
The problem solving process facilitator assists management in defining and
solving issues in a systematic way. It is a collaborative effort between
management and the practitioner, which is in contrast to the expert
prescriber. Practitioners are part of the strategic planning team and engage
actively with management in identifying and solving communication
problems (Broom & Sha, 2012: 33; Dozier, 1992: 330). Grunig and Hunt
(1984: 25-26) suggest that the problem solving process facilitator’s role is
essential in the practice of two-way symmetrical PR.
The final role conceptualised by Broom and Smith is the communication
technician role. Practitioners mainly implement decisions taken by the
dominant coalition in the organisation. Practitioners are viewed as
“journalists-in-residence” due to their communication skills. They are
responsible for writing and editing newsletters, news releases, and feature
stories. Practitioners practicing this role are seen as operating the press
agentry/publicity and public information models (Grunig & Hunt, 1984: 21-
22).
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Research shows that even though the practitioner plays several roles, in time a
dominant role emerges. Broom discovered a direct relationship between the expert
prescriber, communication facilitator, and problem solving facilitator roles. The three
roles, despite being distinct, tend to be performed interchangeably by the same
practitioner and is different from the technician role. Two consistent roles therefore
emerged to define the daily activities of practitioners, the manager role and the
technician role (Broom & Sha, 2012: 34; Fieseler, Lutz & Meckel, 2015; Tench,
D’Artey & Fawkes, 2009: 157; Lattimore et al 2004: 61). The managerial role assists
in decision-making processes. Practitioners in this role use research to enact
communication policies that ensure successful PR programmes. It is based on
strategic thinking and systematic planning together with the dominant coalition. PR
practitioners go beyond the communication processes by engaging in activities such
as environmental scanning, organisational intelligence, negotiation and coalition
building, issues management, programme evaluation, and management counselling
(Broom & Sha, 2012: 34). The technician on the other hand carries out what is
generally termed as production activities (writing, editing, press releases, website
design, feature stories, annual production, distribution) and does not influence policy
decision-making. The technician role is typically regarded as the core of PR work -
engaging in media relations activities and producing mediated communication. The
two roles show a clear distinction in terms of performance and influence. Again the
PR manager mostly possesses similar skills as the technician but has research,
problem-solving, and strategic thinking abilities in addition, and is also accountable
to the dominant coalition (Berger & Reber, 2013: 180).
3.5.2. PR roles: European perspectives
In 1988, PR scholars in Europe started a process aimed at producing an European
Public Relations Body of Knowledge (EBOK) which will codify how the profession was
practiced in Europe. This was aimed at counteracting the impression created by
American scholars that PR is practiced the same way everywhere. Attempts to fully
understand and codify the practice of PR in Europe were made. European PR
professionals have long suggested differences in the approach to how PR is practiced
compared to the USA and therefore saw the need to codify an existing body of PR
literature of European origin and identify clear dimensions of the practice (Van Ruler,
Verčič, Flodin & Buetschi, 2002: 166-175). To achieve this objective, a Delphi study
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was conducted by European PR scholars in different European countries. A Delphi
study is a research technique that is used to generate an understanding of a concept
or “assessing future, complex, or ambiguous subjects” (Van Ruler & Verčič, 2002: 1).
The study attempted to understand the specific nature of European PR as well as
content and parameters. The project identified some key dimensions of public
relations as practiced in Europe including its definition, key concepts, its essence and
contribution, aim and value, parameters, country characteristics, and the name of the
discipline (Van Heerden, 2004: 70-71).
Van Ruler et al (2001: 380) identified differences in the European approach to PR in
comparison to that of the USA. The most profound difference was the
conceptualisation of four dimensions or roles of European PR. These dimensions or
roles are discussed below:
The managerial role focuses on the mission and strategy of the
organisation and is aimed at commercial or other groups. Strategies are
developed to maintain relationship and gain public trust and/or mutual
understanding.
The operational role is focused solely on implementation and evaluation
of communication action plans formulated on behalf of the organisation
by others.
The reflective role focuses on analysing changing standards and values
in society. It is premised on organisational values and norms and a way
of ensuring a socially responsible behaviour by the organisation and to
gain legitimacy.
The educational role is concerned with the communicative behaviours
of the internal publics. Its focus is on enabling the organisational
members to become communicatively competent to be able to respond
to social demand.
The reflective role is considered the most important role among the four roles. The
reflective role consists of analysing changing standards, values, and norms in society
and providing the necessary information to the dominant coalition. The decision-
makers then adjust the standards and values of the organisation through socially
responsible behaviour in order to gain legitimacy (De Beer et al 2013: 309).
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A comparison of these dimensions to that of the historic roles of PR shows clear
similarities. The reflective and managerial roles reflect the manager role while the
operational role also reflects the technician role. For the purpose of this study the
manager and technician roles are equated to the European roles. However, as Van
Heerden (2004: 71-72) points out, there is uncertainty as to the existence of the
educator role in Africa, and for that matter this research will not focus on the educator
role to determine the roles practiced in Ghana.
3.5.3 PR roles in Africa
Despite the numerous research studies on PR roles by scholars worldwide, Africa
appears to have fallen behind in this area as well. Whereas Europe and the USA have
some form of PR roles identity, the same cannot be said of Africa in terms of a common
body of knowledge on the uniqueness of PR roles as found on the continent. It must
be emphasised once again that the few research studies found on the continent have
mainly been from South Africa. Available literature suggests that much of the research
work has been focused on PR roles using the manager and technician perspectives
from the USA. As yet there is no effort to codify PR roles that are unique to the African
practitioner, especially when one realises the complex nature of relationships and how
they affect the business environment in Africa. South Africa developed a role that is
called the strategist role to define the activities of PR practitioners in the country (this
will be discussed later in the chapter). Apart from this, the few literature studies
available suggest a mixture of the technician, manager, and to some extent, strategist
role in the rest of Africa. Nabukeera (2006: 100-101), in comparing the roles practiced
in other jurisdictions compared to that of Ugandan practitioners, found that PR practice
was based on the strategist, technician and manager roles. The manager role was,
however, the dominant one practiced, an indication that PR in Uganda was practiced
at the advanced level. The strategist role was found to be at a low level of practice.
Van Heerden and Rensburg (2005: 86-87) illustrated in their research that African PR
practitioners perform the strategist and technician roles. The authors posit that the
roles of practitioners in Africa are intrinsically linked with a concern for gaining social
legitimacy, hence efforts are placed into ensuring activities are geared towards a
socially responsible behaviour. In short, the practice of PR in Africa is based on societal
perspectives. Their research also failed to show a clear difference between the
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manager/technician roles, which creates the impression that the manager role as
conceptualised in theory does not exist in Africa. Steyn (1999: 40) also conceptualised
and empirically verified the strategist role of PR from the perspective of CEOs. Styen
concludes that excellent PR can only be practiced when the practitioner plays the role
of a PR strategist. This is corroborated in a research by Meintjes (2011: 86) which
suggests top management in organisations expects the most senior PR practitioner to
play the strategist role by scanning and monitoring the environment, anticipating issues
and their consequences on the organisation, and developing the appropriate policies
to ensure they live up to societal expectations. A study by Steyn, Green and Grobler
(2001) suggests that PR roles as practiced in the public sector differ from those which
are performed in the private sector. In their study on strategic management roles as
performed by practitioners within government agencies, Steyn, Green and Grobler
(2001: 10-11) found the predominant role to be mainly that of the historic technician
(specifically as a media relations specialist) as well as general managerial activities
such as managing staff, organising budget, representing the department at
management meetings etc. Activities not performed included the role of the strategist
and developing communication strategies for the department. The lack of a strategic
role within the government department may not be surprising as such tends to have
defined publics who have no choice but to work with them. Neither do they face
competition as the corporate world/private sector does. However, this does not mean
they do not need to play the strategist and manager roles as activities under these
roles shape reputation. Le Roux (2010: 299) also found that actual roles performed by
practitioners were the technician, manager, and strategist roles with the technical role
being the most dominant. The technician role was followed by the manager and
strategist roles respectively. The research found that although a number of the
practitioners had managerial titles, they were actually performing the role of a
technician. Most who were strategists also held human resource-related titles. The
reality then is that roles are not dependent on titles. Being corporate communication
manager does not necessarily mean one performs a managerial function or one has
to have a PR title to be performing PR roles. Gqamane (2010: 95) also found that in
many organisations where the PR department was independent of another
department, PR was not practiced as a management function and did not contribute to
decision-making at the top level. Practitioners however participated in decision-making
where PR was part of the marketing department. Participation in decision-making was
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therefore dependent on the organisational structure. The findings give a clear
indication of management’s view of the importance of PR and its ability to contribute
effectively to organisational effectiveness.
The discussion above shows PR in Africa is a mixture of the three role typology, that
is, manager, technician, and strategist. The strategist role in particular has been
discussed at length, especially in South Africa where it originates, to differentiate it
from the two role typology of managerial and technician. The next section will briefly
discuss the strategist role as differentiated from the other roles.
3.5.3.1. The strategist role of South Africa
Before the development of the strategist role, scholars such as Moss, Warnaby and
Newman (2001: 301) and Grunig (2001: 6, 8) had already stressed the essence of
having a strategic role. The authors underlined the importance of identifying the
contribution of PR to strategic decision-making. Grunig, for instance, in commenting
on how PR contributes to strategic management concludes that strategic PR is the
“single characteristics that most distinguished excellent public relations from less-
excellent public relations functions” (2001: 6,8). The strategic role of PR is regarded
as essential if organisations are to be excellent and competitive within an ever-
changing environment (De Beer, 2001: 2).
In view of this, Steyn (2003: 1) conceptualised and empirically verified the “strategic
role” within the South African context. The role was conceptualised based on Van
Riel’s ‘mirror function’, which describes the role of the practitioner as “monitoring of
relevant environmental developments and the anticipation of their consequences for
the organisation’s communication policy.” Steyn and Butschi (2003: 8) however
broadened the mirror function to include:
monitoring of relevant environmental developments and the anticipation
of their consequences for the organisation’s policies and strategies,
especially with regard to relationships with stakeholders and other
interest groups in society.
PR must operate at three main levels - the macro level (strategic), meso level
(manager), and micro level (technician) if it is to contribute effectively to organisational
success (Grunig, 1992: 3). The PR strategist therefore operates at the macro (societal)
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level by analysing the environment (scanning the environment). In this way the
practitioner is able to assist the organisation shape its policies to be in line with
changing environmental trends. The strategist plays the role of a boundary spanner
whereby he/she interprets the environment to management and management to the
stakeholders (Steyn 2007: 139; Grunig et al 2002: 2; Grunig, 2001: 6, 141; De Beer,
2001: 2; Steyn & Puth, 2000: 17; Moss et al 2000: 301). Scanning the environment
allows the practitioner to determine consequences of organisational action or
stakeholder behaviour and communicate these back to management. Management
then makes a strategic decision that ensures its acceptance among its stakeholders
(Le Roux, 2013; 2010: 120). The practitioner at the strategic level serves as a bridge
between the organisation and its stakeholders. By playing the boundary spanning role
effectively, the practitioner helps the organisation adapt to changes within the
environment. This boundary spanning role has two main components: firstly, the
practitioner obtains information from the environment and feeds it to the organisation.
The views of stakeholders are crucial to maintaining equilibrium and ensuring public
trust and social acceptance (Steyn, 2007: 139, 146; Steyn, 2004: 71). The PR
practitioner therefore functions as an “early warning system that identifies issues
before a crisis erupts.”
Sharpe (2000: 358) is of the view that management sometimes tends to select what it
wants to hear and makes decisions that may be wrong. This calls for the strategist to
hold “…a degree of detachment from the motives that drive other members of
management.” Secondly, the PR strategist interprets the views of the organisation to
the publics, which is compared to the window function - “the preparation and execution
of a communication policy and strategy, resulting in messages that portray all facets of
the organisation in a transparent way” (Steyn & Butschi, 2003: 8). Grunig (in Steyn,
2007: 139)) suggests that interpreting decisions and views of the organisation to the
publics is a strategic function and allows the organisation to behave in a socially
responsible manner.
The functions of the strategist also consist of building relationship with stakeholders
and managing reputation risk as well as development of strategy (Everett, 2006: 101-
102; Everett & Steyn, 2006: 25–26; Steyn & Puth, 2000: 17–18). Steyn and Butschi
(2003: 20) identified striking similarities between the mirror/strategist role of South
Africa and the reflective role as practiced in Europe. Both see PR as:
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operating at the macro or societal level, spanning the boundary
between organisation and external environment in a listening capacity
(the outside-in approach).
bringing in information from the external/societal environment that the
top management structure in an organisational system should
consider.
pointing out to top management the consequences of the information
for the organisation.
influencing top management to adapt organisational strategies and
behaviour according to the social intelligence obtained.
being involved in issues of organisational trust, legitimation, and
reputation.
The outcome of the EBOK suggested that European PR (reflective) is inherently
different from that of North America (manager/technician). Steyn (2005: 72) suggests
that the most senior PR practitioner in organisations typically plays the strategist role
by constantly scanning the environment and anticipating consequences of the
organisation’s decisions. The strategist role is therefore very similar to the reflective
role as identified by the EBOK and conceptualised in theory by Holmstrom. The
similarities (as outlined above) were therefore broadened with a reflective dimension.
The roles discussed will be adapted for this study as a means of guiding the theoretical
and empirical aspects of the study.
3.6. DEVELOPMENT OF PUBLIC RELATIONS IN GHANA
This section will review the development and practice of PR in Ghana. The discussion
will commence with a brief historical background of Ghana including its geography,
economy, political, and cultural characteristics. The discussion will then look at the
landscape of PR in Ghana by examining the historical development of PR and then its
practice. The discussion will review areas such as professionalism, PR
education/training, and contribution to the body of knowledge.
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3.6.1. Brief history of Ghana
Ghana, a former British colony, became the first African country in Sub-Saharan Africa
to establish self-governments of Africans when it gained independence from Britain in
1957. The independence revolution was led by Dr. Kwame Nkrumah, who became the
country’s first president. The country is the geographic centre of the world and is
surrounded by three Francophone countries, Cote d’Ivoire to the West, Togo to the
east and Burkina Faso to the north. The southern border is covered by the Gulf of
Guinea and the Atlantic Ocean. At the time of independence, Ghana had a strong
economy which was based on timber, cocoa (Ghana was the world’s leading producer
of cocoa) and gold. Compared to other African countries, Ghana’s transportation
network was excellent and boasted the highest per capita income in Africa. Ghana’s
current population is estimated to be 27.9 million, made up of 75 ethnic groups with
different ethnic languages. Ghana’s freedom did not last long as it was plunged into
chaos with a series of coups, starting with the overthrow of President Nkrumah in 1966.
The period between 1966 and 1992 saw a series of military rules interspersed with
brief civilian regimes. This period witnessed a decline in socio-economic growth and
political discourse as press freedom was non-existent. The beginning of the 1990s
however saw a shift in the political system with a return to democratic rule in 1992 and
the promulgation of a new constitution. Ghana has since experienced political stability
with six successful presidential and parliamentary elections. Freedom of speech as
well as independence of the media is also guaranteed under the constitution. The
successful democratic rule has often been used as an example of successful and
political economic reforms in Africa by the World Bank and the USA.
On the economic front, Ghana’s economy is steadily growing after witnessing a decline
in the last three years. An IMF report released in April 2016 estimated Ghana’s per
capita income to be US$1,340.4 up from the initial US$1,266.1 in 2008, an increase
of 5.9 percent over the period. Ghana is currently the world’s second largest producer
of cocoa, behind its neighbour Cote d’Ivoire, and is blessed with rich mineral resources
including, gold, diamonds, manganese ore, and bauxite. In 2010 Ghana started oil
production which helped to boost economic growth. As at 2006, Ghana’s domestic
economy revolved around agriculture, accounting for about 60 percent of the country’s
workforce and about 50 percent of GDP (Blankson, 2009: 186). As at the end of 2015
however, the agricultural sector was contributing a mere 26.9 percent to the GDP with
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the services sector contributing 54.1 percent, even though the agric sector still has the
largest workforce (Mensah, 2016).
The media landscape in Ghana has grown tremendously in the last decade.
Previously, Ghana could boast of only the state owned media houses, Ghana
Broadcasting Cooperation (both TV and radio), the Daily Graphic and Ghanaian
Times. Ghana currently enjoys media plurality. As at September 2016, a total of 452
radio stations had been given authorisation to operate (with 354 currently operational)
while 75 TV stations had authorisation to operate. The number of newspapers in
Ghana is estimated to be more than 300. The freedom guaranteed by the 1992
constitution has emboldened the media to speak on issues as governments are held
accountable (Osei, 2016). These factors have largely influenced the growth of PR in
Ghana.
3.6.2. The Landscape of Modern Public Relations in Ghana
As noted in chapter one (see section 1.5), Ghana, like the rest of Africa (with the
exception of South Africa and Kenya), does not have a well document history of how
PR developed, a fact acknowledged by Blankson (2009: 186). The few writings (mostly
dissertations) on this subject used the writings of Nartey (1998) and Gyan (1991), who
appear to have done a bit of work on the practice of PR in Ghana. However, as it has
been widely acknowledged, PR in Ghana, as it is in the various African countries, has
its roots in ancient beginnings (see section 3.5). Nartey (1998) argues that PR practice
in Ghana cannot be linked to the coming of the colonialists, and the practice existed
in another form long before Colonialism. Communication activities were carried out
through the chief linguist at the chief’s palace, the talking drum, proverbs, traditional
protocols, and other gadgets. Joseph Allotey-Pappoe (in a speech delivered during a
public lecture at the University of Education, Winneba, in 2009) conceptualised PR
practice in Ghana into four main periods. These are:
- Pre-colonial traditional society up to 1482: This is an era dubbed as the initial
creation of a ‘system of PR consciousness.’ The culture was understood by the
use of proverbs, drum language, traditional protocol through the linguist,
festivals, and a traditional conflict resolution system.
- From 1482 to 1956 was an era known as the Colonial and Pre-Independence
period. It was dominated by the Nationalist Protest Movements, the setting up
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of the Information Services Department, the emergence of indigenous private
newspapers and the establishment of PR units by multinationals operating in
the country e.g. CFAO, UNILEVER etc.
- The period from 1957-1990 was called the Post-Independence era. This period
was characterised by the active role of the External Service Unit of the Ghana
Broadcasting Service in Dr. Kwame Nkrumah’s “Africanisation” policy, the
establishment of the Ghana Institute of Journalism to train journalists and PR
practitioners, the growth of PR units in state institutions such as the Ghana
Publishing Corporation, GOIL, and State Farms. There was also the formation
in 1972 of a loose association of PR practitioners known as the Public Relations
Association of Ghana (PRAG).
- The final era spanned from the period 1990 to present and is captured as the
Growth of PR. In 1991, the PRAG was reorganised into a professional body,
adopted its own Code of Ethics and Constitution and was renamed the Institute
of Public Relations, Ghana. PR education evolved from being pursued at the
diploma level to be read at the degree, post graduate diploma and master’s
level as many more communications training institutions began to spring up.
PR accreditation exams began in 1992. The annual PR week, the flagship
programme of the Institute of Public Relations, Ghana (IPR, Ghana), was
introduced in 1992.
Going by the outline given by Allotey-Pappoe, it is clear that PR followed the same
stage as that of other countries. For instance, the first stage, which looks at the use of
drums, proverbs, and other protocols, can be compared to that of the activities of
Alexander the Great, Julius Ceaser and other nations who used some of these crafts
to induce favourable public opinion. The second stage saw the use of PR by
nationalists in the fight for independence. The post-independence era saw the use of
PR to influence public opinion as realised in the ‘Africanisation’ policy of Dr. Kwame
Nkrumah. PR comes of age in the final era as a result of democratic changes and
globalisation. PR becomes more formalised and gradually moves towards
professionalism. It was at this time that the IPR, Ghana, the flagship body of PR in
Ghana, was established.
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Gyan (in Blankson, 2009: 186) attributes the beginning of the practice of modern PR
to the activities of the British colonial administration. PR activities by then were
performed mainly by British and European expatriates practitioners. The job of these
expatriates included performing communication services and serving as sources of
information for the colonial administration as well as serving as spokespersons for the
multinational companies operating in Ghana at the time. After independence in 1957,
the new government headed by Dr. Kwame Nkrumah started the process of replacing
all expatriate administrators in key government sectors with locals. The Ghana
Information Services Department (ISD) became the sole provider of information,
press, and PR services for government, including communication activities of
ministries and departments. The ISD officers were called “press secretaries” or
“information officers”. They were attached to the various government ministries to play
PR roles. Just like the beginning of PR in the western world, practitioners were mainly
journalists. The action by the Nkrumah government did not go unnoticed as the
multinational companies followed swiftly by making changes of their own. Several of
these companies started filling some of their management positions with locals. A
number of people, who were mostly from diverse educational backgrounds, were
recruited to serve as press or information officers in a number of companies, both local
and foreign. The recruitment of journalists however created a problem as PR was
eventually seen as being synonymous with journalism. The situation eventually
resulted in the establishment of Ghana’s first communication institute, the Ghana
Institute of Journalism (GIJ), a name it still goes by today, to train PR officers.
The establishment of the PRAG in 1971 further enhanced the profession’s growth.
Herman Alah, an early practitioner, and a group of practicing and retired journalists
have been credited with the establishment of the association (Osam, 1989; Turkson,
1986, in Blankson, 2009: 187). The activities of the association and the increased
recognition they received, especially from foreign PR practitioners and associations,
began to rub off on society as businesses, organisations, educational institutions, and
not-for-profit organisations gradually started establishing PR departments.
The expected rapid growth however did not occur as a series of turmoils and inactivity
affected the association and subsequent development of the practice. The 1970s and
1980s were marked by a series of political and economic crises, tight government
control of media and the suppression of freedom and this affected the development of
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PR practice. During this time, PR was mainly used to promote the agenda of the
governments and enhance a positive image for the government, especially the military
regimes. Press freedom was either non-existence or quasi-liberal depending on
whether it was a military or civilian government. The PR industry was forced to follow
these shifts and thus tailored their activity to suit the government of the day.
Practitioners started using financial and material incentives as a means of getting
access to the state owned media. These were paid to either government officials or
journalists. PR was thus not respected in Ghana as a result of such methods.
Before the mid-1990s, the PR industry in Ghana was male dominated with twenty-
three men to three women. Only 53 percent had some university education. The
majority of the practitioners occupied low to mid-level positions and had little or no
power in the decision-making process. Practitioners largely performed the technician
role, performing press agentry, publicity and protocol roles as well as engaging in
media monitoring, speech and report writing, organising and attending meetings, and
sometimes dealing with complaints from the public (Boakye-Agyekum, 1992; Osam,
1989, in Blankson, 2009: 188).
Ghana began the process of institutionalising democratic rule in the early 90s. This
was mainly because of pressure from international donors, including the International
Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank, as well as the academic community in
Ghana. The implementation of democratic and liberalisation policies gradually paid off
as Ghana started experiencing multiparty democracy, political stability, and economic
growth. The media landscape in Ghana was not left out as the country witnessed a
proliferation of media houses. This was made possible by the 1992 constitution which
clearly delineated the independence of the media. This new found freedom meant that
the media could not be censored any longer and were free to do their work. Freedom
of speech was guaranteed. The impact of democratic development and economic
growth positively affected the growth of the PR profession. After a series of seminars,
meetings and fora, PRAG, which had almost gone under the radar, metamorphosed
under the new name the IPR, Ghana, with a new constitution and Code of Ethics in
1992. The association was formerly registered under the Professional Bodies
Registration Decree, (NRCD 143) of 1973 (Otchere-Daflabge, 2009). The association
undertook a number of initiatives to make itself relevant, including:
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Redefining its mission to focus on promoting professionalism among
practitioners and improving the image of PR in the country;
Educating management and the public about what PR is and what its roles are
in the emerging democracy;
Establishing proper educational standards and professional criteria for
practicing PR;
Seeking legal recognition as the professional body responsible for all PR
practitioners in Ghana;
Defining what constitutes the body of knowledge in PR in the country and
setting standards for PR practice and conduct; and
Preventing people from practicing PR without the necessary education and
professional training.
To streamline the activities of practitioners and weed out the unqualified ones and to
also conform to international standards, IPR instituted membership and accreditation
examinations and also managed to get parliamentary approval to enforce by-laws and
prevent those who were not qualified from presenting themselves as practitioners.
The training of PR professionals is also raising the standard of the practice in Ghana.
The last decade has seen a flagship of universities, both foreign and local, opening
departments of communication studies to train students in the area of PR, advertising,
and journalism. With the exception of the GIJ the only other institution offering
communication studies was the School of Communication Studies, University of
Ghana, and even then this was at the master’s level. In 2002 the first private
communication school, the Africa Institute of Journalism and Communication (now
Africa University College of Communication - AUCC) was established to cater for the
growing demand for communication professionals and also introduce more
professionals into the system. Currently Ghana has more than a dozen
universities/colleges offering communication at the undergraduate and master’s level.
This includes foreign colleges that have established campuses in Ghana.
At the corporate level, PR, mainly referred to as corporate communications in most
organisations, is quickly becoming a major part of organisations. The political stability
and economic growth has attracted foreign investment into various sectors of the
economy, including the financial, extractive, and telecommunication sectors.
Organisations such as Vodafone, Tullow Oil, Goldfields, MTN, and Unilever, have
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been operating in the country for many years. The activities of these organisations
require that they develop effective communication strategies to develop and maintain
relationships with their stakeholders, including the government of the day. Ghanaian
practitioners have been at the forefront of the communication activities of these
organisations. During the 2000 IPR week conference in Accra, the following
observations were made by two key speakers:
The current business climate in Ghana demands that we [Ghanaian
practitioners] attach greater importance to inter-corporate
communications, both local and foreign. More importantly, we have to
re-examine the way we have done business in the past and probably
adopt the western-style, two-way communication and relationship
building practices.
And
Events in recent times had instilled in almost all organisations a sense of
obligation to give public relations its rightful place. Success of any
corporate body depends largely on the public’s perception of it and also
the kind of relationship that exists between the organisation and its
publics (Blankson, 2009: 190).
Ghana’s PR is therefore developing at a phenomenal rate with most practitioners now
at the managerial level. The level of professionalism has increased tremendously as
practitioners work to establish relationship between the organisation and stakeholders.
Ming-Yi and Baah-Boakye (2007: 23) conclude that professionalism in PR practice in
Ghana is steadily improving and is mainly influenced by globalisation. A significant
factor in the growth of PR was the liberalisation of the airwaves in 1994.
The introduction of media pluralism created competition in the media landscape. PR
practitioners now have a variety of channels through which to link the organisation to
the publics and vice versa. Practitioners now engage in media monitoring activities
and advice management based on the changes in the environment. The advancement
of technology is seen as an opportunity for PR in Ghana to further develop.
Practitioners can now reach diverse audiences and further expose their organisations
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to the wider world. But this also requires that practitioners upgrade their skills and are
in tune with the technological changes and how they can take advantage of these to
further develop.
Despite the tremendous growth of the profession, PR in Ghana still suffers from
negative perception from the Ghanaian public. Some still equate the profession with
propaganda and corruption. In some organisations PR is placed under the marketing
departments and practitioners are mostly given smaller budgets and have a small staff.
Regardless of these challenges, PR practice in Ghana is steadily growing. More and
more organisations are hiring practitioners at the managerial level. Moreover, the influx
of foreign PR agencies such as Ogilvy and Martha to compete with the local PR
agencies is improving the profession. As the country’s democratic stature continues
to rise and the economy flourishes, the PR profession will continue to flourish (Ming-
Yi & Baah-Boakye, 2009: 83).
3.6.3. PR roles in Ghana
The current body of literature on PR roles has very little information on the roles
performed by practitioners in Ghana. The few studies available are mainly master’s
dissertations that look at the functions of PR in organisations. This makes the
discussion on roles research, especially from the Ghanaian perspective, difficult.
Again, no attempt has been made to codify the practice with a Ghanaian identity like
the strategist role of South Africa. The little literature available mainly looks at the
manager and technician roles with nothing at all on whether the strategist role also
occurs in Ghana.
Ming-Yi and Baah-Boakye (2006: 655), in their research on Profile of public relations
practice in Ghana: Practitioners’ roles, most important skills for practitioners,
relationship to marketing, and gender equality, posited that most PR practitioners
performed the managerial roles in their organisations. Most of the practitioners
surveyed responded positively that they were part of the decision-making body. This
was a significant improvement from the earlier research by Gyan (1991) which
suggested roles of practitioners were at the technician level. Gyan (2014: 29-30)
discovered that PR roles based on gender were the same. This means that there was
no discrimination of roles based on a practitioner’s gender. She found that roles
performed were a mixture of managerial and technician. PR practice in private higher
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education institutions usually follows the technician role (specifically media relations)
with a little bit of management activities.
Most PR managers in private universities in Ghana are not part of management and
are seen as implementers of decisions rather than partakers (Dornyo & Adiku, 2015:
37). Those who are part of management are however not part of the dominant coalition,
that is, the highest decision-making body of the institution (Narteh, Akwensivie &
Agyapong, 2013: 175; Boakye, Nsor & Tabi, 2012: 35-36). The above discussion is an
indication that not much has been done in determining the actual roles that
practitioners in Ghana perform and how these roles affect the management view of
PR. If the current study is to effectively develop the appropriate framework for PR
practice in the financial sector, then this gap will need to be addressed.
3.7. SUMMARY
The chapter discussed the development of PR by reviewing literature on the subject.
It was based on the key research objective of investigating how PR was practiced.
The chapter reviewed the development and practice of PR from two main
perspectives. The first phase discussed the historical development of PR from the
North American, European and African perspectives, whereas the second phase
reviewed the various models that reflected the practice of PR on these three
continents. In reviewing these perspectives, the American and European models and
roles had some similarities and differences, some of which have been clearly
enumerated in the discussions above. Though the European models have different
names from that of the American models, the orientation however reflects the same
thing. The information model, for instance, is a reflection of the public information
model while the persuasion model reflects the asymmetric model. The relationship and
dialogue models reflect the symmetric models. Interestingly, the models in Europe do
not take cognisance of the press agentry/publicity model. Indeed, Van Ruler and
Verčič (2005: 251), as stated earlier, strongly believe that all major communication
theories, including Grunig’s models, can be subsumed under the European models.
The European models, unlike the American models, however put a lot of emphasis on
ethical communication and societal legitimisation as a means of achieving
organisational goals. Whereas the American model views the symmetrical model as
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the best model for PR practice, the Europeans do not ascribe such attributes to any of
the models. European practitioners believe that the use of a particular model is
dependent on the situation, hence one model cannot be said to be better than the
other. One also notices that Europeans consider PR as being more than just
establishing relationship. The discussion, as outlined above, shows PR is viewed more
as dealing with the “public sphere”, that is, activities that show public relevance and
societal acceptance of organisational activities. The reflective model, which is an
addition to the four previous models from Europe, therefore reflects these differences.
There are also similarities and differences regarding the roles perspectives. The
reflective and managerial role of Europe, for instance reflect the manager role of
America while the operational role is viewed as a reflection of the technician role. One
fundamental difference though is the educational role, which appears to be found
within the European sphere only. The similarities are also seen in the European roles
(reflective, managerial and operational) and the South African roles (strategist,
manager and technician), at least at the theoretical level (Steyn, 2003: 25). The
African PR role is based on a high concern for societal issues in the quest to gain
legitimacy. Dialogue is therefore used as a means of gaining societal trust. This is
clearly a reflective perspective but is referred to as the strategist role from the African
perspective. There is also no clear distinction between the manager/technician roles
(Van Heerden & Rensburg, 2005: 85).
One of the key issues discussed was the influence of the African culture in the practice
of the profession. This was looked at from the perspective of the communal nature of
African communication as it is reflected in the Bantu word “ubuntu”. The understanding
of the PR environment in Africa and Ghana must be placed in the proper context in
order to understand how the profession works. The chapter concluded with the
development of PR in Ghana. The history of Ghana was discussed as well as the
various stages of PR development in Ghana and its current status. The next chapter
discusses the methodology to be followed in the data gathering process.
Overall, the discussion highlighted a number of key issues in relation to the
development and practice of PR. These issues include the following:
The practice of PR is based on different philosophical orientations even among
western scholars.
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Whereas conceptualisation and practice of PR is based on symmetry and
relationship management in America, the European practice is focused on
gaining societal acceptance through socially responsible behaviour.
The models that influence PR practice continue to attract scholarly attention as
practitioners debate their viability in other jurisdictions.
Interestingly, the models of PR practice in Europe do not appear to have
attracted much attention from scholars outside of Europe or even in America.
There is a general agreement among critics of the four models that the two-way
symmetrical model cannot be assumed to be a one-size fits all model for
effective PR.
Knowledge of PR practice in Africa is severely limited.
There is a lack of African framework that defines the practice of PR on the
continent.
Discussions on PR practice hardly features voices from non-western countries.
Other countries are therefore forced to contribute to knowledge using western
perspectives.
PR roles between Europe and America differ in terms of their orientation.
There is no common body of knowledge on the uniqueness of PR roles in Africa.
PR roles verified have mainly been from the American perspective.
Significantly, there appears to be very little or nothing on whether the European
roles also affect the practice of PR in Africa.
Culture plays a key role in the practice of PR in non-western countries.
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CHAPTER FOUR
RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
4.1. INTRODUCTION
The focus of this research is applied communication research as it seeks to examine
issues that are practical in nature. The research seeks to understand how public
relations (PR) is practiced and the factors that influence such practices. The overall
goal of the research is to develop a framework that will guide the practice of PR in the
financial services sector in Ghana. The following objectives therefore underlined the
research: to investigate how PR is conceptualised by means of literature review; to
determine how PR is conceptualised and practiced by practitioners in the financial
services sector; to analyse the views of Ghanaian PR practitioners in the financial
services sector about the selected models; and to analyse the PR roles practitioners
in the financial services sector are engaged in.
The current chapter discusses the research methods for the study. A research method
deals with the various research techniques to be used in the data gathering process
(Wimmer & Dominick, 2011: 117). This includes methods to be considered in
gathering, analysing, and interpreting the data in line with the research questions
raised. Since this is an applied research, which is aimed at developing a solution for a
problem under investigation, methods concerned with the collection of data related to
the subject will be identified and discussed as such (Kothari, 2004: 8). The chapter
will discuss the nature of the research design and the appropriate research design that
will be used. This will include how data will be gathered at the secondary level as well
as the primary level. Thorough discussion of the semi-structured interview method,
since it is the key method of data collection, will also be done. The sampling technique,
which consists of the sampling population, the sampling method, and the sampling
size, will also be explained. Discussion will centre on how the population will be
selected, including the process of selection. A discussion on the method of data
collection will follow. The appropriate method for the research will be discussed at
length. The chapter also discusses the interview procedure, the interview guide, as
well as the means by which the data will be analysed. Discussion on how the reliability
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and validity of the qualitative data will be determined is also discussed with issues of
ethical consideration concluding the chapter.
4.2. RESEARCH DESIGN
The research design consists of the techniques and plans to gather data that is valid
and reliable. The process involves determining the respondents or unit(s) involved as
well as the place of study. The research design is a structure that shows how the
various parts of the project - samples, measures, and methods of data gathering -
come together in an attempt to address the research problem (Gravetter & Forzano,
2012: 189; du Plooy, 2009: 85; Trochim, 2006). Harwell (2011: 148) on the other hand
posits that a research design can be looked at in two ways. On one hand it can reflect
the entire research process, from problem conceptualisation to the literature review,
research questions, methods, and conclusion. Alternatively, it can be viewed from just
the methodological perspectives by describing the specific methods to be used in the
data gathering process (data collection and analysis). Despite the variations in the
definitions of the research design, its role in promoting rigorous examination of issues
remains the same. This chapter focuses on the latter aspect of the definition, that is,
how the data will be collected and analysed. If the researcher is to view the research
design from the definition that Harwell (2011: 148) gave, that is, consisting of the entire
research process, then it can be assumed that the previous chapters covered that
aspect of the research design. The current chapter will therefore show the various
techniques that will be used in the gathering and analysing of data.
Black (2012: 108-9) notes that in selecting the appropriate design for a research
project, the researcher must first know what he/she wants to achieve. In other words,
knowledge about what the researcher wants to be able to communicate - whether to
gain a deep or broad, but less deep, understanding of a phenomenon being studied
and whether the research will be used by policymakers or others to shape social life
and so on - is essential in shaping the research design. Gravetter and Forzano (2012:
190) also suggest that making a decision about which research design to use requires
three things, namely whether the study will involve groups or individual participants,
whether it will make comparisons within a group or between groups, and how many
variables will be included in the study.
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Traditionally there are two main types of research design, qualitative and quantitative.
However, over the years there has been a strong debate over the best method to use
in data collection. This debate eventually led to the rapid development of a third
method, the mixed method, which combines the two traditional methods in ways that
attempt to bridge the gap in the differences while addressing a research question
(Harwell, 2011: 151). Creswell (2014: 3) and Hesse-Biber (2016: 3) advance these
approaches to research when they suggest that the three approaches are not really
as different from each other as they may appear. The authors note that qualitative and
quantitative approaches ought to be viewed as representing different ends on a
continuum rather than being viewed as rigid, distinct categories, polar opposites, or
dichotomies. Within the continuum is the mixed method which incorporates elements
of the qualitative and quantitative methods.
The approach selected by a researcher is dependent on the overall goals of the
research and the specific questions derived from the overall methodology. The
purpose of quantitative research is essentially to test hypothesis or theories through
the examination of relationships between variables using a set of data gathering
instruments and analysing such data using statistical procedures. Quantitative
research attempts to generalise its findings and is devoid of the researcher’s personal
opinions (Creswell, 2014: 3; Harwell, 2011: 150; Wimmer & Dominick, 2011: 14). The
mixed method consists of the collection, analysis, and integration of qualitative and
quantitative approaches in a study. The mixed method approach uses distinct
categories that may consist of philosophical assumptions and theoretical frameworks.
That is to say the combination of the qualitative and quantitative ensures a broader
and a more complete understanding of the research problem than when either
approach is used separately (Cresswell, 2014: 3; Harwell, 2011: 151; Hesse-Biber,
2010: 3).
The study used the qualitative research approach, especially as the goal of the
research was exploratory. Exploratory research allows a researcher to examine a
phenomenon in detail by engaging practitioners who are knowledgeable about a topic
or process. Exploratory research also occurs when a researcher investigates a new
area of interest or when the phenomenon being studied itself is of relative interest (Sue
& Ritter, 2012: 2; Babbie, 2011: 92). As exploratory research is usually qualitative in
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nature, the qualitative approach was therefore seen as appropriate for the research.
The next section will briefly discuss the qualitative approach.
4.2.1. Qualitative research design
A qualitative approach or method is used to explore and understand meanings
ascribed to social issues. Qualitative research seeks to examine and interpret
observations in order to discover underlying meanings and patterns of relationship in
a non-numerical way (Creswell, 2014: 4; Babbie, 2011: 394). Harwell (2011: 148).
Creswell (2014:4) articulates that the purpose of the qualitative approach is to discover
and understand experiences, perspectives, and thoughts of participants. The
qualitative approach therefore examines meaning, purpose, or reality. In qualitative
research, detailed information on a topic of interest is collected through a number of
techniques such as case studies, interviews, and content analysis. Du Plooy (2009:
30, 88) also notes the purpose of the qualitative approach is to “interpret and construct
the qualitative aspects of communication experiences,” and that the main objective of
qualitative design is to “explore areas where limited or no prior information exists
and/or to describe behaviours, themes, trends, attitudes, needs, or relations that are
applicable to the units analysed.”
At its core is the process of ‘interaction’ between the researcher and participants in a
natural setting, resulting in a flexible and open research process. This process allows
the researcher to obtain different results from the same participants, what Lincoln and
Guba (in Harwell, 2011: 148) call “multiple truths.” According to Hesse-Biber (2016:
3), the qualitative approach offers a unique position by which a researcher can ask
questions in a particular way and provide greater perspectives on the social issues or
problems. In effect, the qualitative researcher looks for ‘meaning’, that is, the “social
meaning people attribute to their experiences, circumstances, and situations, as well
as the meanings people embed into texts, images, and other objects.” Qualitative
research is especially suitable in addressing a research problem whereby the
variables are not well known and literature about the phenomenon is very scarce
hence, the need to learn from participants through exploration (Creswell, 2012: 16).
Boeije (2010: 11) sums it up in the following statement:
The purpose of qualitative research is to describe and understand social
phenomena in terms of the meaning people bring to them. The research
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questions are studied through flexible methods enabling contact with
the people involved to an extent that is necessary to grasp what is going
on in the field. The methods produce rich, descriptive data that need to
be interpreted through the identification and coding of themes and
categories leading to findings that can contribute to theoretical
knowledge and practical use.
Qualitative research therefore aims to discover meaning from the perspective of
participants based on how they see their social worlds and to understand their
experiences. PR practitioners are likely to conceptualise the practice of PR based on
the experiences they have garnered over the years working in the financial sector. The
flexibility that the qualitative approach affords the researcher will ensure that data
gathered is rich and detailed. This ties in with the inductive approach which suggests
that the lack of knowledge beforehand of the kind of data that will be gathered and
what the frame of analysis will look like allows for improvisation, creativity, and
flexibility (Boije, 2010: 13).
The purpose of this research is to develop a framework that will guide the practice of
PR in Ghana. In this regard, it is essential to generate meaning based on practitioners’
experiences in the field.
4.2.2. Sources of data
In chapter one, a series of research objectives were formulated in order to
appropriately address the issue under investigation. The objectives were to be
addressed from two phases. The first phase was to gather data by means of literature
review, and secondly, to verify the literature by means of empirical data. The literature
review phase is referred to as secondary data while empirical data collection is
regarded as the primary data. Primary data/source essentially deals with a first hand
or main accounts of an issue under investigation and is gathered through data
collection methods including surveys, interviews, observations, and experiments,
whereas secondary data/sources are supportive data collected to aid the primary data.
Secondary sources provide relevant analysis of data found in primary sources
including books, journals, dissertations, reports, speeches and so on (Wimmer &
Dominick, 2011: 186; du Plooy, 2009: 62).
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The purpose of the literature review, as summarised in chapter 2 and 3, was to review
relevant data on the practice of PR across the world. Of particular concern was
determining how PR was conceptualised and practiced in terms of the roles (activities)
and models (purpose). In order to do this, secondary sources relevant to
understanding the problem under investigation were used. The secondary sources
enabled the researcher to further understand the research problem and put it under
the proper perspective. Several sources were consulted as a means of gaining insight
into the issue under investigation, including journals, textbooks, unpublished theses
and dissertations from a number of universities, conference proceedings, and
speeches. Of particular interest was reviewing the factors that influence PR practice
in other regions such as Europe and America and determining whether these factors
also play out in Africa and Ghana.
Several sources on PR as conceptualised and practiced in other regions were
available. However, with the exception of South Africa, there was a paucity of literature
on the rest of the African continent, including Ghana. Although insight has been gained
into the conceptualisation and practice of PR on the continent through the works of
some African practitioners (Kiambi, 2012; Le Roux, 2010; Ming-Yi & Baah-Boakye,
2009, 2008; Nabuukeera, 2006; Rensburg & Van Heerden, 2005; Van Heerden, 2004;
Steyn, Green & Grobler, 2001; Steyn, 1999), there is very little, if any, to suggest that
the same situation pertains to Ghana. Based on the findings of the literature the study
aimed at empirically verifying how PR is practiced with a focus on the models and
roles performed by practitioners within the financial services sector. This was done
through the qualitative approach which describes meanings attached to
communication experiences and generates multiple ‘truths’ (du Plooy, 2009: 35).
4.3. DATA COLLECTION
Data for this study was gathered through the semi-structured interview method. The
semi-structured interview method is one of the key methods of the qualitative
approach. Interviews in general are used to explore communication experiences,
attitudes, and behaviours of participants. Interviews ensure a one-on-one discussion
between the researcher and the research participant (Rubin, RB., Rubin, AM.,
Haridakis & Piele, 2010: 219). Interviews allow the researcher to ask open-ended
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questions. This allows participants to voice their experiences through open-ended
responses through why and how come questions (Creswell, 2013: 163). Galletta
(2013: 2) states that:
the semi-structured interview typically reflects variation in its use of
questions, prompts, and accompanying tools and resources to draw the
participant more fully into the topic under study. Semi-structured
interviews incorporate both open-ended and more theoretically driven
questions, eliciting data grounded in the experience of the participant as
well as data guided by existing constructs in the particular discipline
within which one is conducting research.
What this means is that the semi-structured interview goes beyond the quantitative
approach of the ‘what’ by gathering a wealth of information about the participants’
experiences and generating meaning. In the context of this research, the semi-
structured interview enabled the researcher to explore a phenomenon about which
there is little information in the country by gaining insight into how PR was
conceptualised and practiced as well as the factors that influenced the nature of the
practice. This agrees with the views of Daymon and Holloway (2011: 220) who suggest
that interviews serve as a useful technique for exploring the views and perceptions of
various stakeholders and publics. The nature of semi-structured interviews is such that
they are quite flexible and ensure the researcher has a deeper understanding of the
perspectives of the participants. Ultimately, the conversation between the interviewer
and the interviewee evolves since the interviewer has the freedom to further engage
the interviewee if something of interest emerges.
Before the interview can be conducted, it is essential to know how the sample will be
determined/drawn and the nature of the measuring instrument to be used. The next
section discusses the sampling technique as well as instrument development.
4.4. SAMPLING
A sample simply refers to a selected group or messages purposefully selected to
represent the population from which it is drawn. It refers to the group from which a
researcher wants to draw a conclusion after the study. Sampling, especially in
qualitative research, allows researchers to have a deeper understanding of a problem
under study (Black, 2012: 168-169; Stacks, 2011: 197). Sampling is necessary in a
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research study because of the inherent constraints of time and resources associated
with studying an entire population. Any attempt to study an entire population may also
be problematic in terms of cost and could confound the research since measurement
of a large population tends to affect the quality of measurement (Wimmer & Dominick,
2011: 87).
Sampling consists of two broad categories, probability and nonprobability. Probability
sampling allows the researcher to generalise the result of the research to the
population from which it is drawn. Probability uses random sampling techniques and
uses statistical methods to achieve generalisation. Nonprobability on the other hand
does not allow for generalisation but is nevertheless critical in exploring issues in
greater depth. Unlike probability, nonprobability does not follow the guidelines of
mathematical rules. Hence, the goal of using nonprobability is not to achieve statistical
generalisation. Sampling techniques in qualitative research require a different
approach to that of quantitative. Since the focus of qualitative is not to generalise in a
statistical or random sense, using probabilistic sampling may not be important or even
justifiable.
Qualitative approach to sampling is purposeful, that is, it is deliberate and based on
the purpose of the problem under investigation (Boeije, 2010: 35; Merriam, 2009: 77:
Daymong & Holloway, 2011: 209). Morgan (2008: 797) therefore notes that samples
in qualitative research must be judged based on their ability to serve the purpose of
the problem being investigated rather than by criteria that apply to other goals.
Because qualitative research focuses on inductive theory building, subjective
understanding, and detailed, holistic data, it can only be met through intensive
investigation of small, systematically selected samples (Morgan, 2008: 797-798).
Sampling in qualitative research therefore does not focus on replication in a wider
population but rather attempts to represent a wide variety of experiences and
perspectives (Ziebland & McPherson, in Boeije, 2010: 36).
The development of the sampling technique consists of a series of steps which will be
discussed below.
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4.4.1. Defining the research population
Before determining the other sampling techniques, it is important to determine the
target population for the study. In research, population refers to the set of individuals
or group with a common characteristic that the researcher needs. A population
consists of the entire group of interest from which the researcher selects a sample to
study. A sample is therefore a subset of a population (Adler & Clarke, 2010: 102;
Saumure & Given, 2008: 644). The target population to participate in the study
consisted of senior PR practitioners from selected organisations within the financial
services sector in Ghana.
4.4.1.1. Selecting the target population
Before the selection of the sample, it is important to determine how to find the
population; that is, the sampling frame needs to be identified. Ideally practitioners
would have been selected from registered members of the national PR association,
the Institute of Public Relations (IPR, Ghana). However, not every practitioner is a
member of the IPR and this made it difficult to get an accurate list or to use it as a
sampling frame. Again, the list of registered members is made up of people who are
not actual practitioners but are there as honorary members or journalists who are
members of the association. A review of the list also showed that the list, as it stands
now, has not been updated mainly because members who had changed jobs or
profession had either not updated their records with the association or were not active
members. This made the IPR list unreliable.
Since the research was within the financial services sector, it was easy for the
researcher to narrow down the target population. The financial sector consisted of
banks and non-banking (insurance, microfinance, and capital markets) institutions.
Details of the various organisations were obtained from the website of relevant
organisations such as the Bank of Ghana and the Ghana Investment Promotion
Center (GIPC). These websites contain updated information on the various sectors.
Senior PR practitioners from the targeted institutions were contacted first via telephone
to book an appointment with them. This was followed by a formal letter to the selected
institutions to get their permission to conduct the research.
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4.4.2. Selecting the sampling type
For the purpose of this study, the nonprobability, specifically the purposive sampling
technique, was employed to select the participants for the study. Purposive or
purposeful sampling is regarded as the most common form of qualitative sampling and
is premised on the supposition that the researcher can discover new things and gain
an understanding of the issue under study and therefore requires a sample that he/she
can learn the most from. Participants are selected based on their deep knowledge and
experience of the issue under investigation (Merriam, 2009: 77). Purposive sampling
allows cases or units to be specifically selected due to their ability to give detailed
information about the issues that are important to the research. Patton (2002: 230)
suggests that “the logic and power of purposeful sampling lies in selecting information-
rich cases for in-depth study. Information-rich cases are those from which one can
learn a great deal about issues of central importance to the purpose of the inquiry,
thus the term purposeful sampling. In order to effectively use purposive sampling, it
was vital to first determine the selection criteria needed to get the appropriate
participants. Le Compte and Preissle (in Merriam, 2009: 77) call this criterion-based
selection, whereby the researcher “creates a list of the attributes essential” to the study
and then “proceeds to find or locate a unit matching the list.” The criteria determined
for purposeful sampling therefore reflects the essence of the study and aid in the
identification of information-rich cases. It is also important to indicate why the criteria
are important. In the context of the current study purposive method allowed for the
selection of PR practitioners who are experienced in the field and have a deeper
understanding of the issue under investigation. Since the purpose of the research was
also not to generalise but rather provide rich information on PR practice in Ghana, the
purposive method was considered appropriate.
4.4.3. Determining the sample size
Sample size refers to the number of sources selected from a research population for
the study. In most research, especially quantitative, the focus is on statistical
generalisability. This has led to some criticisms about qualitative researchers since
they do not use probability samples. These criticisms however, overlook the fact that
small samples rarely have any practical value for generalisability (Morgan, 2008: 798).
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Qualitative research puts emphasis on an in-depth and highly contextual
understanding of specific phenomena and for that to happen one needs a small
sample size. Qualitative samples are therefore much smaller than quantitative. Ritchie,
Lewis and Elam (2003: 84) attribute this to three reasons:
First, if the data is properly analysed, there will come a point where very little
new evidence is obtained from each additional fieldwork unit. This is because
phenomena need only to appear once to be part of the analytical map. There
is therefore a point of diminishing return where increasing the sample size no
longer contributes new evidence.
Second, statements about incidence or prevalence are not the concern of
qualitative research. There is therefore no requirement to ensure that the
sample is of sufficient scale to provide estimates or to determine statistically
significant discriminatory variables. This is in sharp contrast to survey samples
which need to have adequately sized cells to draw statistical inference with the
required precision.
Third, the type of information that qualitative studies yield is rich in detail. There
will therefore be many hundreds of 'bites' of information from each unit of data
collection. In order to do justice to these, sample sizes need to be kept to a
reasonably small scale. Finally, and related to this, qualitative research is highly
intensive in terms of the research resources it requires. It would therefore
simply be unmanageable to conduct and analyse hundreds of interviews,
observations, or groups unless the researcher intends to spend several years
doing so.
Small samples are used in qualitative research because of the principle of saturation
(the point where no new information comes forth), the fact that frequencies are rarely
needed in qualitative research since such research is more concerned with meaning
instead of generalisation, and the fact that qualitative research produces a large
amount of data and can be time consuming to analyse. Morgan (2008: 798) also
agrees that qualitative researchers are justified in their use of saturation or redundancy
in collecting data rather than trying to use probabilistic criteria as a standard for
determining sample size. Merriam (2009: 80) also believes that the nature of the
sample size is dependent on the questions being asked, the data being gathered, the
analysis in progress, and the resources the researcher has to support the study.
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Daymon and Holloway (2011: 217) also add the number of researchers involved in the
overall study. Lincoln and Guba (in Merriam, 2009: 80) argue for sampling until the
researcher reaches the point of saturation or redundancy. “In purposeful sampling the
size of the sample is determined by informational considerations. If the purpose is to
maximize information, the sampling is terminated when no new information is
forthcoming from new sampled units; thus, redundancy is the primary criterion.” Patton
(2002: 246) suggests specifying a minimum sample size “based on expected
reasonable coverage of the phenomenon given the purpose of the study.”
Some authors suggest a sample size of six to eight with homogenous groups and
twelve to twenty with heterogeneous groups. Qualitative sample size however tends
to be made up of between four to 40 participants (Daymon & Holloway, 2011: 217).
Ritchie et al (2003: 97) also assert that generally qualitative samples involving
individual interviews in a single study are mostly below 50. Once they go beyond 50
they become difficult to manage as the quality of data collected and analysis can be
compromised.
Mason (2010), after a review of a series of PhD dissertations that used qualitative
approach, noted that most of the sample sizes used were between 20 and 30 with 40,
10 and 25 following respectively. Mason concluded that the average sample size per
dissertation was 31. Crouch and McKenzie (2006: 483) further argue that a sample
size less than 20 is sufficient to achieve validity since research based on interviews
ultimately seeks to penetrate social life based on generating meaning and not
appearance. Latham (2013) proposed that to ensure saturation occurs, a researcher
must go beyond the point of saturation. He therefore proposes 15 as the minimum for
qualitative interviews when the participants are homogenous groups. This supports
Bertaux’s (in Guest et al 2006: 61) earlier assertion that 15 participants should be the
smallest acceptable sample size in all qualitative research. Latham (2014) found that
saturation, for instance, occurred after interviewing 11 participants. This is consistent
with the findings of Guest, Bunce and Johnson (2006: 59) who found that saturation
mostly occurs around 12 participants, especially among a homogeneous group.
To gather enough information to produce the right result a sample size of 22
PR/communication practitioners from organisations in the financial services sector
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was selected. The researcher believed that using 22 participants was consistent with
views raised by scholars.
4.4.4. Data collection methods
Data collection methods are tools or techniques used in the gathering of information
about the subject under investigation. It refers to the various techniques used in the
performance of a research operation. In qualitative research data is collected through
words and consist of “direct quotations from people about their experiences, opinions,
feelings, and knowledge” obtained through interviews, “detailed descriptions of
people’s activities, behaviours, actions” recorded in observations, and “excerpts,
quotations, or entire passages” (Patton, 2002: 4).
Within qualitative research, one of the most common tools used for data collection is
the in-depth interview method, also known as intensive interview. Interview simply
refers to “a process in which a researcher and participant engage in a conversation
focused on questions related to a research study” (De Marrais, 2004: 55). Interviews
mostly consist of a one-on-one encounter between the researcher and the research
participant. Dexter (in Merriam, 2009: 88) describes it as “conversation with a
purpose.” Damon and Holloway (2011: 220) suggest that interviewing goes beyond
conversation; that it is largely dependent on the purpose and is based on some form
of structure. The purpose and structure allow the researcher to move the conversation
in a certain direction by asking most of the questions. Holstein and Gubrium, (in
Daymon & Holloway, 2011: 220) contend that seeing interviews as merely “a pipeline
for transmitting knowledge from informant to interviewer” is to limit their potential.
Interviews therefore ought to be a collaboration between the interviewer and
interviewee so that participants are able to express the topics and experiences that
interest them. Patton (2002: 340-341) explains the purpose of interview in the following
statement:
We interview people to find out from them those things we cannot
directly observe…. We cannot observe feelings, thoughts, and
intentions. We cannot observe behaviours that took place at some
previous point in time. We cannot observe situations that preclude the
presence of an observer. We cannot observe how people have
organized the world and the meanings they attach to what goes on in
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the world. We have to ask people questions about those things. The
purpose of interviewing, then, is to allow us to enter into the other
person’s perspective.
This means that interviews are necessary in situations where direct observations or
even focus group will not be possible. Behaviour, feelings, and how people interpret
the social world around them are things that cannot be directly observed. A key feature
of interviewing is its flexibility. The flexibility affords the researcher the freedom to
prompt the participants to further elucidate on an issue of interest.
The interview was used to gather information from the participants. The research used
the semi-structured interview in the data gathering process. The semi-structured or
less structured interview is part of three types (the other two being the highly
structured/standardised and unstructured) of interviews. The semi-structured interview
uses a combination of the structured and unstructured. It has a form of flexibility and
the researcher is able to deviate and ask follow-up or probing questions based on
responses of the participants (du Plooy, 2009: 198; Merriam, 2009: 90). The approach
ensures the researcher produces a ‘road map’ of questions which the researcher uses
throughout the interview (Adams, Khan, Raeside & White, 2007: 145). Although time
consuming and highly dependent on the interviewing skills of the researcher, the semi-
structured interview ‘reflects variations in its use of questions, prompts, and
accompanying tools and resources’ to engage the participants fully on the issue
through a mixture of open-ended and more theoretically driven questions (Galletta,
2013: 45). The semi-structured interview technique enabled the researcher to
understand the various factors that influence PR practice within the selected
organisations. Further insight was gained into how practitioners conceptualise and
practice PR by understanding the various activities that underpin the practice as well
as the models that influence such practice.
4.4.4.1. The Interview schedule
The researcher used an interview schedule or guide to gather data (See Addendum
A: 337). An interview schedule contains a series of questions or instructions (both
open-ended and closed-ended) that the researcher uses to collect data from
participants. Open-ended questions allow participants to express themselves freely in
their own words while closed-ended questions do not allow for free expression. In a
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qualitative study, the use of the closed-ended question is very limited since the focus
of qualitative interview is to generate a wealth of information. To ensure that
participants are encouraged to provide more information while feeling at ease, the
funnel interviewing approach was used. The funnel interviewing approach starts with
questions about the topic before delving into more specific questions (Daymon &
Holloway, 2011: 271; Wimmer & Dominick, 2011: 136). A series of general questions
on broad issues relating to PR practice were asked to create rapport with the
participants before specific questions regarding the practice of PR were posed.
4.4.4.2. The data gathering procedure
Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 22 PR practitioners in the financial
service sector. This consisted of both banking and non-banking financial institutions
such as insurance companies and microfinance/savings and loans companies. Letters
were sent to the organisations through the communication managers of these
organisations. Before the letters were sent, the researcher made contact with the
communication managers and discussed his intentions with them. Once they agreed
to participate in the study, the researcher then sent a formal letter requesting
permission to interview the communication directors of the organisation. Based on the
directions given by the participants, the letters were addressed to the managing
director/chief executive through the participants. The letter indicated the purpose of
the study, what the outcome would be used for as well as observation of all ethical
protocols including confidentiality and privacy. Letters were initially sent to over 30
financial institutions. The reason for this was that not all the organisations were likely
to approve or grant the researcher the permission for varied reasons. Eventually, 15
organisations granted permission for the researcher to conduct the interviews with
their corporate communication departments. Once permission was finally received,
the letters were sent to the ethics committee for approval to go ahead and conduct the
interviews.
A total of 22 participants were interviewed. This consisted of 15 heads and seven
deputy managers. The interviews were conducted at the offices of the participants.
The interviews took approximately 45 to 60 minutes to conduct. Participants were
made aware that the interviews were likely to take 45 to 60 minutes. This was to allow
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them to plan. Most of the participants requested the interview guide to enable them
to prepare adequately and this was duly granted.
Prior to each interview, the researcher explained the purpose of the study to the
participants. They were then given the information sheet for them to read and satisfy
themselves with each other’s responsibility towards the interview, after which both the
participant and the researcher signed the consent form. A copy of the consent form
was given to the participants. Permission was then asked once again before audio-
taping the interview. Once the interview was conducted, the researcher thanked the
participant before leaving the office.
4.5.5. Data analysis and interpretation
Qualitative data analysis is often regarded as gruelling, demanding, and repetitive and
therefore requires dynamism, intuitiveness, and creativity on the part of the researcher
as well as the ability to think, reason, and theorise (Basit, 2003: 143). Data analysis in
qualitative research focuses on analysing data through fragmentation and then
merging them into various categories that relate conceptually and theoretically, and
which make assumptions concerning the problem under study (Jones, 2007: 70). This
process is referred to as ‘decontextualising and recontextualising’. The
decontextualising process starts with the removal of the text from the source through
transcription with their meaning intact and then recontextualising by drawing meaning
through a robust, context independent process. Adams et al (2007: 155) categorises
qualitative analysis into five phases, namely the exploration phase (detect patterns in
the data and identify deviants and oddities), classification phase (compare theory and
identify groups), drawing conclusion phase (compare theory, compare and contrast
groups), representation phase (construct a model), and a testing phase (test the model
– validation). Daymon and Holloway (2011: 304) however categorise it into three
phases:
Data management and organisation: This is the initial process of carving up the
mass of unwieldy data into manageable chunks by coding, memoing, and
summarising them into patterns and configuration.
Asking questions of the data: What is going on? Who says? Where and when
is it happening?
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Interpretation: bringing meaning and insight to the words and acts of
participants in the study by generating concepts and theories (or theory based
generalisations) which explain the findings. The key question to ask and answer
at this point is: ‘So what does this finding mean in the light of the literature and
the main research question?’ The researcher then communicates the meaning
of his/her findings to others through a written report.
Qualitative data analysis, essentially allows a researcher to critically examine and
interpret observation in order to draw underlying meanings and patterns of relationship
in a non-numerical way (Babbie, 2010: 394).
Qualitative data analysis can be analysed either through manual transcription or by
the use of computer software. The current study utilised a computer-assisted
qualitative data analysis software (CAQDAS) package. It must be noted that such
software does not ‘analyse’ data as it is in quantitative analysis. Data analysis is purely
the researcher’s responsibility. The software however assists in managing the data
and making it easier to analyse. This is emphasised by Bogdan and Biklen (2007: 187)
who point out that the computer software serves as an organising or categorising tool
and does not analyse the data for the researcher. Computer assisted software ensures
easier, more flexible, accurate and comprehensive data management. Gill, Stewart,
Treasure and Chadwick (2008: 430) are nevertheless of the view that such software
programmes do not confirm or deny the scientific value or quality of qualitative
research and should be perceived as merely instruments that are as good or bad as
the researcher using them. Commenting on the usefulness of computer programmes,
Seal (2013: 265-269) postulates that they support the researcher in searching through
documents for particular features such as a word or phrase, code segments of data
according to some conceptual scheme, as well as assist in the writing of analytic notes
or memos which ensures that emerging ideas from the research materials are
recorded in the right places.
Computer software programmes essentially allow qualitative data to be handled with
speed, especially when dealing with a large volume of data, shows that conclusions
are based on rigorous analysis, and facilitate development of consistent coding
schemes during team research. There are a number of computer programmes
available including Nvivo, Atlas.ti and so on. The researcher believed that the use of
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the computer programme will assist in the quality management of the data gathered.
The researcher was however, mindful of the limitations of computer text analysis. For
example, using a computer programme without complimenting it with a word processor
will make it difficult to manage the data. Using word processing software alongside
CAQDAS is therefore highly recommended. Also, the researcher may have to spend
some time familiarising him/herself with the software, and uploading data into the
software can also be time consuming as some researchers have admitted (Rodik &
Primorac, 2015: 18; Seale, 2013: 270). It is however effective as it ensures a reduction
in human error and potential bias on the part of the researcher.
Once the data analysis was complete, the researcher then set forth the process of
interpreting the data. Data interpretation in qualitative research refers to the process
of creative insights into what has been found by way of meaning. Analysing the data
alone is not enough. Meaning must be ascribed to the data by explaining what the
data means. This is where the process of originality of the research is revealed
(Daymon & Holloway, 2011: 302, 316). The researcher reviews the various analytics
and compares and contrasts perceptions, experiences, or social realities and then
looks for common themes and connections in order to properly explain the problem
under study. Adams et al (2007: 161) categorise qualitative data analysis and
interpretation under six main headings, namely defining concepts, mapping range and
nature of phenomenon, creating typologies, finding associations, providing
explanations, and developing strategies. Likewise, Lichtman (2013: 252) identifies
what she calls the “three Cs” of data analysis and interpretation: Codes, Categories,
and Concepts. Figure 4.1 (below) describes the data analysis process:
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Figure 4.1: Three Cs of data analysis: Codes, Categories and Concepts
Source: Lichtman (2013) (Qualitative Research in Education: A user’s guide)
Lichtman breaks this down into six steps: initial coding from responses to summary
ideas of the responses, revisiting initial coding, developing an initial list based on
additional re-reading, revisiting categories and subcategories, and moving from
categories to concepts. This presupposes that in dealing with data analysis and
interpretation it is important for the researcher to constantly review the data collected
and the categorisation, and reviewing initial coding based on further evidence while
removing others that may prove redundant. Others may be collapsed, renamed, and
reorganised. The analysis and effective interpretation of data is an iterative process
that requires the researcher to constantly revisit categories, identify critical elements
and remove redundancies. The final process is where the researcher identifies key
concepts that reflect meanings attached to the data. Lichtman (2013: 255) points out
that generating meaning from qualitative data is an iterative process that moves
between questions, data, and meaning. Figure 4.2 (below) shows a summary of the
data analysis process as suggested by Lichtman:
Raw Data
Interview 1
Raw Data
Interview 2
Categories
Raw Data
Observation 4
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Figure 4.2: Relationship between questions, data and meaning
Source: Lichtman (2013) (Qualitative Research in Education: A user’s guide)
The researcher compared the findings to literature to determine any similarities or
differences regarding how PR is conceptualised and practiced in a different setting.
Comparing the result of the research with conclusions of the literature gathered
allowed the researcher not only to preserve the social perspectives of the participants
but also construe and confer his own understanding about the data analysed.
4.5. VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY
The purpose of research is to generate a result that is credible, trustworthy and ethical.
The ability of a research study to measure what it set out to measure or to show
consistency (one that can be replicated) is critical for research scholars. However, the
subjective nature of qualitative research and the small nature of the sample size mean
ensuring trustworthiness becomes difficult. It is therefore critical for the researcher to
ensure that there is consistency (reliability) and that the study measures what it intends
to measure (validity). The result of the research must show that it can withstand
rigorous scrutiny and thus achieve credibility (Daymon & Holloway, 2011: 318; Patton,
2002: 212). Conclusions drawn must be true to readers, practitioners, and researchers
alike. Lincoln and Guba (2000: 178) make this point forcefully by asking whether the
findings of a study is: “sufficiently authentic… that I may trust myself in acting on
their implications? More to the point, would I feel sufficiently secure about these
findings to construct social policy or legislation based on them?” Validity deals with the
questions
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element of truth, that is, the “extent by which an account accurately represents the
social phenomena to which it refers” (Hammersley, in Silverman, 2013: 285). Validity
therefore looks at the perceived credibility of the interpretation or meaning assigned
to data. This is expressed by Peräkylä:
The validity of research concerns the interpretation of observations:
whether or not the inferences that the researcher makes are supported
by the data, and sensible in relation to earlier research (2011: 365).
Validity must therefore be based on truth and must pass a rigorous test to be regarded
as credible. Reliability on the other hand refers to the “degree of consistency with
which instances are assigned to the same category by different observers or by the
same observer on different occasions” (Hammersley, in Silverman, 2013: 285).
Meaning, can the result of a research be repeated with the same result? (Lewis &
Ritchie, 2003: 270). As qualitative research deals with participants’ social
construction of reality (how they understand the world around them), there are likely
to be multiple constructions of reality from different participants. Again, the researcher
is the primary instrument of data collection, and analysis and interpretation of social
reality is accessed mainly through observation and interviews. Scholars have
emphasised the essence of ensuring validity and reliability in qualitative research
(Stenbacka, 2001: 551; Cho & Trent, 2006: 320).
Various strategies have been developed to determine validity and reliability and thus
demonstrate the quality of qualitative research. Hammersley (in Daymon & Holloway,
2011: 83-84) suggest that in order to show validity the study must indicate relevance
- research must show meaningfulness and be useful for the researcher and readers
as well as those to whom it is addressed, plausibility - claims made must be plausible,
and credibility - achieving credibility through provision of convincing evidence. The
criteria of trustworthiness and authenticity have also been promoted by researchers
as a means of demonstrating quality in qualitative research. Authenticity is based on
fairness, sharing of knowledge, and action although it is not as popular as
trustworthiness (Morse, Barret, Mayan, Olson & Spiers, 2002: 2). Trustworthiness on
the other hand is a well-known measure of reliability and validity promoted by Lincoln
and Guba in the 1980s and is based on four main categories, namely credibility,
transferability, dependability, and confirmability. These will be discussed briefly.
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Credibility: Credibility is the equivalent of internal validity in quantitative research in
which the study measures what is actually intended. Credibility in qualitative research
asserts that a study should be considered credible if the conclusions correspond with
the views of the participants, that is, if participants believe the meaning generated
reflects their own social context.
Transferability: In research, one of the key concerns is to show that the result can be
applied to other settings. Transferability is like the notion of external validity or
generalisability, which is “concerned with the extent to which the findings of one study
can be applied to other situations” (Shenton, 2004: 69). Daymon and Holloway
(2011:85) assert that transferability “replaces the notion of external validity, and is
close to the idea of theory-based generalizability.” Since qualitative findings apply to
a small population within a specific environment, it is not possible to show that the
result can be applied to other settings and situations. The burden of proof therefore
lies with the researcher to ensure that the reader is able to transfer the specific
knowledge gained from the research to other settings and situations familiar to them
(Daymon and Holloway, 2011:85). One way of doing this is through “thick
description”. That is, providing narratives that is descriptive enough to allow readers
to make informed decision about how the result links with their experiences, and
drawing their own conclusions. Transferability can also be demonstrated by showing
how the principles or models that emerged might be similar to that which is practiced
in other settings.
Dependability: Dependability measures the degree to which the result is consistent.
Quantitative researchers tend to employ techniques that demonstrate that if the work
is repeated using the same methods and within the same context, the result will be
the same. Lincoln and Guba (in Merriam, 2009: 221) however argue that
dependability is not about whether the findings can be replicated but whether the
results are consistent with the data collected. This means that the framework within
which the research was carried out must be clearly outlined and in great detail.
Daymon and Holloway (2011: 93) therefore suggest the need for every research
study to have an “audit trail” that will allow others to follow the research process and
be able to evaluate it, detailing the entire process by which the researcher arrived at
the decision and providing evidence (raw data, field notes, data collection and
analysis procedures) when necessary.
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Confirmability: Shenton (2004: 72) describes confirmability as the qualitative
researcher’s answer to objectivity. What this essentially means is that the findings
and conclusions drawn are based on the ideas and experiences of the participants
and not the preconceptions or assumptions of the researcher. The researcher must
therefore be able to link data to its sources so that any reader can establish a direct
connection between the conclusion and the participants. It is therefore important to
acknowledge methods adopted in arriving at your conclusion. Daymon and Holloway
(2011: 86) refer to this as leaving a “decision trail”.
4.6. 2ETHICAL CONSIDERATION
One of the most controversial issues to come under intense scrutiny among social
science researchers is ethics, especially in qualitative research. As qualitative
research puts emphasis on personal or close interaction with participants, many
questions have been raised concerning protection of participants. Moreover, data
gathering tends to take place in natural settings instead of in situations set up
purposely for the research. Issues of confidentiality have been raised sometimes with
a lack of agreement as to what exactly constitutes ethics and how participants can
best be protected (Lichtman, 2013: 51; Hammersley & Traianou, 2012: 1; Flick, 2009:
36). As qualitative research deals with face-to-face interaction and is not based on
statistical analysis, the demand for ethical consideration is even higher. In
undertaking this study, ethical considerations were highlighted by the researcher. In
developing a study of this nature, issues of informed consent, anonymity,
confidentiality, and protection from harm were considered essential (Lewis, 2003: 62).
Participants were given a statement to read and signed indicating their willingness to
participate in the research. The informed consent contained all the necessary ethical
issues, including permission to record, voluntary participation, confidentiality, and
anonymity etc. This stance is supported by Daymon and Holloway (2011: 70) who
acknowledge the essence of having a written consent form that includes some basic
components such as name and credentials of researcher, research strategies and
aims, expected duration of individual’s participation, potential risks and benefits to the
organisation or individuals, promise of anonymity and confidentiality, and steps
through which these will be ensured, among others.
2 See Addendum D for ethical clearance certificate.
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Participants will be free to participate in the research and also have the right to give
or withhold their cooperation (Daymon & Holloway, 2011: 65). The researcher
believed that giving participants the freedom to cooperate or not will encourage open
discussion and honest submissions. Participants in the research were not made to
suffer any form of embarrassment or harm whether it be emotional, physical, or
reputational. Harm is defined as “a setback to a person’s interest which includes any
aspect of a person’s life that that person regards as important” (Guillemin & Gillam,
2004: 278). Because interviews can carry emotional risks for participants the
researcher ensured that the procedures followed were just and fair to the participants.
The researcher also ensured that confidentiality was not breached. Data collected was
handled with care in order to not expose participants or sensitive information that is
regarded as private. Writing on confidentiality, Shils (in Hammersley & Traianou, 2012:
121) notes that:
…..the particular privacy which an individual suspends by making
particular disclosures to another (in this case, the interviewer) must be
reinstated by the treatment which the disclosed private information
receives. The privacy should be restored by the obliteration of any
connection with the person who disclosed it; this means that the
interviewer must never disclose the connection to anyone, orally or in
writing. The particular confidences must be respected; they must not be
transmitted in their particular form and in their relationships to the
particular individual to anyone else; they may be introduced into the
public sphere only by generalisation and anonymity.
Shils clearly links confidentiality to privacy. Some of the data collected will be private
and will need to be handled with utmost confidentiality, especially at the reporting
stage, so as not to expose the participant. The element of confidentiality also ensured
that no part of the report contained the identity of either the participants or their
organisation unless with their express permission. To ensure this, the nature of the
organisation (sector and activities) was discussed without necessarily divulging any
information about a particular organisation. In analysing and reporting the data, the
researcher ensured that the final work was a true reflection of the experiences and
perspectives of research participants.
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The researcher believed that when these ethical strategies are followed, it will lead to
transparent and responsible research.
4.8. SUMMARY
This chapter discussed the methodological approaches to be used in the gathering
and analysing of the data. It clearly outlined the research design and methodology
including the data collection techniques, sampling procedure and research population.
The chapter concluded with discussion on ethical issues to be considered in the
gathering, analysing, and interpretation of the final report.
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CHAPTER FIVE
PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATON OF THE RESEARCH RESULTS
5.1. Introduction
The financial services sector worldwide has been plagued with several scandals in the
last decade mainly due to what Garcia and Garraza (2010: 179) describe as “dubious
management” decisions. In a developing country like Ghana, there is a lack of trust in
the financial sector due to recent scandals leading to collapse of several financial
service institutions including banks, insurance companies, and microfinance/savings
and loans companies, while the management of another bank has been handed to
KPMG by the central bank to manage in order to save it from total collapse. The
survival in the sector, especially the banking industry, has become even more
challenging as they have to raise their minimum capital requirement to four hundred
million Cedis (ȼ400m) by the end of 2018. There are suspicions that most of the banks,
especially the local banks, will not be able to meet the deadline and may have to fold
up or merge. These events have implications on PR practice in the financial services
sector. Several attempts have been made by the sector to improve its reputation and
its relationship with its key publics. Many of these attempts are unfortunately viewed
as ‘cosmetic’ transformation as customers feel a form of mistrust towards the sector
(Garcia & Garraza, 2010: 180). The work of PR practitioners has become even more
complex in a competitive business environment as practitioners seek to develop
strategies that will enhance reputation and improve relationships. Literature reviewed
showed that the purpose of PR is to develop and maintain the relationship between
an organisation and its publics through strategic means. that is to say, PR must be
practiced symmetrically if it is to achieve its purpose.
In line with the research goal of developing a PR framework for the financial services
sector in Ghana, the current chapter presents and discusses the result of the empirical
research conducted on the current practice of PR in relation to the roles (activities)
and models (purpose).
The study adopted a qualitative approach to gather data. One-on-one in-depth
interviews were held with 22 PR practitioners from 15 organisations in the financial
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services sector. The study used a semi-structured interview guide to solicit responses
from practitioners. To ensure that the interview captured everything that was said, the
researcher recorded the interviews after seeking permission from the participants. The
data was analysed with the assistance of the qualitative data software Atlas.ti (version
7). The use of the software aided in the effective transcription and identification of
themes that may have emerged during the interviews.
The current chapter will present and interpret the results from the interviews. The
discussion will be done in line with how the interview guide was structured. It will
therefore begin by discussing the general questions, which consist of demographic
characteristics of the participants, including their views of PR. It will be followed by a
discussion on the models of PR (purpose of PR) and the roles of PR (activities). The
analysis will end with a look at participants’ views on the PR industry in Ghana and
some of the factors that influence PR practice in the country. The chapter will conclude
with a summary of the analysis.
5.2. OVERVIEW OF RESEARCH PARTICIPANTS.
This section will briefly discuss the characteristics of the participants. It will look at their
designations, age, length of practice in the field of communication/PR, education, and
whether they had any formal education in PR. It will conclude with a discussion on
participants’ views of the purpose of PR.
A total of 22 PR managers were recruited for this study. It must be noted that the titles
differed depending on the organisation (See table below). They consisted of 15
managers and seven (7) deputy communication managers. The participants consisted
of 15 males and seven females. Concerning the age of participants, six participants
indicated that they were in their 50s while the rest were in their 30s and 40s.
A significant finding with regards to designations was that in many situations the
marketing and communication (some had corporate affairs) practitioners were
together as one department and headed by someone with a marketing background.
In some cases, marketing had a stronger influence than PR as PR appeared to be
subsumed under marketing. In one organisation, the corporate affairs department had
three sections, namely PR, human resources, and legal. The overall head of the
department was the head of legal. Another participant was also head of the business
development, sales and communication department, where communication was
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subsumed under business development. One of the key principles of the Excellence
Theory is that for PR to become truly excellent in its role, it must be headed by
someone with a background in PR as well as the necessary experience. The staff of
the department must also have a background in PR. This can be achieved with a
university education, continuing education or self-study. The background of the
participants shows that in most situations this is not the case. Below are the
designations of the participants as reflected in their departments:
Table 5.1: Demographics of participants
Designation Education
Formal
education
in PR
3Certificate
in PR
Corporate Communication &
Brand Management
MBA Marketing
Communication None No
Corporate Affairs Manager MBA Marketing None No
Corporate Affairs Manager in
charge of PR
Diploma in PR, certificate
courses in PR from IPR,
Ghana Yes N/A
Marketing MBA Marketing None No
Communication & Brand
Management MBA Marketing None No
Marketing Communication
MPhil Communication, MBA in
Marketing Yes N/A
Corporate & Investor Relations
MA Communication, MBA in
Finance Yes N/A
Marketing & Communication
MA Luxury Brand
management; BA Law None No
Marketing & Communication Diploma in Journalism Yes Yes
Senior Corporate
Communication Officer
MA, Communication, MBA in
Marketing Yes N/A
Marketing & Communication HND, BA Marketing None No
3 This was to determine whether those who did not have any formal educational background in PR had taken a
certificate course in the subject to upgrade their knowledge of PR. It did not apply to those with a PR
background
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Marketing, Sales and
Corporate Affairs MBA Marketing, Dip. PR Yes N/A
Marketing & Communication MBA Marketing None No
Business Development, Sales
& Communication MBA Marketing None No
Marketing Communication
MA Corporate Communication
& Public Affairs Yes N/A
Corporate and Brand
Communication
MBA Marketing, Diploma in
Public Relations and
Journalism Yes N/A
Marketing & Corporate Affairs MBA Marketing None Yes
Marketing MBA marketing None No
Marketing & Corporate Affairs MBA Marketing Yes
Public Relations Officer
MA, Communication, MA
Governance, BA- PR Yes N/A
Public Relations Officer MA Communication Studies Yes N/A
Marketing & Corporate Affairs
MA Marketing, Dip. in PR and
Advertising Yes N/A
Source: Self-compilation
The chart below gives further information (in percentages) of the highest level of
education as well as specific areas of specialisation. The skewness towards employing
people with marketing background at the financial services sector to work as
communication managers is quite profound.
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Source: Field data (Researcher’s compilation)
5.3. FINDINGS OF ONE-ON-ONE INTERVIEWS
The following section will discuss in detail the findings of the interviews held with the
participants. The findings will be outlined according to how the interview guide was
structured, namely conceptualisation of PR, PR models, PR roles and concluding
questions. The various subcategories of the PR models and roles will also be clearly
delineated and discussed.
5.3.1. Research objective: Determine how PR is conceptualised by practitioners in
the financial services sector in Ghana.
Before gauging the views of participants regarding the models and roles of PR, the
researcher deemed it necessary to gain insight into participants’ views on the purpose
of PR, that is, what PR meant to PR practitioners in the financial services sector.
Literature reviewed earlier gave several definitions of PR. Literature shows that there
is a lack of agreement on what constitutes PR. Some of the key definitions include:
reputation management (Franklin et al 2009: 175), mutually beneficial relationship
management (Butterick, 2011: 1; Heath & Coombs, 2006: 5), an applied social science
that influences behaviour and policy (Burson, 2011), leadership and management
(Lattimore et al 2004: 4), and development and management of ethical strategies to
build relationships (Johnston et al 2009: 7). What is clear though, and is generally
36%
9%
14%
4%
14%
4%
5%
9%
5%
0% 10% 20% 30% 40%
MBA Marketing
MA/Mphil (corporate) Communication
MA/Mphil Communication & MBA Marketing/Finance
MA Marketing Communication
MBA Marketing & Dip. - PR/Journalism
MA Luxury Brand Management/ BA Law
BA & HND - Marketing
Diploma &Certificate - PR
Diploma - Journalism
Educational level of participants
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agreed upon, is that PR is about building mutually beneficial relationship between an
organisation and its publics. Heath and Coombs (2006: 5) note that “relationships are
strongest when they are mutually beneficial and characterised by ‘win-win’ outcomes.”
In line with these definitions, the research participants were asked the question: “What,
in your view, is the main purpose of public relations.” Participants gave various
interrelated indicators of what they believed the main purpose of PR to be. PR was
associated with information dissemination and publicity, relationship and reputational
management/building, and credibility. Some of the definitions also related to the
concept of marketing or what has been referred to as marketing PR. These definitions
will be discussed briefly.
PR as information dissemination/publicity: Many of the participants were of the view
that PR is about disseminating positive and newsworthy information about the
organisation and its products and services. This is echoed in the statements of some
of the participants.
“I believe PR is to disseminate information in a way and manner that
makes it easily understandable by the target audience. The essence of
PR is to really communicate the fact about your activities from an
organisation in a way and manner in which stakeholders can understand
and can also see themselves as part of that game,” said one participant.
Another participant said: “PR is to ensure that all the stakeholders of the institution
are well informed and that includes our regulators, our customers, our shareholders,
general public etc….”
Further comment stated:
For me PR is a way to put your best foot forward in terms of
communicating who you are as a brand or institution to the public. I think
with any sort of human relationship there are ways in which things can
be misinterpreted and there are obviously avenues for
miscommunication, so PR helps to streamline and demystify or helps to
clarify the communication channels so that areas of miscommunication
are minimised, so that the truth comes out. It is also a way to maximise
and highlight on potential strengths and minimise the effect of potential
weaknesses.”
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Another participant said: “PR is supposed to be the channel through which information
gets out of the organisation,” and further opinion was: “I am looking at it from various
points. So, we look at what management wants to say in terms of our products to the
stakeholders, mostly to customers, what management wants to say to the staff, that
is, internal communication, and what the bank wants to say to the general public.”
This view of PR is supported by other participants who view the main role of PR as
publicity. One participant, for instance, believes that the key role of PR is to “tell the
good story of an organisation in order to create a good image for the organisation so
that prospective customers and stakeholders can align their interest to the
organisation.” Another participant also identified PR as “doing something good and
getting credit for it.” The conceptualisation of PR as information dissemination is in
sync with the earlier conceptualisation of PR practice as posited by Grunig and Hunt
(1984). Grunig and Hunt (1984) categorised earlier practice of PR as based on one-
way information dissemination (press agentry/publicity and public information). Wilcox
et al (2015: 42) note that publicity is a key aspect of PR as it allows practitioners to
disseminate information that furthers the interest of the organisation. What is of
interest, as seen from the research, is that the information disseminated is accurate
and relevant. According to Heath and Coombs (2006: 5), accurate and relevant
information leads to higher forms of relationship.
PR as relationship and reputational management: Most of the literature reviewed
posited that PR is about relationship and reputational management. The definition of
the Institute of Public Relations, UK, for instance, puts emphasis on reputation while
other scholars and institutions describe it as based on mutually beneficial relationship
(Wilcox et al 2015; Broom & Sha, 2012; PRSA, 2012; Heath & Coomb, 2006). These
definitions of PR support the views of participants regarding the main purpose of PR.
Participants described the main purpose of PR as dealing with relationship and
reputational management. One participant described PR as “building and maintaining
the image of one’s organisation.” Others referred to the fact that the purpose of PR is
to enhance the corporate image of an organisation’s internal and external
stakeholders. One participant, who suggested that PR is about positioning an
organisation in a favourable role in order for the organisation to be accepted by its
numerous stakeholders, gave an interesting example to buttress her view on PR:
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I remember when I was coming to the bank from journalism my daughter,
who was then very young, said mummy why this bank? I said do you
have an account there? She said no but why this particular bank? So, I
said that is the reason I am going there, to change the perception that
people have of the bank. At that age, she had a certain perception of the
bank. Currently that perception is still there and if we don't get it right it
will impact business.
Another participant said: “The main focus of PR is to enhance the image of an
organisation. Without a good corporate image, you can produce the best of products
and services, but it will not be patronised. So, PR is an important essential for society.”
The above comments seek to identify PR as being about managing reputation. This
definition has been criticised by Heath and Coombs (2006: 7) as being “myopic” as it
gives the impression that PR exists to clean up the mess created by bad business
practices. Although they acknowledge the fact that every organisation wants to have
a good reputation, they contend that good reputation is part of the success of an
organisation. Their reason for rejecting this view is that focusing on PR solely on a
reputational management basis leads to the belief that PR is about the distortion of
truth to make bad organisations look good. This rejection however appears to be
isolated as many PR scholars still establish PR as based on reputation management,
as seen in the literature. One participant focused more on the relationship aspect of
PR:
At the heart of PR is ensuring quality relations between the most
important publics to that organisation and turning that relationship into a
mutual value creation pipeline and making sure that relationship is
beneficial beyond the immediate orbit of the parties to the extent that the
larger environment is better off on the back of that relationship.
He explained this further by stating that
critical to what we do is ensuring that we have a clear view of all our
important publics and stakeholders. We are properly calibrated and in
tune with them. We walk and work in tandem and ensure that there is
value creation at every opportunity and consistently and in a manner
which is sustainable.
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This aligns with some of the definitions of PR which puts emphasis on relationship
management as a catalyst for positive organisational reputation.
Creating a positive image: Participants also associated the purpose of PR with
creating a positive image for the organisation through publicity services. This is not
surprising since PR has sometimes been associated with attempts to gain positive
publicity or image for an organisation. One participant was of the view that when it
comes to PR “you want to get someone to speak for you instead of doing a bid for
advertisement, so even if it is your work you don’t want directly to tout what you are
doing but you want someone to speak for you in order to create a positive image for
you in the minds of your publics.” According to a participant from a bank, PR is meant
to “create a positive image and get the public to see you in a positive light so that the
brand can be attractive to the publics.” This is emphasised by another participant who
states that PR is “basically to project a positive image about the brand and create a
certain goodwill for the brand. It is also about connecting emotionally with your publics
especially through social media.” The purpose of PR is also linked with how the
corporate culture of the organisation portrays the organisation, as seen in the
statement of one participant:
PR, I believe, is key to helping sustain the image of a company. So, every
company needs a PR department to help shape the image of the
company and this comes in different aspects. For example, how you
present yourself on your website, how your logos are, how you manage
your internal communications that reflects the relationship between your
publics, how people view you when they hear your brand name.
Marketing public relations: One of the key realisations from the interviews is how PR
appeared to have a marketing focus. This was evident from some of the interviews but
nevertheless unsurprising considering the fact that in most of these institutions,
marketing and communication are linked and mostly headed by someone with a purely
marketing background. Literature shows that marketing is often confused with PR.
Marketing practitioners and academics tend to describe PR as one of the four Ps -
product, place, price and promotion - although Kotler (cited in Wilcox et al 2015: 48)
describes it as the fifth “P”. The term marketing PR has therefore been used by many
to refer to the use of PR to promote an organisation’s products and services (Theaker,
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2012: 12). Theaker suggests that this association is not entirely wrong as PR can play
an essential role in promoting goods and services. This assertion is corroborated by
Hallahan (2013: 457) who suggests that marketers have long viewed publicity and
marketing PR as part of their responsibilities. This market orientation is reflected in the
statement of one participant who is the marketing communication manager of one of
the banks:
I use PR for engaging selected or targeted markets, so that's the purpose
of PR. PR for me is another part of the tools available to us. We adopt
different PR approaches towards making a stronger statement to go
further into areas that we feel our advertising campaigns or promotions
cannot reach. We want to believe PR has quite some level of credibility
all the other channels may not necessarily have. Assessment is therefore
based on who the target market is at the end of the day. If I want to reach
a particular market after the various engagement, there is the need to do
the necessary follow ups to find out if that message has gone down well
and the kind of perception that we want to build with our PR strategy has
been achieved.
Another participant referred to PR as simply a tool to inform a targeted market on the
services and products of an organisation. The focus on marketing practices is clearly
seen in the words that some of the participants used, including target market,
consumers, advertising tools, etc. Some of the participants were of the view that there
is not much difference between marketing and communication because of the
relationship between them. The purpose of marketing PR is to affect the bottom line
and in the financial services sector this is clearly the case. In some cases, PR was
seen to be subsumed under marketing even though the two are supposed to be
separated, as the Excellence theory suggests. Wilcox et al (2015: 46) clearly
distinguish the purpose of marketing from PR. Despite their common objectives, the
two disciplines approach their tasks from different perspectives. PR however does
support marketing in diverse ways. In the area of publicity for instance, PR ensures
that marketing activities gain media coverage. This is normally referred to as marketing
communication. The confusion between the two disciplines stems from their definition
in different texts. In PR texts marketing is referred to as dealing with sales and sales-
related functions while marketing texts describe PR in terms of publicity (Theaker,
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2012: 13). The choice of people with marketing backgrounds serving as PR
practitioners can be largely attributed to the understanding that management of these
organisations have about PR.
5.3.2 Research objective: To analyse the views of Ghanaian PR practitioners in the
financial services sector about the selected PR models.
This section will discuss the application of the models of PR in the financial services
sector. The research examined how practitioners use each of the models as
prescribed by scholars such as James Grunig. Grunig, Grunig and Dozier (2002: 306)
posit that for PR to be excellent, it must by strategic and symmetrical. The study
therefore sought to determine the models that practitioners use and how these models
influence the practice. The analysis will be subcategorised according to the four
models.
5.3.2.1. Press agentry/publicity
Purpose of the PR department: The PR department performs many functions and key
among them is building and maintaining a positive relationship between an
organisation and its key publics using effective communication. The practitioner is
therefore able to protect the reputation of the organisation, increase prestige, and
present a positive corporate image which ultimately affects the organisation’s bottom-
line. PR departments also create goodwill for the organisation through their activities
including community relations/corporate social responsibility, media relations, investor
relations, employee relations, etc. Based on this, participants were asked to indicate
the purpose of their department.
Participants were generally in agreement that their main duty was to gain a positive
image for their organisation. This has become even more necessary at a time when
the financial sector is undergoing a credibility crisis due to the collapse of some
financial institutions in recent years, including two reputable banks in 2017. In the
words of one participant:
Yes, we have tried to create a certain image for the company, we have
tried to position the company properly and we have tried to maintain that
position for the company. And in everything that we have done we have
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tried to make sure that we position the company well. So, whatever it is
that we'll do to maintain the image of the company, that is what we've
done in terms of our publicity and CSR.
Another participant also noted that the activities of her department were meant to
position the organisation in a favourable role to be accepted by the organisation’s
stakeholders. This, she believed, would encourage the stakeholders to continue doing
business with them. For some participants, the activities they engage in are meant to
create a positive image for the organisation.
In terms of activities the role is threefold; I work on the corporate
marketing strategy, the communication strategy, including protocol
services, and on media relations for the bank. We mostly look at projects,
especially events. We initiate the PR programme for all events from the
beginning to the end. This includes media relations, press soirees for
senior journalists and position papers for speeches.
This was emphasised by the director of marketing communication in another
organisation:
For us it's multi-layered and there is a diverse set of responsibility that
we have as a marketing communication department. PR is one subset,
but we are involved with brand management, communicating to the
public what the organisation’s brand stands for, what are our DNA codes
and also communicating internally to make sure everyone is aligned to
the brand and also managing our reputation in the public sphere, making
sure that we partner with projects that should be associated with what
the organisation stands for. We also work on projects that are consistent
with our brand values.
One participant from an insurance company noted that they engage in both marketing
and PR activities mainly due to the absence of a core marketing department. He
therefore combines the PR and marketing activities to enhance the visibility of the
organisation thereby getting stakeholders to do business with them. A key aspect of
the PR function is information dissemination or publicity. Some of the participants
emphasised this by acknowledging that dissemination of information through various
channels is a core part of what they do as a department. One participant said: “We
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look at what management wants to say in terms of our products to the stakeholders,
mostly to customers. What management wants to say to the staff, that is, internal
communication, and what the bank wants to say to the public.” Another participant
stated:
Generally, we are involved in external communication. We practice what
is called marketing communication, not a whole lot of PR. Recently we've
had to do a little bit more of PR because we found ourselves pushed
when we first morphed into a group. We needed to communicate to the
public, so we engaged an external communication company to guide us
through the process.
Information dissemination to gain positive publicity is one of the hallmarks of PR,
whether one-way or two-way. Through the dissemination of newsworthy information
practitioners are able to influence public perception of their organisation. It is about
“Telling our story” (Broom & Sha, 2012: 7). Interestingly, only one participant from the
insurance industry focused on lobbying as a key part of what the department does.
Whenever the organisation has an issue, especially with a regulator, the department
uses its position as a member of a key association to lobby for policies to be looked at
in a way that will favour the industry. Lobbying attempts to influence public policy in
favour of the organisation/industry. PR strategists sometimes use lobbying, directly or
indirectly, to achieve certain goals (Hansen-Horn, 2013: 521). The lack of lobbying
among participants is likely because they may not have the required skills as this is a
specialised area of PR.
Another participant from a bank indicated investor relations was a key part of the
department’s activities. This was however not the case in most of the organisations
interviewed. The use of press releases and getting publicity appears to dominate PR
activities in the financial services sector in Ghana. What is also evident is that the
merging of the marketing and communication department makes distinguishing
between the PR functions and the marketing functions a bit problematic. The status of
PR and marketing is one of the most debated issues in the history of PR. There
appears to be little consensus as to whether they should be separate or merged with
one, particularly marketing, overseeing the other. Whereas PR practitioners see PR
as a way of managing an organisation’s total communication, marketers often
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associate PR with publicity, i.e. garnering favourable media coverage for the
organisation’s products and services (Gregory, 2016). The situation has not been
helped by the sometimes narrow view of an organisation’s management regarding the
purpose of PR. This can explain why most financial institutions merge the two
functions with a marketing specialist as the head. The Excellence theory, however,
advocates for a complete segregation of the two functions. The theory posits that PR
should not be made a supporting tool for other departments, especially marketing.
When this happens, PR cannot be managed strategically (Grunig & Grunig, 2008:
337).
Although most participants, especially those with a purely marketing background,
attempted to make the distinction between the two roles, it was obvious by their
responses regarding the purpose of the PR department that there is a strong leaning
towards marketing. One participant, for instance, when asked about the purpose of
the PR department said: “Basically there are two things; the first one is to ensure that
all the stakeholders of the institution are well informed and that includes our regulators,
our customers, our shareholders, general public etc. Secondly, to use the information
generated from our activities, products and new developments of the bank to also
impact on the bank’s bottom-line.”
Another also said that: “the corporate affairs department is responsible for designing
and placing adverts for the organisation on the production services.” A more succinct
statement from yet another participant, “we do sales activation from a marketing point,
direct marketing, advertising, and some form of PR through media relations activities,”
shows how the merging of the two functions can lead to a higher focus on marketing
to the detriment of PR. This is not surprising as literature highlights the blurring lines
between PR and other disciplines, especially marketing. The integration of marketing
and communication is seen as necessary to better enhance consumer satisfaction
(Scriven, 2002: 30). Overall, the statements on the purpose of PR link with what
literature says. Coombs and Heath (2006: 8) attempt to capture the complexity of PR
in a single, albeit long, definition. Their definition shows the purpose of PR as
consisting of five key characteristics, namely: serving as a management function,
consisting of the five major functions of PR (planning, research, publicity, promotion,
and collaborative decision-making), emphasising the need for the practitioners to
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listen, appreciate, and respond to the publics, ensuring mutually beneficial
relationship, and achieving a particular mission and vision.
Measurement of PR programmes: The use of measurement has been debated for
several years. In a competitive business environment which is constantly becoming
complex due to globalisation, practitioners are constantly under pressure to show
value for their work. Simply put, the need to show how PR contributes to the bottom-
line is increasing daily. There is a strong demand for scientific measurement to show
return on investment (Jugenheimer, Kelley, Hudson & Bradley, 2014; Stack, 2011;
Michaelson & Stacks, 2011; Macnamara, 2008; Watson & Noble, 2007; Grunig, 1992).
Argument has also been made on the type of tools used to measure PR programmes.
Grunig (2006), for instance, notes that practitioners usually focus on the short-term
effects when measuring PR programmes. Macnamara (2006) also questions the
actual utilisation of research and evaluation despite the improvement in the quality.
The discussion on measurement and evaluation culminated in the drafting of what
became known as the Barcelona Principles in 2010. The principles sought to
standardise measurement and evaluation using scientific methods (Schriner,
Swenson & Gilkerson, 2017: 2). In 2015, the principles were revised to reflect “holistic”
communication across owned, paid, earned, and shared media channels. Literature
however shows that PR measurement mostly focuses on outputs more than
outcomes.
Results show that communication practitioners in the financial services sector use a
variety of tools to measure their PR programmes. This consists of both formal and
informal methods. Results however show that most participants use more informal
methods than formal. Media clippings appear to dominate the measurement
procedures of participants. For some participants, “the level of interest should give you
an idea about how your programme is going. The amount of initial write ups, the
amount of debates your activities generate, the amount of coverage you get out there
as well and the follow-ups that go through.” In the words of another participant: “we
use both traditional and social media for measurement. We use Google analytics, but
we also contract external agencies to do the measurement and monitoring for us so
that it will not be just what we are doing. We want to be sincere to ourselves, so we
look at the external one.” The dominance of media clippings is in line with what exists
in literature (Starčić & Jakopović, 2016; Pooi Yin, Krishnan & Ean, 2012; Kwansah-
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Aidoo, 2008; Watson, 2004). Grunig (2008: 9) also highlighted the use of media
monitoring to show the value of PR programmes. Another participant acknowledged
the mostly informal nature of measurement efforts regarding PR activities:
We do a lot of the informal, which is almost on a daily basis, but with the
formal sometimes yearly and depending, sometimes every two years etc.
So, our communication activities are mostly based on informal research,
but we do formal ones from time to time.
Methods used in the measurement process differed among some participants.
Methods ranged from feedback through phone calls, mystery shopping, interactions
among staff, media monitoring, comments from management or board, enquiries, and
sometimes actual surveys or interviews. The use of surveys and interviews are not
regular and are done either once in a year or two. A participant said:
Success for a typical event is the number of people who come, and we
also gauge how the event was carried out in the media and any feedback
at all from the attendees. For example, if we do a branch opening what
we do first and foremost is to monitor the stories that come up in the
various media houses and know whether a lot of the media houses
carried the story on that particular event. We also speak to some of our
staff who are normally at that event to find out their general perception
about the event and what we did wrong and what we could have done
better.
This statement was echoed by many more participants as reflected in the following
statements:
If we do a programme, we do newspaper clippings to find out how far the
story has gone. We look at the publicity aspect. We also look at the
feedback that we receive from the public or the response that we receive
in terms of our businesses. Whatever it is that is coming. We are also
able to measure our success through word of mouth, that is, what people
say. Sometimes when you have a referral, people referring you to clients,
then you know you have done the right thing. Even in our CSR activities
we have tried to find out how far we have reached, what the effect has
been by interacting with beneficiaries. We have gone that far to interact
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with actual beneficiaries even though they are directed at educational
institutions and help institutions.
Depending on programmes, for instance, if it is about press release it has
to do with the number of press clippings and newspapers. The critical one
however is the sales. With marketing and PR there is not much difference
because there is a relationship between them. We also use social media
to track how many times people have shared, liked or commented on a
product. Sometimes we also look at the feedback we get from a client. We
have a telephone number that we use. Sometimes, annually we use a
client satisfaction survey. For launching of events, sometimes it is a bit
difficult but it all has to do with the traffic you get. For instance, we have a
hot line number so if you do an event people start calling and making
enquiries based on that event.
The event will be successful but when we engage people they appreciate
the bank not necessarily through the banking service we offer but through
CSR. That is very fulfilling. I wouldn't say the methods we use are
scientific. It is mainly informal using one-on-one/face-to-face interaction
and the feedback we get. In terms of publicity, we have engaged an
agency to do media monitoring for us so it is not inhouse.
And
The first thing we do is look at social media. It is very easy to track how
people have actually reacted to your organisation whether they liked it,
whether they commented and if they commented you can track to see if
the comments are positive or not. With the print media we use media
monitoring and content analysis to determine what has been written. We
use media clippings also. In terms of social media this is an additional
medium. There are also the web portals.
The seemingly unscientific nature of measurement is further corroborated by a
participant who acknowledged the challenges of PR measurement, especially within
the African environment:
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Measuring PR activities in our part of the world has been a real
challenge. Though there are scientific ways of doing this, they don't
support that, and senior management also tend not to believe in these
tools, so I would say after every event we do some form of
measurement but it's not scientific. For instance, I am putting together
the team for this year’s AGM. I will engage my team to walk through the
full programme and say at this point of the programme last year we had
challenges what can we do to fix the challenges, so they don't re-occur?
How did we fare last year in terms of the media we invited, were they
the right people? After the event did we get enough publicity, was ABC
done. So, we look at all these not like scientifically have a document
guiding us but general review meetings that is able to tell. Apart from
that we also get feedback from stakeholders and senior teams and
other colleagues which gives us a fair idea of how we fared. Sometimes
our shareholders will call and give us feedback on some programme or
annual report we did. The board chairman will call us and make a
comment like 'oh this year the publicity was good.
The participant cited an example to further buttress his case:
Recently one of our key clients within the footballing fraternity was
involved in an accident and we decided to present a cheque to them
during a sporting event so that the sports community will also know we
provide insurance for the footballing community. The next day my board
chairman called to say, ‘but how come you are not in the media and our
competitor is already there?’ And I'm like ‘no chair, I have a programme.’
He didn’t agree but felt we should have been there first. So, all of this is
feedback. That very day I had sent out my stories to the various media.
The following day I was in three papers as well as a number of online
media. Then he called back and said, ‘but if you had done all of this why
didn't you tell me?’ and I'm like ‘I had a programme in place.’ So you get
all this feedback from different levels just to give you a fair idea of what
people are expecting and what you have also done. I got calls from
Kumasi from some FM stations who said ‘oh we saw this in the papers
yesterday and we want you to speak to it. So scientifically we don't have
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a programme in place to measure but from the traditional sources you
are able to tell the effect of the impact of whatever you are able to do.
A few of the participants tend to use a mixture of formal and informal measurement
systems to determine the success of their programmes. According to one participant,
measurement of PR efforts goes beyond just looking at the amount of publicity the
programme generated. The main purpose is to look at the effect or outcome:
We have many different levels and types of metrics, but ultimately it is
about the outcomes and not the outputs, so we do not typically measure
output. For example, I wouldn't stop at the level of coverage I got. I am
interested in the nature of the coverage and the impact the coverage
had. So, we tend to be end-result oriented and that translates into the
metrics and the measurement we put in place which will be defined
before execution and as part of the planning process. So, if you are
doing something that involves stakeholders then invariably we are likely
to agree on what the metrics and measures are going to be with all the
stakeholders whether there is understanding and a sign off and then
post execution we just go back and see how we performed against all
those measures. There are several methods we use. If it is a service or
a product I am very much interested in, the way we communicate is a
way which is easily consumed by key publics. So, in this instance
feedback is an important determinant. I am also interested in measuring
exposure and reaction to the exposure and I also measure how that
translates into any kind of value that we want out of that exposure. So,
media monitoring is part of it.
Preparation is therefore essential before any PR programme is undertaken.
Proactive measurement processes ensure that a practitioner has a fair idea as to how
to measure outcomes effectively and how to link programme objectives to
achievement/success. Another participant who also uses both formal and informal
said informal measurement was mainly in the form of ‘unsolicited’ feedback:
In Ghana people are very interested in what you do and tend to give
unsolicited feedback so most of the time you have people call you and
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say we've seen this thing and it's good or we think you could have done
it this way. So that's one way of doing it. We also have the formal one
where from time to time we conduct customer feedback surveys to find
out about some of the activities we've done and also what we're doing
as an organisation. We also do media monitoring on a daily basis. We
have termed it market intelligence so every day we look at what is
happening in the market, us, our competitors, and we see how we can
either counteract or see what we can do in that regard. We use
traditional as well as online media to find out what is happening within
the industry.
One participant also commented on the use of perception audit management as part
of their measurement and evaluation of PR activities:
We do perception audit management. We do surveys sometimes to
ascertain what people think. We also use Meltwater, who also do online
monitoring and advise us. We also do an internal analysis to measure
feedback. Sometimes we use interviews and social media to gather
feedback. We also do what we call media intelligence/clippings as well
as competitor analysis. What is working and what is not working, what
are customers are saying. Are there things we can look at and shape
them?
A participant was of the view that his department uses a variety of approaches,
including internal and external feedback mechanisms:
We conduct external research occasionally using outside agencies, but
we also employ some internal strategies. For example, here, the board
is very particular about how strategies we propose are actually given
value. At every board meeting you are supposed to justify what you've
done through a research report. We engage the services of research
agencies, some we do internally. We do what we call benchmarking. So,
I will deploy my team through either mystery shopping or comparative
assessment of our strategies and then we also go to our customers to
assess the effect or impact. When it has to do with knowledge or
awareness, what we do is more of a survey, so we just do a sample of
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awareness of product. Last year for instance we realised that in terms of
visibility we were very low because we were not doing enough publicity.
However, if you compare the visibility and then the product success you
realise the product, especially our public service products/pack, was very
successful among the public sector workers and yet we were not doing
a lot of media noise about it, and if you benchmark that against our
competitors we were high when it came to the public sector offering. We
use more one-on-one or interpersonal communication than large scale
publicity. So, we do research but use different approaches.
And
Concerning communication, we do a lot of media monitoring. The GAMs
report for instance shows the media behaviour of the various
organisations and the impact; to see who has more voice or has more
attention. We use these reports to further do a research/ The reports
gives you an inclination of what is happening and then you have to
engage the agency if you want it to be more specific and tailored to your
organisations. The agencies do more of the formal research. The
agencies show us the number of times we have appeared on radio and
so on. We use content analysis for most of these things.
According to Grunig et al (2002: 25-26), for PR to be described as excellent, it must
be premised on measurement and evaluated using formal (scientific) and informal
(unscientific) methods. This allows practitioners to show real value for their
programmes. Macnamara (2008: 1) points to the use of formal and informal methods
by management in both public and private organisations to evaluate important areas
of organisational activities to ensure accountability, and suggested it was important
for PR to follow suit.
Measurement is focused mostly on output more than outcomes for many of the
participants, especially those who tend to gauge success of PR programmes by the
amount of publicity received. Stack and Bowen (2013: 21) define outputs as “the final
stage of a communication product, production or process resulting in the production
and dissemination of a communication product.” This can be in the form of media
release, website, events, a speech etc. Measurement, on the other hand, deals with
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the “immediate result of a PR programme or activity,” that measures possible
exposure to information dissemination by the public (Schriner et al 2017: 4). In the
words of one participant: “The point is that when it comes to an event we look at the
immediate impact and that is based on the level of publicity given to the event.”
Another participant was of the view that “sometimes when you have a referral, people
referring you to clients, then you know you have done the right thing.”
The activities of PR are expected to affect the bottom-line, and for the financial sector,
this is critical. It means whatever is done must result in increase in sales and more
customers. Practitioners should be able to demonstrate that their work is valuable.
Stacks, Dodd and Men (2011) posit that practitioners must be able to show both
nonfinancial (ROE) and financial (ROI) indicators through the use of research.
Proving ROI is essential to give the profession more value in the eyes of
management. ROI is reflected in some of the comments participants gave regarding
measurement of PR programmes. The following statement from one participant
echoes this thought:
The nature of the measurement depends on the programmes. For
instance, if it is about a press release it has to do with the number of
press clippings and newspapers. The critical one however is the sales.
We also use social media to track how many times people have shared
your product, liked or commented on a product. Sometimes we also look
at the feedback we get from client. We have a telephone number that we
use. Sometimes annually we use a client satisfaction survey. For
launching of events, sometimes it's a bit difficult but it all has to do with
the traffic you get. For instance, we have a hot-line number so if you do
an event people start calling making enquiries based on that event.
Another participant also made the following comment:
when we do promos, we look at the traffic we generate. We look at the
bottom-line in terms of sales. We look at the objectives and then the
expected results. We look at the projections and if the projections have
changed in terms of what we are looking at. It serves as a measuring
standard for us.
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Grunig et al (2002: 97) suggest that PR shows value when it “reconciles the
organisation’s goal with the expectation of its strategic constituencies.” In this regard,
the contributions of PR provide direct, financial value to the organisation. Development,
nurturing and maintenance of relationship between an organisation and its key publics
contributes to the financial growth of the organisation through increased market share,
positive publicity, investor attraction, avoiding overregulation, increased premium
prices, among others. In effect the impact of PR activities can be seen both in financial
terms and credible relationships with key stakeholders (Grunig et al 2002: 101-102).
Interestingly, one of the participants believed that measuring the effect of PR on sales
is quite difficult.
When we issue out releases and we have our clippings, we check which
media house featured our story. When we get prime coverage then we
know the coverage for that story is really high based on the platform that
it came from. So, when we do our clippings we have an estimated
number of people we know that have seen the story. For online we know
the hits on the website. We calculate the number of people who have
seen the story. For print we know the circulation. The challenge is that it
is difficult to assess the impact even though you may have done the
coverage; sometimes you speak to people and they don't know what you
are talking about. So media coverage is not enough and we don't use
that just as our assessment. We use that for our stakeholders to know
that this is what we are doing. We need to disseminate more information
about out activities, so we use the media a lot, but we use other
supporting activities. We use PR as leverage to now drive home
whatever we want to sell.
This is supported by another participant who asserted that:
we use press clippings to monitor our performance in the public. In
terms of seeing how it translate in sales that is a bit more difficult, but
we try and determine that in our application forms by putting a line in
there that will ask ‘how did you get to know of us’ or when we have
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activations and the sales come through we try to ask how they got to
know.
These statements confirm the view that most practitioners struggle to employ the right
measure to explain PR’s value. Findings by Watson (2011) showed that the term ROI
is used ‘loosely’ among UK PR practitioners and mostly interpreted in terms of AVE
measurement. On the other hand, Watson and Zerfass (2011: 11) argue that due to
the complex nature of the communication process and the role it plays in business
interaction, calculating ROI in financial terms becomes ‘impossible’. Grunig (2006)
also acknowledges this when he says that the specific worth of PR activities in terms
of value is difficult to monetise. From the discussion, it can be concluded that gauging
return on investment is not a simple issue and clear measurement methods must be
used by practitioners to show the true contribution of their activities to the bottom-line.
Some authors (Watson & Likely, 2013; Macnamara, 2014) have pointed to alternative
measurement processes such as the ‘Benefit Cost Ratio’, logic models, and
‘communication performance management’ as being available for practitioners to
utilise.
In reviewing the responses for this question, it is obvious that informal methods
dominate measurement of PR programmes. Methods such as amount of coverage
received, feedback (mostly unsolicited), evaluation forms after programmes, views
from colleagues, management, and customers are crucial in gauging how successful
or otherwise a programme has been. The focus on sales and increased enquiries are
also a key factor in determining success. Only a few actually use methods such as
focus group, content analysis, or survey. Some participants also find the use of a
dipstick survey quite useful in the measurement of programmes. At least three of the
participants were of the view that dipstick research helps them to know the effect of
their programmes.
The excellence study and other literature on PR research highlight the strong
relationship between research, especially measurement and evaluation, and
successful PR practices (Michaelson & Stacks, 2014: 10; Grunig & Gurnig, 2008:
335, 340). Measurement of PR programmes has been categorised at three levels.
The first, which is the most basic level, is the compilation of media messages (also
referred to as media clippings) and media placement. The second level, which uses
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sophisticated techniques, measures message awareness, comprehension, and
retention. The final level, the most advanced form, measures changes in attitude,
opinions, and behaviour (Wilcox et al 2015: 226). Results show measurement from
practitioners in the financial services sector is mostly at the basic level with very few
engaging in the second and third levels. A global survey of communication
measurement by Benchpoint, a measurement firm, for the Association for the
Measurement and Evaluation of Communication (AMEC) in 2009 aptly confirms the
findings in this research. The survey, which was conducted among professionals
mainly from Europe and America, showed that gathering media clippings was still the
main tool used in determining the success of PR programmes. Practitioners
measured success based on their ability to “hit” the target media (20%), followed by
message output (16%), and measurement of awareness/image, client satisfaction,
and achievement of goals (15% each). Heath and Coombs (2006:184) differentiate
between what they call process (output) evaluation and outcome evaluation and
argue that many practitioners often confuse process for outcome evaluation, a
situation that has also been highlighted severally by the PRSA when reviewing entries
for its annual Silver Anvil Awards. The result again highlights what has been
acknowledged historically; that practitioners have and continue to rely on press
clippings/media monitoring and content analysis as evidence of the success or failure
of PR campaigns.
What is interesting though is that not many of the participants use digital analytics to
measure PR programmes. In an era of digitisation, one would have thought that focus
will very much be on the use of online measurement techniques. Wilcox et al (2015:
169) suggest that the use of the web and social media as a communication tool by
PR practitioners is very critical to PR practice. The authors suggest that analysing
what audiences are saying and thinking on networks such as Facebook, Twitter,
posting write-ups on Facebook, and the “blogosphere”, among others, for online
opinion writing can provide a solid foundation for planning and implementing PR
programmes. With the digital explosion and the media landscape increasingly
becoming digital, literature is constantly highlighting the use of digital analytics such
as Google analytics, web analytics, and social media monitoring tools to measure
and evaluate PR activities. This is however far from being the case. Many of the
institutions, including the very old and well-known ones, do not even have a social
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media account. Much as they acknowledged the importance of online measurement
techniques, they are yet to use this, especially social media. Some of the practitioners
nevertheless said they were making arrangements to go online as soon as possible
while others had already begun the process. This result is in line with literature, which
shows that although very few people have little knowledge about the use of digital
analytics, especially Google analytics, the number of practitioners utilising it to help
“shape, drive, measure, and evaluate” are very few (CIPR, 2015). This is attributed
to the wrong assumption that such analytics are mainly for measuring web traffic.
Public relations success based on publicity: As found in literature, PR has moved
from publicity to a more complex, scientific measurement. What literature has shown
is that media impressions can no longer be used as a yardstick to measure the impact
of any PR programme. As much as media impressions or amount of publicity received
is good in creating awareness about an organisation and its product, it does not show
how many people saw/read the story, absorbed it, or even took an action. The global
survey report (Benchmark, 2009: 2) found that effective placement of messages in
the media is mostly used as criteria to determine success rather than evaluating
impact a message might have on shifting public opinion, awareness, or moving
markets. The report however acknowledged that the trend is changing. The study
sought to find out the views of participants on the use of publicity as a measurement
of PR success.
Overall, participants acknowledged that the amount of publicity one generates is
essential in measuring the effectiveness of a PR programme. They were however
quick to add that publicity alone cannot be used to measure the success of a PR
programme. Participants clearly distinguished between PR and publicity. Literature
shows that publicity has often been confused with the wider concept of PR. PR is
much more than publicity and this was not lost on almost all the participants. One
participant puts it this way:
I will say that publicity is a quantity driven philosophy which has obvious
demerits. It is always important to look at the impact you are getting as
well as the nature of the impact. For example, if you took a typical
Ghanaian media landscape and somebody did an event and it was in
several media and if the key publics targeted, for example key decision-
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makers and movers of industry who invariably will not be reading all
those things, and may read only one newspaper or who may best be
reached through an out of home medium and you did 50 newspapers,
you would have really racked up numbers on the board. You would have
gotten excellent publicity in terms of your connection with your core
publics. However, someone who did just one channel will have a better
impact.
This point was echoed by several of the participants. One participant noted that:
From my experience I won’t say publicity alone amounts to success
because if it is just publicity there is enough out there to change
perceptions, but it doesn't. This is because it's in relation to a service
we provide as an institution so if you are always out there and people
come, and it doesn't reflect on the quality of service you provide it
negates whatever you put outside. PR can therefore not be the same
as publicity. Publicity is being visible but then if you want to establish
the relationship bit it is still so different from publicity. It is just an aspect
but very different from PR.
A participant from another institution noted that equating the amount of publicity
received to success is a “narrow way of looking at the success of a PR campaign..”
To this participant:
publicity is one thing, but you have to look beyond that. For me it is the
quality of how one's perception of a brand has changed, with the public’s
interaction with various brands and personalities. It is that relationship
with them, how they have changed their opinion of you. That is the first
step. If it is now changed from negative to positive, then you now are
closer to increasing your net promoter. It could be that you have a
potential brand ambassador who may not be actually patronising your
products and services, but they now have a positive view of this
particular brand and that is the beginning of this relationship. We now
know that person can be courted; that person can be converted to a true
believer of the brand, so it is also changing public perception as well.
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The point about publicity was further emphasised by three other participants who
gave examples of some publicity services and effect on their institutions:
There can be noise and it is not just because people are mentioning you.
You can have the highest share of voice because you have so much
money, but the effectiveness is not measured by the number of mentions
you have. Because as we speak we are currently running a certain
campaign and we can tell that the campaign is faulty, but we are all over
the place. So, I don’t think it is wholly true, because if they are mentioning
it for the wrong reasons they are mentioning it but it won't help. Our name
is in the media all the time due to the campaign we are doing, we are still
trying to pull it out of the public domain, but it is not having the needed
effect. We think the campaign is not good for the image of the bank.
Image is everything and so if they are mentioning you for the wrong
reasons for so many times I don’t think it is right.
I have come to realise that the noise level that one creates for any
product or service is actually determined by the knowledge of the
prospective customers/clients and sometimes you will not get the
desired result. So, you hear everything on radio, buying spot ads,
getting yourself in the newspapers. It is good but effective PR will
make you identify the real needs and how to target your strategies.
In our organisation for instance we do not make a lot of noise in
terms of publicity compared to my previous institution. You may get
the noise level but may not have gotten effective selling because
simply hearing yourself on radio or TV does not compel someone
to come to you. So, I would rather target the market that my
strategies are meant to address or focus on. Although there is a
certain truth in terms of visibility, but I doubt if many practitioners
even go back to check if the publicity translates to the returns. Many
don't spend time on research. Popularity of a product does not
mean knowledge is acquired.
And
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I don't totally subscribe to that position. My orientation is that PR
must make an impact and must influence. What good is all the
publicity when the end product of the event or activity is zero. So,
publicity is necessary just to let people know what you are doing but
I think the most important thing is the impact. Of course, there are
some activities that are geared towards just creating publicity. You
just want people to know what you are doing. For instance, a few
days ago a journalist came to tell me that he was doing a story on
insurance claims and wanted to interview me and I'm like this is an
opportunity for me to let the public know the claims we have paid so
far. I want to put this story out there not because I want to generate
enough publicity but ultimately for people to know that in this
organisation, we are in the business of paying claims; especially as
people hold a negative view that insurance companies don’t like
paying claims. So yes, publicity is necessary but it must be
supported by the impact from whatever event or story is being put
out there. You can have all the publicity but if the impact and
influence is negative or zero it is bad Cedi spent
These comments reflect the fact that publicity in itself does not guarantee success.
“publicity is publicity but a lot more is dependent on quality in terms of what perception
the people have after the campaign more than whether they heard, or they didn’t hear,”
as a participant pointed out. For participants, most of what they do is in the
background, but publicity is used just to achieve the end. One participant stated:
“Publicity can therefore not be used excessively. Sometimes you use relationship
building. How do you foster relationship and enhance the image of your stakeholders,
even the conduct of your internal stakeholders and so on.” Others further articulated
that “you may have coverage in all the wrong places; you may have coverage in
newspapers nobody is reading. You may have presence on radio stations nobody is
listening to or a TV station nobody is watching. So, if it's just about numbers, I think
that is a problem. I will rather look at the quality, where it is getting to, who has seen it
or who has heard it. That is key for me as against just a number. The number is not
primarily what I look out for.” For participants, it is about content. Participants believe
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one cannot ‘make noise’ where there is no content. It is ultimately about what the
publics are given and the image an organisation projects. This confirms the findings in
the global communication survey (as stated earlier) that the trend towards using
publicity as a measure of success is changing.
Three participants however had a slightly contrary view on this issue. One of them said
that “assuming that you have invited about 20 media houses to cover an assignment
and only 5 turned up. That means it will not get enough publicity and people will not
get to know because the wider the coverage the better,” while the other also articulated
that “in this era, information visibility is essential. The more you make noise the better
for you. Some might not necessarily want to do anything but the more you hit them
with your information and what you are about, unconsciously it imbibes into their
mindset and even that alone can give you some leverage. So, it is very important, and
we have to do more.” The third participant also suggested that:
Publicity is key. What I know is that in PR you have to shout louder. It is
said that in PR the media helps to tell your story, in advertising you blow
your trumpet. So, if the media helps to tell your story then you need to
engage in publicity more. But in publicity too we are looking at the
tools/channels we use in engaging our publics. So I believe publicity is
key because if you are driving home a product or service, if you are
bringing something new people need to know, if you don't make noise
how will people get to know. If you don't come out strongly people will
not know.
As much as they acknowledged that publicity cannot always improve the bottom-line,
they did assert that the more one engages in publicity, the more likely an organisation
can influence public perception. Although most of the participants disagreed that
publicity alone could be used as a measure of success, results on programme
measurement show that publicity, as literature also confirms, dominates measurement
of PR programmes. Botta (2007: 154) asserts that publicity cannot be used to show
there is awareness, the message has been accepted, and audiences have reacted to
the information.
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5.3.2.2. Public Information
This section of the interview sought to determine how participants use media clippings
in the measurement of their PR programmes, their views on the dissemination of
positive and negative information, and the role of PR practitioners as mediators, among
others.
Role of media clippings in PR measurement: Collection of media clippings is one of
the many metrics used in the measurement of PR programmes. The number of times
a PR programme is reported or the number of media that carry a story gives an
impression of the likely success of that programme. Literature shows that media
clippings are commonly used by practitioners to measure PR activities (Starcic &
Jakopovic, 2016; Wright, Leggetter & Zerfass, 2009; Watson, 2004). A review of
measurement studies by Wright and Hanson (2012) between 2006 and 2012 revealed
that more than half (54%) of practitioners use media clippings in measuring programme
success. However, as Botta (2007: 154) points out, press clippings cannot be the
yardstick to determine programme success. PR practitioners need to prove the worth
of PR by finding new ways of measuring programmes rather than using press clippings
(Watson, 2014: 16).
Result of the interviews show media clippings dominate PR measurement tools in the
financial services sector, although whether it does translate into actual outcomes is a
matter of debate. Participants acknowledged the critical role that media clippings play
in the measurement of PR programmes in their organisations. For most, management
expect to see the ‘good’ things the organisation is doing in the media at all times and
so the clippings help them to measure how far their activities are being reported, who
is reporting this, and who is likely to read about it. Newspaper circulation is especially
important to them and this affects the newspapers they normally engage with as they
want their activities to reach as far as possible. Participants expect stories to be printed,
aired or broadcasted in order to bring favourable publicity for their organisations. “If we
do a programme we do newspaper clippings to find out how far the story has gone. We
look at the publicity aspect. We also look at the feedback that we receive from the
public or the response that we receive in terms of our businesses,” said one participant.
Press clippings are used to measure the estimate of people who are likely to see the
story and react to it, as posed by one participant: “when we get prime coverage then
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we know the coverage for that story is really high based on the platform that it came
from. So, when we do our clippings we have an estimated people we know that have
seen the story. For online we know the hits on the website, we calculate the number
of people who have seen the story and for print we know the circulation.” One of the
participants gave a scenario to emphasis her view on the importance of media
clippings:
Interestingly I had to educate my chief executive on why press clippings
was necessary. When he came in as the new chief executive, he felt that
clippings going to him was not necessary. I needed to have time with him
and told him that you need to know how we are presented in the media
and because of that the perception held of us and how that can impact
our business so you need to know and you need to know how your
competitors out there are doing and how you can position yourself to also
counter that. So, media clippings play a critical role in what we do.
Knowing what your competitors are doing or what people are thinking of
you and how your activities are being reported is very crucial.
From the point of view of this participant, media clippings go beyond knowing what has
been written about the organisation. It also involves knowing what competitors are
doing and what is happening within the industry in general. This view is shared by
almost all the participants even though some were not explicitly stated. According to
one participant:
we do media monitoring on a daily basis. We have termed it market
intelligence so every day we look at what is happening in the market, us,
our competitors, and we see how we can either counteract or see what
we can do in that regard. We use traditional as well as online media to
find out what is happening within the industry.
This is corroborated by another participant who says: “We do what we call media
intelligence/clippings as well as competitor analysis. What is working and what is not
working, what are customers saying, are there things we can look at and shape them?”
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In the words of another participant:
The media clippings will tell you whether you will get your story published
successfully. So, when we take the clippings we also read what has
actually been written. We do a content analysis on the clippings. We look
at coverage. We look at what was actually said, is it something that is
going to improve or dent our image. We therefore use it as a way of
measuring whether the story going out has been done the right way,
whether our message has been carried out well, which newspapers
carried the story etc. Media clippings play a major role in what we do
because if I am able to get it in Daily Graphic then I know that a higher
number of people are going to read it.
The relevancy of media clippings is also seen in this statement by a participant from
one of the banks: “For me I have a target and I need to ensure that I have some public
awareness about the brand and the product. So, every quarter I should have a
minimum of two (2) PR stories either in print or radio. I am measured by that. If you
have at least those numbers of awareness it is good.”
The result of the interviews shows that many of the participants regard media clippings
as more than a measurement tool. Sometimes the clippings form the basis for other
activities participants undertake. Participants look not only at the number of stories, but
also the quality and nature of coverage. To this end, some of the participants engage
in content analysis (either by themselves or through an agency) to measure the quality
of the reportage. This enables participants to know if the report will have any impact or
not. In the words of a participant:
We engage in a lot of media monitoring. The Ghana Media Report for
instance shows the media behaviour of the various organisations and the
impact. Who has more voice or has more attention? We use these reports
to further do a research. The report gives you an inclination of what is
happening. If I want it to be more specific and tailored to my
organisations, I engage the agency to do that. The agencies show us the
number of times we have appeared on radio and so on. We use content
analysis for most of these things.
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Another participant also pointed out that: “I want to see which media, where in the
media, the nature of the coverage e.g. the thematic angles that were raised. So, media
clipping is a fair indicator but the quality of the coverage is the greatest measure.”
Others also made the following comments on the subject:
We use that to measure affinity, how people associate with the brand.
We measure through clippings what others are doing. If you watch the
financial sector they all seem to be doing the same thing but different
names. The clippings help to know what is happening in the industry,
what can you add or learn from. What can you stop that is not helping the
brand, and
“It is more to collect historical data and also to check media bias concerning the
company. So, we go through the dailies and online and clip for the sake of it and also
see how that influences us.” This confirms the findings of a European study (Zerfass
et al 2010) that found that 82% of practitioners monitored clips and media response.
Padidar (2010) admonishes practitioners to move beyond the number of times their
stories appeared in the media and analyse the true value of each instance of media
coverage. This will enable practitioners to determine whether organisational/client
goals were met. In simple terms, practitioners must determine the effectiveness of
programmes through scientific means rather than depend on quantity of media
coverage.
In reviewing the responses, participants appear to focus strongly on traditional
methods of media monitoring/clippings more than online. Emphasis is placed on
traditional broadcast and newspaper methods while minimum attention is paid to online
analytics. This does not mean participants do not engage in online analytics. However,
attention to online clippings, including social media, is minimal in the case of many of
the participants. Watson (2007: 200) asserts that the advancement of digital
technology has shifted focus from a one-to-one model of communication, often
mediated by journalists, to a more one-to-all model of communication. Digital
technology now allows audiences to turn to their own as sources of “unbiased,
authoritative information.” This means that practitioners cannot focus on conventional
media when monitoring.
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The Chartered Institute of Public Relations (CIPR, 2011) acknowledges the importance
of measuring social media as it has a serious effect on PR practice. Monitoring allows
practitioners not only to track what is being said about their organisations but also
“identifying relevant conversation and then deciding on if, and how, to intervene on the
basis of how these conversations impact - or might - the ability of clients/employers to
meet their organisational goals” Watson (2014: 147). The Barcelona Principles also
indicate the essence of measuring social media using measurement tools such as
media content analysis, web and search analytics, sales and CRM data and survey
data. The principles also called for a measurement based on engagement
“conversation” and “communities” instead of “coverage” and what it calls ”vanity
metrics” such as likes (Leggetter, 2015). The lack of focus on online evaluation is
consistent with a study by the European Communication Monitor that identified “coping
with the digital evolution and the social web” as a critical issue for communication
managers (Zerfass, Verčič, Verhoeven, Moreno & Tench, 2015: 40). Phillips and
Young (2009: 237) posit the need to monitor, measure, and weigh the effects of PR
interventions online. They suggest that monitoring, measurement, and evaluation
takes on a more critical role as the internet continues to mediate organisational
activities. Watson and Noble (2007: 208), however, consider the online evaluation as
a “black hole” mainly because most practitioners today started their career long before
the digital era. Practitioners therefore monitor online coverage like they do print.
The need for online measurement and evaluation has been touted in literature but this
appears not to be the case within the financial services sector. Wright and Hinson
(2013), for instance, found little progress in the measurement and evaluation of social
or emerging media. Jeffrey (2013: 2) therefore suggests that most PR practitioners
have no “real idea of what is working and what is not working in their social and digital
programmes.” Clearly, the evolution of the internet and digital media means that
discussions on PR measurement cannot ignore the important role of social media
networks such as Facebook, Twitter, and blogs. Businesses now want to know what
is being said about them online more than ever. Focus has shifted from traditional
media to online media. Measurement practices for organisations have expanded with
practitioners now expected to track and analyse total media coverage using different
metrics such as circulation, PR value, tone, site visits, blog comments, tweets,
retweets, followers, fans and more (Padidar, 2010).
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Another observation made is that many of the participants do not really analyse the
clippings in detail but simply engage in counting. One participant made this point clear
when he said: “we do media clippings alright, but we don’t necessarily analyse them.”
For these participants, the more the organisation and its services are reported
positively, the greater the mileage, but in terms of actual content and potential impact,
these are not really analysed. The result feeds into the concern of Grunig (2008: 89)
about the tendency of practitioners to use media monitoring to show the value of their
programmes.
Practitioners as disseminators of accurate information: The debate over whether it is
right for practitioners to withhold negative information and only put out positive
information has been ongoing for more than a decade. Ethical dimensions have been
raised on this issue and there appears to be no consensus on the subject. The
literature examined earlier shows that overall, practitioners believe that their purpose
is to disseminate accurate information about their organisations but not to volunteer
negative information. One of the four models of PR reviewed earlier - public information
- describes practitioners as “journalists-in-residence - whose purpose is to promote the
dissemination of accurate information but not to volunteer negative information. This is
to protect the reputation of the organisation that will result in any possible loss of
business. To this end, any information that will lead to possible negative public opinion
will not be volunteered. Van Heerden (2004: 174), in her research on practice of PR
in Africa, reports that 71% of African PR practitioners agree with the assertion that the
purpose of PR is to disseminate accurate information but not volunteer negative
information. Kim (2009: 152) also notes that some practitioners in South Korea, as part
of their PR strategy, consider information manipulation an important aspect of gaining
favourable publicity in the media while keeping negative publicity out of the media
focus. Nawaf (2014: 222) found the same situation in his research on PR practice in
Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates.
In the financial services sector, one must be careful of the information one relays to
the public in order not to cause fear and panic. In the last decade several financial
institutions in Ghana have collapsed - the latest being two high profile banks which
collapsed in August 2017 and were taken over by one of the State banks, GCB Bank
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Ltd - resulting in huge financial losses to clients. Another has been taken over by the
regulatory bank and handed over to KPMG to manage to prevent it from collapsing.
Some of these institutions were later found to have been in financial distress but failed
to communicate this to their key publics. This has increased suspicion among publics
of these institutions. Globalisation and the rapid evolution of technology in the world,
and Ghana for that matter, means that the demand for accountability and transparency
is very high. Stakeholders want access to information to enable them to make valid
decisions. PR practitioners are caught in the middle of this as they are regarded as the
holders of organisational information.
There was no real agreement among participants regarding the view that “the purpose
of PR is to disseminate accurate information but not to volunteer unfavourable
information.” Overall, many of the participants felt that the situation is not black and
white, but circumstances will dictate the approach to take. Others firmly believed that
withholding of negative information is the right thing because at the end of the day it is
the organisation that pays their salary. A few were however of the view that hiding
unfavourable information is not worth the risk if you truly value your publics. These
participants also argued that it will be extremely difficult to hide unfavourable
information in this era of digitisation and the high demand for transparency.
One participant who supports the withholding of information made the following
comment:
I can tell you for sure in one of our local dialect that nobody points the left
finger to his home or to his village. There is a way to manage
communication but at the end of the day nobody throws dirt at himself. I
wouldn't throw dirt at my institution I wouldn't do it. If there are things we
are not doing right, on the quiet we try to correct them and make them
better, but it is not in my interest or it is not my role to go and communicate
all the wrong things. I am not saying we as PR practitioners we hide
information, but as practitioners we give information on need to know
basis. If you need to know yes, you'll have it. It is an open door policy. If
a system is not working why will I want to let the client know this is not
working, it's on a need to know basis. I don’t need to go tell you
information that is of no relevance to you.
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For this participant: “you always want a good image for your organisation and to that
effect you must sometimes keep out bad information that will not inure to the benefit of
your organisation. There is a saying that you don’t wash your dirty linen in public.” The
idea of not washing one’s dirty linen in public is a popular saying in Ghana to reflect
the fact that it is not every issue that must come out in the public domain. A lot of
participants cited this as a reason why practitioners have to manage negative
information rather than letting their stakeholders know. One participant, who is actually
a marketer but who is practicing PR, justified this by aligning it with the definition of PR:
“I think this is obvious if you look at the definition of PR. You don’t want the bad news
to go out so even if there is bad news you need to manage it internally. You expose
yourself if you send all information out. For customers, we have a complaint
mechanism to address that.” This attempted justification is supported by another
participant: “PR is doing something good and getting credit for it so who will actually
go ahead and say negative things about their organisation. Unless of course something
has happened, and everyone is aware of it and you can't deny it. Otherwise you'll
always say something nice to build your image.” In further agreement, a participant
noted that: “of course who wants to wash their dirty linen in public. You don’t go singing
loudly about your negative side. You project the positive side and manage the negative
story. It is only natural to do that.” An example by a participant sums up the need to
sometimes keep negative information away from the public domain:
It is image we are talking about. As much as you can you will not want
to hide but to manage negative information. In the industry in which we
work, negative news can lead to the closure of a bank. For instance, if
some armed robbers break into the bank and it becomes banner
headline in the mainstream media customers who hear are likely to
panic. They will think these guys are supposed to be custodians of my
savings and can no longer be trusted. And if such news comes to me
as a practitioner it is not likely I will inform the public because we are
not only talking about image here but operational risk as well. People
trust us to keep their money but if the office can be raided by thieves, I
will do as much as I can to make sure this story doesn't come out. If it
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comes out you are likely to lose your customers as people are likely to
panic and come in to take their money.
Most participants are of the view that information dissemination is a two dimensional
affair and not a straightjacket thing. For such participants, if the issue is not something
big and can be managed internally and quickly, there will be no point in informing the
publics. However, if it is a crisis or something that is likely to have a huge impact on
the publics, it is essential for the public to know and assist in the resolution.
It depends on the situation. It's not everything that has to come out in the
public domain. Again, it depends on what has actually happened. If you
have a crisis on your hands there is no point for you to hold the negative
information, you have to come out with it because it is the truth. It is better
to come out with the truth and face the harsh reality than to hide it for
people to get to know about it later on.
Commenting further on this, the female participant of one of the largest financial
institutions in the country said:
Would you show your negative side? Negative news sells better than the
positive. So, the media people come around the positive and that is not
what is of interest to them. They want the negative and too much of the
negativity will impact the bottom-line. At the end of the day that is what is
running the business. However, it is important to manage it, not
necessarily keep it out but you would want to manage it. Since we have
a broad array of media it will be virtually impossible to supress it. If you
suppress it here it will appear somewhere else so what you can do is to
try and manage it. What we do know is that when there is negative
information, we package it and put it out there in the media, but we don’t
try to bury it. You can't do that, and I won't even suggest it.
A female participant who works with one of the private banks had this to say:
I think it is not so black and white. I think there are certain negative
information you don't want to have in the public space but there are
certain occasions where you can use so called negative information as
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an opportunity to showcase your vulnerability if that might be useful for
whatever campaign you will be launching. It depends but typically you
would want to put out as much positive information as possible because
that's really the best thing but there are some situations in which a less
than positive story could still help you in the eyes of the public. From a
bank perspective, because we are in the financial services industry there
is a lot of confidential information that does not need to be disseminated
on a wide scale even internally. Certain information needs to be
communicated on a need to know basis so there are some innocuous
negative information you could share just so that people are aware of
what is going on. But in all these things I think it is better to be upfront
and honest with your publics that this is what I promised to do but wasn't
able to do for these reasons and this is what we are doing to ensure we
achieve it.
Generally, most participants agree that due to the sensitive nature of the financial
services sector, one has to be careful what information goes out. It is essential to
manage negative information in order to maintain positive impression. On the other
hand, where the public deserves the right to know, practitioners are obligated to do.
One of the participants was strongly of the view that it would not be wise to keep
negative information from the public:
I think anyone who is doing that is fighting a losing battle. In this current
age of social media, the speed with which information goes out, there is
nothing that you can keep secret. It is always better when the company
owns up to the problem and then handles it because if you don’t manage
it someone will manage it for you.
Some participants suggest that hiding critical information will be seen as “dishonest
and unethical” and the organisation will be in big trouble if it backfires. “If it is bad,
manage it in a way that will not damage your brand but be honest to your stakeholders.”
The need for honesty and transparency was also raised by a participant who believes
that it is professionally wrong to keep negative information away from the public.
We stand for transparency and best practice, which means your
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stakeholders must know whatever is happening. It will be wrong on my
part as a professional and the institution's part to hide information from
customers, and so regular communication is important. If something is
not right it is important to inform the stakeholders and take the right steps
to resolve it. We report on what has gone wrong but immediately we
announce the plan of restoring the situation. I believe that if you keep
hiding it one day it's going to blow up in your face.
This is supported by a participant who has been in the industry for more than 30 years:
One of the primary functions of PR is value creation. Mutually beneficial
value creation on the back of very robust relationships. If you want a
relationship which is enduring and leads beyond generations then you
need one that is predicated on very strong trust and trust is always driven
by openness and transparency. So, I wouldn't want to go screaming that
I am naked, but I would want to tell my key publics that I have issues with
my clothes and I am fixing it and I make sure I fix it. And more so in this
world where the ability to keep information under wraps has become a
nuclear test. It has become very difficult because of the proliferation of
all the channels and the intensity of citizen journalism. And so trying to
hide things especially bad news is a huge and daunting task. At worse I
will say the proper thing for the practitioner to do is to tell the truth.
Another participant made the following comment:
My orientation in PR is that information is information. For accurate
information disseminate and disseminate wide. For negative
information it is equally important you don't keep the populace in the
dark because sometimes when you put the lead on negative information
and it blows up in your face, the result will be worse than if you had
reported it. So, I believe you admit that it is a challenge and give the
assurance that you've taken steps to correct that defect or challenge.
For instance, in my previous organisation it was one of the cardinal
principles. Admit and assure that steps are being taken to correct the
defect. So, I always say that yes, when it is good news blow it up when
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it is bad news admit that something is gone wrong and give the
assurance that whatever went wrong management is taking steps to
address it but not to deceive the public to say no it never happened.
The issue of transparency, especially during a crisis, has been highlighted by scholars.
Transparency and accountability are seen as not an option but a must. This feeds into
the principle “Tell it all, tell it fast, tell the truth.” Coombs (2007) also discusses the
need for information dissemination with speed, accuracy, and consistency in a crisis
situation. This is especially so within the financial services sector where there are
suspicions of more financial institutions on the verge of collapsing, leading to anxiety
among the public. What is interesting is that many of the participants who advocated
transparency, honesty, and truth were those who had an actual PR/communication
background (had either a Masters or Diploma in PR).
PR practitioners as negotiators and mediators and not neutral disseminators of
information: The literature reviewed in earlier chapters reveals that PR practitioners
are responsible for maintaining and sustaining relationship between the publics and
the organisation. This is reflected in the concept of the practitioner as a boundary
spanner, that is, linking the organisation and the publics together. The professional’s
duty is thus to “interpret the publics to management and management to the publics”
(Seitel, 2007: 6). However, for this to occur, the practitioner must not be seen as one
whose interest is only in disseminating ‘accurate’ information. Relationships are built
on trust and credibility and the practitioner is expected to epitomise this. The traditional
meaning of the negotiator/mediator role is one who looks at issues concerning both
parties in a neutral, unbiased way in order to resolve a dispute. Practitioners are
therefore viewed as responsible for managing the conflicting demands of different
groups of publics by ‘navigating complex negotiations and relationships’ to the mutual
benefit of all stakeholder groups. Practitioners are not to be disseminators of factual
information if they are to achieve equilibrium between the organisation and stakeholder
groups. Grunig and Repper (1992: 118) are, however, of the view that PR practice in
many organisations is nothing more than neutral disseminators of information within
the organisational structure. They suggest that practitioners and senior management
attribute achievements to favourable publicity, good media relations, slick employee
publications, among others.
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The results from the interviews show that participants are active negotiators and
mediators between management and key stakeholder groups. This is driven by the
realisation to ensure a relationship that is mutually beneficial for both parties, as
reflected in the comment of one participant: “you need to ensure harmony and in doing
that you manage the relationship between the two groups. Other than that, what is the
use….practitioners are not robotics, they are human beings whose duty it is to bridge
the gap between two groups of people and not only serve as a channel for the
dissemination of information.” The practitioner is expected to facilitate and consolidate
the relationship between the organisation and the stakeholders and to that effect they
must apply professionalism in their activities, as one participant acknowledged:
I believe that if the primary task of the practitioner is to facilitate and
consolidate relationships between an institution and its publics then the
practitioner should not be a conveyor belt. The practitioner needs to bring
his professional expertise to the table and apply that to the growth of the
relationship. Which would mean to a large extent the management of
communication between the organisation and key stakeholders.
Another participant also acknowledged the importance of practitioners as mediators
and negotiators, especially as communication management is a two-way affair:
It is important, as professionals, to manage the dialogue between the
executive team and the public, including internal stakeholders, hardcore
unions and various associations. Decisions taken by management must
lead to an outcome that is beneficial to both parties.
One of the participants believed that practitioners sometimes “advocate more for our
publics than even for the management side more so because we are the very
department that manages the brand. So, anything that has the potential of negatively
affecting the brand, management has to be brought into the known and decisions taken
to prevent some of these things happening.
A participant raised an interesting point which seemed to disagree with comments his
fellow participants made. He felt such a thing is unrealistic and more in theory than
practice. “When I joined this organisation, I noticed that they didn’t have a number of
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things so I made recommendations, but they were not taken, especially at the senior
level. I am at the middle level of management. At that level I am involved in making
recommendations but at the senior management level where my inputs are needed, I
am not factored.” What this means is that this participant sees himself only as an
implementer and a disseminator rather than a mediator. The Excellence Theory
identifies the practitioner as a key part of the decision-making process. Practitioners
can only counsel management if they are part of the decision-making body. The
Excellence theory clearly states that for PR to be excellent, it must be practiced
strategically by being part of the dominant coalition. The view of this participant is an
indication that this is not the case in all situations. Another participant was also of the
view that the ability to serve either as a negotiator or neutral disseminator is dependent
on the structure of the organisation as well as the individual practitioner.
In today's PR world in most organisations, the roles have been so broken
down that depending on where you find yourself and your strength as an
individual and the structured organisation you may either be a glorified
messenger or a strategist. In the days of old we didn't have something
like investor relations where somebody needed to engage investors as a
totally different role. Information mainly went through the PR. If you go to
some organisations, they have head of regulators as well as people in
charge of traditional authorities. All these are PR roles, but they won't
necessarily be as a PR information dissemination function. It is a way of
engaging the stakeholders.
The term glorified messenger is often used to refer to practitioners who mainly
disseminate information or decisions made by management. In the words of one
participant, such people cannot be regarded as PR practitioners. They are either
“information or press officers because PR involves professionalism.” This participant
further noted that even in situations where a practitioner is disseminating information
“you don't just take what is given to you. You must critique it because you also have
your image at stake. What I am sending out, will it project the image of the organisation,
what about me signing and also distributing. Does it contain any element of
propaganda or is it balanced and professional.” What it means is that the information
disseminated must be accurate and credible because it is the image of both the
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organisation and the profession that is at stake. Sending a message as neutral
disseminator without looking at the implication will not benefit either the organisation
or the profession. Participants from the interviews generally do not believe that as a
professional, one has to be active in the management of relationship between the
organisation and its publics. Being a neutral disseminator of information rather than an
active negotiator and mediator between management and publics is the essence of
PR. These responses corroborate what literature says about the need to be an active
participant if the practitioner is to succeed in maintaining a relationship that is mutually
beneficial.
Writing and production of stories: Writing and production of stories for publication is a
critical aspect of a communicator’s work. Writing, as literature shows, must be based
on research. Research and writing go hand in hand for the PR professional. Results
generally show that participants in the financial services sector mostly prioritised the
writing and production of stories over research. Participants admitted that much as
research is important, the nature of their work does not give them enough time to do
much research. Research is sometimes done but rarely. Much of the research done is
mainly informal in nature. For some of the participants, research is usually given to an
agency while they concentrated on the writing process. One participant admitted that
the lack of a communication research unit has contributed to the lack of research.
This department is made up of social media, events and protocol, media
management, and brand management and webmaster. So, we are
always churning out information for internal and external
consumption....unfortunately whenever we try to engage an external
agency to do research for us, management will say, but we know the
problems already. Much as I try to convince them that this is for purely
communication research to know what we are doing right or wrong, it
doesn’t work. For example, we rebranded some years back, but the
department was not in charge because management felt it should be
a project. In the end they were using people put together. So now a few
years down the line nobody is really thinking about research to determine
whether the message we drove has gone down. I want to do that, but I
am still having challenges pushing it because it is not a priority to
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management. Everybody thinks we know it so it doesn't matter. But that
will determine the kind of communication you are putting out there. I need
to find out whether all those things have made impact.
In the case of this participant, the willingness is there but the challenge is the lack of
management support. This is consistent with the views of Bowen et al (2012: 77) that
practitioners often face a challenge of convincing senior management about the need
to fund research. Senior management in every organisation is responsible for making
quality decisions that lead to achievement of organisational goals. However, good
decision-making is dependent on the quality of information/data available. Senior
management works with information from various sectors including PR. The
practitioner uses data from research to counsel senior management on what to do and
what not to do in order to constantly establish and maintain mutually beneficial
relationship between the organisation and the publics. However, gathering quality
information will not be possible without research. Support of senior management is
thus critical to the effectiveness of PR, as has been highlighted by literature.
Another participant attributed the lack of research to budgetary constraints. One of the
key problems often raised by participants for not doing research is the issue of budget.
Literature agrees with this. Smith (2017: 351) for instance, contends that because PR
is often seen as dealing with “hard-to-measure” intangibles like visibility and goodwill,
organisations tend to set budgets according to a formula that is based on the previous
year’s budget or as an arbitrary percentage of the bigger administration or marketing
programme. When this happens, PR loses out to other departments such as marketing.
Due to low budgets participants have resorted to working with mainly informal research
and sometimes by “intuition” to drive home organisational messages. The following
comments shows this:
I believe we can do a lot more to inform how we react to the market and
we can do that through research. We do the general one because it
serves us but there are several things that we can actually do which we
do not do purely because of budget. Very few organisations actually give
priority to the communications department. Sometimes you need the buy-
in of executive management and sometimes personal interventions of
people to get things done.
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Speaking in agreement, a participant from the insurance industry noted:
Unfortunately, in our environment research has not taken root. In some
organisations you can't do without research but in the service industry
you are looking at what the competition is doing, your intelligence is what
you pick from the market. We don't have a scientific way of measuring
issues, so research plays almost close to nil.”
Literature suggests that practitioners are not actually satisfied with the unscientific
nature of most of their evaluations even though these types of methods are used
extensively (Baskin, Hahn, Seaman & Reines, 2010). On the issue of budget, another
participant commented that
Here we are focused on what will yield the big financial benefits so
research, although is a critical part of being able to roll out successful
products and services, is not always carried out. Sometimes you look at
the immediate short term of what needs to be done so research may be
overlooked. I think when you have a bigger budget you are able to put
more on research.
Literature has identified insufficient or lack of budget as one of the major reasons
practitioners give for not engaging in research, especially scientific research
(Macnamara, 2015, Baskin et al 2010). Literature however, identifies some cost-
effective research methods such as mini-surveys, which use small samples, omnibus
surveys, and online surveys (Macnamara, 2015: 4). Other tools that practitioners can
use include formal and informal methods like case studies, consultative groups, online
feedback forums, and self-administered e-surveys (Macnamara, 2015: 5). Lindenmann
(in Wilcox et al 2015:225) also point out that research can be done with limited budget
and time. Literature clearly shows the gulf between what practitioners say about the
importance of research and actual practice.
Writing appears to dominate the activities of participants because that is the means by
which people get to know about the organisation, especially in a competitive
environment. Some participants only see the need for research when there is an
incident. One participant in particular noted: “we don’t do PR research because we
don’t have the need for research unless something has happened.” Literature though
does not support this stand. PR practitioners have to work with accurate information
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about “the situations they face, the audiences they communicate with, effectiveness of
their communication efforts and the overall impact the programme has on building and
maintaining relationships with critical stakeholders” (Bowen et al 2010: 87). Research
is therefore necessary to ensure goals and objectives are properly constructed and
achieved. Research therefore gives value to PR efforts.
A participant who has worked in the profession for more than 30 years had a different
perspective. He believed that the quality of a practitioner’s writing is ultimately linked
to research so the two cannot be separated. “If you want to do quality writing your
research needs to be solid and deep. For example, one of our core areas of activity is
content generation as a means of deepening relationship and if you are going to
generate and create content you need very solid research.” This comment was
supported by two other participants who said: “both have their roles to play and one
cannot take the place of the other,” and,
I think you can't actually publish without having done your research.
Research first and foremost is very important in every writing that you do.
And research doesn't necessarily mean researching into your own
organisation. You can also research into what competitors have done.
At the end of the day whatever you come up with plot into the general
psyche of the publics because let us bear in mind that you are not an
island. Whatever you are doing goes to impact the global landscape.
These statements are consistent with the views of Newsom and Haynes (2008: 59-
60) and Smith (2008: 75) on the importance of research to the writing process. Several
reasons have actually been muted by researchers for the focus on writing more than
research. Some have attributed the lack of research to a lack of knowledge/expertise
in research by practitioners (Grunig, 2014; Baskin, Han, Seaman & Reines, 2010).
Austin and Pinkleton (2015: 13) suggest that the challenge practitioners face in the
area of research is due to the fact that practitioners are trained mostly as writers rather
than as social scientists. Practitioners therefore tend to argue that building and
maintaining relationships is a ‘fuzzy business’, which is difficult to quantify. This
attitude, however, makes the PR position vulnerable to organisational cost cutting and
restructuring
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The use of informal research in the writing process by some participants also came up
during the interview. Participants believe that research must be given the same priority
as writing and production of stories. Many though admit that in reality this is not the
case and as such research, especially scientific research, is done usually once or twice
a year while informal research is done often. For most participants, they do not have
their own research department and so communication research, when done, is
conducted as part of general industry research. One organisation mostly engaged in
“brand health check” to check the strength of brands. Specific research to gauge
attitudes and opinions on the organisation and how these might affect the organisation
is done as part of a general customer satisfaction survey. The focus though is more on
marketing-oriented research questions than communication. To ensure credibility and
mobility in management as well as to insure against ‘cost cutters’, practitioners will
have to use the scientific management approach, as postulated by Broom and Dozier
(1990).
5.3.2.3. Two-Way Asymmetric Communication
Literature identifies the two-way asymmetry as close to the ideal form of excellent PR.
The model is rooted in persuasive communication and is premised on sound research.
The purpose is to generate some form of agreement between the organisation and
stakeholders. In the two-way asymmetric model, feedback from research is used to
develop strategies that are more persuasive but not necessarily to change the position
of the organisation. In the end, the asymmetry is still one-way although it has a strong
semblance of two-way. Literature again indicates that this model is practiced
consistently in many organisations, on most occasions as part of other models.
Earlier, the study revealed that writing and production of stories for publication is mostly
given a priority over research, although for some, this situation is more based on
circumstances than a deliberate attempt to avoid research. Others also did indicate
that research is the basis on which publications are done even though most of the
research is informal in nature. The two-way asymmetry is focused on the use of
scientific research to understand public attitude and alter such attitudes to favour the
organisation. Research is used not to maintain balance but to increase positive attitude
towards the organisation before any PR programme is conducted. A series of
questions were asked to determine whether this is the case in the financial services
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sector.
Use of attitudinal research: As noted earlier in literature the use of formative research
to determine public attitude before a PR programme is undertaken is considered to be
critical to understanding publics and tailoring the right messages for them. Attitude
research allows practitioners to measure and interpret the views, feelings, values,
opinions, and beliefs a public may have toward an organisation/client, issue or product
(Stacks & Bowen, 2013: 2). This is normally done before a major PR programme is
undertaken. The Excellence theory articulates that for PR programmes to be managed
strategically they must be based on formative research. The results revealed that
attitudinal/formative research is hardly done, if ever at all. Most participants
acknowledge that they do not really do formal attitudinal research. “What we do is
mostly informal. We try to do that through interactions with clients and based on their
responses we realise that something may be wrong, and we work on it,” said one
participant. Another participant opined that although she is very interested in doing
attitudinal research, she is very much handicapped as she is not getting the necessary
support. The mantra of management is that “we know what people are thinking of us
already,” and this makes it difficult for her. She continues:
I want to believe that the strategy we use works but what do I have to
scientifically prove it. I am just using feedback I get to say that we should
be well represented especially on social media and move towards the
youth to drive even the tagline. So, research is not playing a key role as
it should because people think that we can do without it, but for us here
it is relevant, and we are still pushing for it.
A participant was frank when he said, “here we mostly adopt a knee jerk approach”,
meaning that programmes are conducted without proper research. This participant
gave the following example to buttress his point:
The organisation decided to embark on a rebranding exercise a few years
ago. However, a proper rebranding exercise must have been preceded
by certain perception research. That was not done because of the group
arrangement. Because we belong to a bigger group, a lot of things come
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from the centre and implemented across without reference to the local
environment. Things are just rolled out as if that is how it ought to be
done and you don't take into account the views of your publics and a lot
of insult starts coming into your face. All these could have been averted
if research had been done.
For PR to succeed, management support is critical. This appears not to be the case
in some situations. The participant from one of the top insurance companies in Ghana
also shared the view that one needs the support of management to embark on these
kinds of research.
The last time we did any kind of research was about seven years ago. In
fact, just last week when I was doing my marketing presentation to
management, the information I used to share with them the public
perception about us was from that document and they were like when
was this done and I said well the last time we committed to doing anything
of this nature was seven years ago. So, it just shows how much attention
management gives to some of these things. Some managers do not
understand why we should pay money for research. To them, ‘we can
hear what the people are saying about us.’ So currently research plays
very little role.
A participant who is the marketing communication manager of a bank noted that the
focus of research is more marketing-oriented than PR. This participant indicated that
the department mostly focused on competitor analysis but “in terms of communication
or attitudinal research, we don’t really have to do research because we have an idea
of what we need to do and what we need not do.” The literature reviewed earlier
revealed that sometimes researchers focus on their intuition rather than scientific
research to determine public perception. A review on literature on this subject shows
that research is hardly done by practitioners and where it is done, it tends to be mostly
informal in nature (Macnamara, 2008; Watson & Noble, 2007). Wilcox et al (2015:
150) acknowledge the importance of gathering information and collecting as well as
interpreting data before embarking on any PR programme. Without it, it will be difficult
for the organisation to make any effective policy decision and map out strategies for
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effective programmes. Engaging in knowledge and attitudinal research enables
practitioners to develop methods that persuade the public to behave as the
organisation desires.
For those who engage in attitudinal research, it is mostly done at the end of the year
as part of broader marketing research. This situation is mainly due to the fact that
almost all the communication departments do not have their own research unit. Most
of the research is therefore focused on marketing outcomes rather than attitudinal.
Research is therefore not done at the beginning of campaigns, but at the end of the
year and this is what is used for the following year. Most of the participants engage in
client satisfaction surveys as part of broader marketing research to gauge attitudes of
clients regarding their products and services.
A few use dipstick surveys to determine perception and attitudes before a PR
programme such as the launch of an event. One of the very experienced
communication managers had a strong view on attitudinal research. According to this
participant:
Attitudinal research plays quite a significant role. It is part of the
environmental recognisance and monitoring. Our duty as practitioners is
to be the sentry and also to be the town crier. It is important we have a
pulse and a feel for what is happening and one of the most objective ways
of getting clear indications will be attitudinal research. So that becomes
very essential for us. The reason you need the information is to be able
to recalibrate the attitude towards the organisation and you roll out
interventions to be able to send it out to the level that you want. Also, you
are able to engage your internal stakeholders and give them a view of
what the situation is and bring them on board on what the interventions
are to ensure that their attitudes and sentiments are in the right orbit.
He indicated that his department had its own research wing and not part of the overall
organisational research department. This allows them to develop the right research
tools which are focused entirely on communication activities. This participant is not the
only one who focuses mostly on PR research. Another participant, who obviously
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realises the crucial nature of attitudinal research, noted:
Initially we did not have a good perception, especially after we
rebranded. We therefore engaged the services of an agency to give us a
sense of how things have improved, and the results were really good.
From time to time we survey our customers to get a better sense of what
we are doing wrong or how we can improve our operational practices as
well as certain aspects of our products and services. So, we do that quite
frequently in house through our service quality department and we also
do engage some of our sales team to assist us depending on if we are
launching a product or campaign.
Methods used are both formal and informal, but this participant does recognise the
essence of attitudinal research. She acknowledged that formal research is not done as
much as she would have liked but at least on a yearly basis the department organises
research to continue to track the progress of the organisation with regards to
stakeholder attitude. Formal research is mostly handled by external agencies as the
organisations do not have the resources for larger external research. The informal
ones, on the other hand, are done in-house. Participants use either qualitative or
quantitative depending on the kind of research they want to do.
The comments above denote that market-oriented research is mostly the focus of large
scale research in the financial services sector. Perception and attitudinal research is
incorporated at some point in the marketing research process. Very few engage in full
scale attitudinal research to gauge public attitude before any PR programme is
embarked upon. For many of these participants, attitudinal research is also informal
and based on interaction with some key stakeholders, including internal staff. In
discussing the complex nature of attitude research, Austin and Pinkleton (2015: 352)
articulate that attitude research does not measure only what the stakeholders say but
also what they know and think (mental or cognitive predisposition), what they feel (their
emotions), and their actions (their motivational or drive tendencies). They note that
attitude research is much more difficult and expensive to carry out due to the processes
it goes through. This means that for effective programmes to be planned, practitioners
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must use a rigorous scientific process to gather relevant data.
Persuasion of publics to act in line with organisational goals: The activities that
practitioners engage in are meant to influence the public to have a positive attitude
towards the organisation. When this happens, organisations will be given the
legitimacy to operate. Stakeholders are likely to act in favour of the organisation.
Literature acknowledges that the ultimate goal of every practitioner is to get
stakeholders to behave in line with the goals of their organisations. Excellent/
symmetric PR has therefore been called unrealistic and idealistic (Grunig & White,
1992: 45).
For participants in the financial services sector, persuading publics to do business with
the organisation is critical to their work. They therefore play a huge role. In most cases,
they are the ones driving the persuasion agenda. “We do it on two fronts; internally we
drive engagement. We lay the engagement objective of the bank, working in tandem
with our human resource department. Externally it is our baby. Ensuring the right
alignment between us and key publics is a very important performance area for us.”
The goal of the communication department is to ensure that publics continue to do
business with the organisation, while attempting to get more publics on board. There
is keen competition in the financial services sector; practitioners work 24/7 to ensure
the organisation remains competitive and that publics act in line with organisational
goals by remaining in business with them. “We aim to improve the bottom-line while
also promoting the values of the organisation. So, whenever we get feedback on issues
from any of our branches, we develop strategies to work on it. We use the branch
managers to engage the stakeholders because most of these issues happen purely at
the branch level.” The director of communication of one of the banks also pointed out
that:
In selling a product the onus is on the department to be persuasive
enough in terms of our communication and marketing campaigns to
ensure that people patronise the bank’s services and also have a certain
view of the bank based on how we guide them. Our communication in
terms of the tone, the structure even from the images that we use, is
meant to guide people to think about the organisation in a certain way
both internally and externally.
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The participants develop strategies, mostly based on informal research, aimed at
persuading publics, both internal and external, to view the organisation in a positive
perspective. The purpose is to drive sales and retain staff. “We need to drive sales and
marketing. We have no business apart from creating value for customers. To do
effective selling, we must impress on perception and that’s what we do. We improve
the acceptance of the organisation through various means.”
A participant in the insurance industry posited that as part of the strategies to engage
the public, he holds a dinner meeting for the top 50 clients of the organisation in various
parts of the country:
Whenever we are opening a branch or visiting a region for an activity, I
ensure we bring together the top 50 clients in the region and have a
dinner with them, together with my MD. These clients appreciate what we
do for them and it allows them to be committed to the organisation. So,
anything to do with the publics, including getting them to believe and buy
into what we do, is my responsibility.
A female participant used the term “influence” rather than persuasion to describe how
she gets publics to buy into the organisation’s objectives. “What we do is to influence
our publics to understand the importance of insurance and why they have to take
insurance and not wait till a disaster happens before they call on the government or
organisations to come to their aid. Once they understand it this way, they willingly
decide that we think this is important to our lives, so we’ll take it.”
Evaluation of PR programmes: Much has been said about the importance of evaluation
in PR. The Excellence theory describes the importance of evaluative research in
determining the effectiveness of a PR programme. Evaluation is necessary to measure
both the short-term effects of PR programmes on the cognitions, attitudes, and
behaviours of publics and management, as well as the long-term effects of PR
programmes on the quality of relationships between organisations and publics (Grunig
& Grunig, 2008: 340). However, evidence available also indicates a lack of effort in
evaluation and where this is done it is mostly informal in nature. Evaluation is a core
part of the work of participants in the financial services sector. Every programme or
activity that is done is evaluated. Significantly, measurement does not occur only at
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the end of the programme for some participants. A few participants were of the view
that monitoring occurs during the implementation stage of PR activities and this allows
them to tweak or amend the programme to enhance its chances of success.
Evaluation is done using both formal and informal methods, although informal methods
dominate. The major ones, which are mostly given to agencies, are done at the end of
the year as part of broader organisational research. This research is mostly headed by
the research wing of the organisation.
Commenting on the use of evaluation, a participant articulated the point that he and
his team develop various metrics for evaluating PR programmes and this is done as
part of the planning process.
We agree on what methods and metrics before the programme goes on.
We bring all the stakeholders involved and discuss the various angles as
to how to measure them. We have a 360 view and so closure only
happens when we have done our measurement and post-event review
based on the evaluation.
Another participant noted that although they want to evaluate every programme,
sometimes it is difficult because of the resources available to her department.
“Evaluation is a key part of our work. Unfortunately for us our resources are not as
expansive as I will like so once we do launch a programme, we have to move on to the
next one.” She was however quick to acknowledge the need to evaluate a programme:
Regardless of the challenges, we are still mindful that whatever we have
done in the past we have to keep track. We have to monitor how
successful it is. What can we learn from that campaign or initiative that
can inform our future campaigns so that we don't make the same mistake
or we're capitalising on the changing trends in the market. Things change.
What was relevant yesterday may not be relevant today so we actually
have to adapt and monitor and see how our approach and strategy is
working in the market.
A participant admitted that the organisation cannot move forward if it does not know
how it performed during its programmes. “We evaluate every programme to find out
whether we met our objectives or not. What did we go overboard with that we can
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reduce? When it comes to media for instance we have such good relations with them,
so we get constant feedback from them.” Clearly, these assertions support literature
on the importance of evaluation.
Evaluation ranges from informal methods such as impact on sales, enquiries, word of
mouth, to more formal methods like media content analysis, interviews, focus group
discussions, and surveys. Informal or what some of the participants call “unscientific”
methods of evaluation dominated what participants use. Commenting on evaluative
methods, one participant noted: “We gauge the level of participation/attendance, word
of mouth feedback and enquiries.” He acknowledges the unscientific nature of the
methods but argued that “it gives you an idea of what it is, the level of interest, what
you are doing is generating. For example, if you invite 100 people and only 10 attend,
it means you are doing something wrong. However, if there is an overflow, it means
people are very much interested in what you are doing and the publics want to be
associated with you.”
Another determinant of evaluation is the use of websites and hotlines. Participants
track the number of website hits as well as use call logs to evaluate the number of
people who have visited the websites and also used the hotlines to make enquiries
before, during, and after the programme. Word of mouth evaluation is especially
popular among organisations. Participants therefore engage in several activities,
including the ones cited earlier, as well as media monitoring to determine the level of
discussion by publics on their activities. In addition to the use of media clippings, at
least two of the participants also gauge the success or otherwise of their programmes
through internal feedback. This is reflected in the following comments: “we mainly use
clippings, feedback from my team, colleagues as well as board members,” and
“evaluative research is essential, but it is mainly in the form of debriefing report.
Sometimes it will just be a discussion with my team. Other times we ask a few people
about the programme.” These methods also confirm the concerns of scholars (Grunig,
2008; Macnamara, 2008; Watson & Noble, 2007) that evaluation methods tend to be
unscientific in nature.
There is a strong linkage between programme evaluation and effect on sales in the
financial services sector. For participants, the ultimate goal of every PR activity is to
drive sales. A lot of evaluative activities therefore appear to be marketing focused. The
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following statements by some of the participants reflect this:
We evaluate our programmes by looking at growth in numbers. So now
that customers know this, what is the acceptability of the communication
we have sent out. We have a contact centre where customers call to
inquire about product they have heard. So, we assess it from the call
centre base.
We look at the patronage of product and services. How many people
have actually signed on to the card or open an account. we look at basic
numbers.
We do a lot of evaluative research, but the point is that when it comes to
event we look at the immediate impact and that is based on the level of
publicity given to the event. We want to know whether it actually affected
the image of your brand and whether it drove sales.
And,
We know what our average monthly returns are on certain things so after
the PR activities we go back and check to see if there is any rise in the
products that we want to sell across to the public. If there is a rise in the
figures then we know that the message is getting to the people.
Sometimes people call us that they have heard about this promotion and
give us feedback. Other times too we get feedback through the forms that
people fill when they get to the branches. So, we get feedback from the
messages we put out there and compile them and see what we are doing
right or wrong.
One participant admitted that evaluation was not really strong in his organisation. He
attributed this to the lack of support for PR in the organisation and this is something he
is “working on to reverse.”
A few of the participants use a combination of formal and informal methods to gauge
effect of programmes on the bottom-line. A participant explained in detail how he uses
evaluative research:
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We have many different levels and types of metrics. But ultimately it is
about the outcomes and not the outputs. So, we do not typically
measure output. For example, I wouldn't stop at the level of coverage I
got. I am interested in the nature of the coverage and the impact the
coverage had. So, we tend to be end result oriented and that translates
into the metrics and the measurement we put in place which will be
defined before execution and as part of the planning process. So, if we
are doing something that involves stakeholders then invariably we are
likely to agree on the metrics and measures we are going to use. There
are several methods we use. If it is a service or a product I am very
much interested in the way we communicate in a way which is easily
consumed by key publics. So, in this instance feedback is a very
important determinant. I am also interested in measuring exposure and
reaction to the exposure and I also measure how that translates into
any kind of value that we want out of that exposure. We therefore use
media content analysis to gauge exposure. If it is a high end event we
use interviews because of the depth of information we need. If it is more
of a broad public activity where the publics are huge then I am likely to
go through some quantitative forms and sometimes we even go to the
extent of doing some quick surveys on phones.
The concept of evaluative research has been debated in literature for decades. The
concerns that have been raised are that the focus of evaluation is mostly on output
rather than outcomes. The result of this research gives an indication that this is the
case in the financial services sector although outcomes are sometimes the focus as
well. Methods of evaluation are also informal and unscientific. Participants attribute this
to working with a small budget. Formal research therefore becomes the victim. In some
institutions participants are assessed based on the value they bring to the organisation
and this is reflected in the research they engage in, as one participant puts it: “I am
assessed based on the result of the successful evaluation of my PR programmes.
Management always wants to see to what effect we are spending the money given to
us. Whether it is worth it.” However, like most of the participants, this participant also
uses word of mouth and informal methods to evaluate programmes. What is
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interesting is that just about three (3) participants mentioned the use of social media
as part of the evaluation process. Even this is done on a “very small scale,” as one
participant said. This is not surprising as most of the participants indicated they did not
have a presence on social media and were now making efforts to get on social media.
Regardless there are several social media tools that practitioners are not taking
advantage of. Two other participants said they use Google analytics to evaluate their
programmes online as well. In effect most participants do not actively use online
evaluation tools to gauge outputs and outcomes. This confirms earlier comments by
Padidar (2010) about the focus on traditional methods of research to the detriment of
social media.
5.3.2.4. Two-way symmetric communication
Development of mutual understanding: A review of the Systems theory shows that PR
practitioners play a key role in maintaining and sustaining the relationship between the
organisation and its stakeholders. To this end, activities of PR departments are geared
towards ensuring that both the organisation and the stakeholders operate from a
common understanding. Practitioners are referred to as boundary spanners, serving
as a link between the organisation and its publics. Practitioners are therefore duty
bound to explain the organisation to the publics and the publics to the organisation
(Seitel, 2007: 6-7). Participants are solely responsible for ensuring a mutual
understanding between the organisation and its publics. The various activities that they
engage in are meant to bring the organisation and publics closer. One participant
noted: “we are constantly engaging our stakeholders and also monitoring to see if we
are at the same level, and if there is a disconnect we quickly deal with the issue behind
the disconnect.” A participant cited an example that has to do with the internal staff to
further show the key role they play in ensuring mutual understanding:
Currently we are trying to get management to interact more with middle
level management. If middle level management understands the strategy
or management of the organisation they will run with it for us. We are
telling management that there is a gap that needs to be filled.
One of the participants described how the department uses the chief executive as the
focus of the organisation as a means to bridge the gap between the publics and the
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organisation: “We like to think of the CEO as the brand custodian, the chief PR officer
of the bank. So, we give the best preparation to whoever is CEO at the time. We are
always minded by the fact that we want to project a certain image and he carries that
image as the head of the bank.” Participants use different methods depending on the
nature of the publics. This include staff durbars, quarterly meetings, dinner meetings
with key clients, and customer satisfaction surveys. According to one of the
participants, the PR department sometimes gets the CEO to engage an aggrieved
customer because of the level of impact it will have. A female participant attempted to
show the seriousness with which they play this role:
Every quarter we do customer satisfaction surveys, and this is
disseminated to all heads of companies and marketing related
programmes. The feedback is actually taken on board. For instance, we
have redesigned a number of our policies based on customer feedback.
We have changed our premium competition because customers have
come out to say that you know what, we think this is high so do something
about it. All that feedback we receive feeds into what we do and
interestingly when things are implemented the customers come back and
tell us oh we've seen that you've done this. Over the years customer
complaints and customer dissatisfaction has really gone down because
we are not only prompt but also responsive to their needs.
This proactiveness is not geared towards only external publics, but staff as well.
Meetings are held with staff every quarter to deliberate on their concerns and these
are taken to management and the department ensures that management works on the
concerns. From the result, developing a mutual understanding is very paramount to
the work of practitioners in the financial services sector. This is consistent with most of
the definitions of PR (Wilcox et al 2015; Broom & Sha, 2012; Grunig, 1984), which put
emphasis on developing and maintaining a mutually beneficial relationship between
an organisation and its publics. The financial services sector is very competitive in
Ghana and this has not been helped by the collapse of some of these organisations.
There is a lot of customer mistrust of the sector now and practitioners need to work
overtime to ensure their stakeholders remain loyal to them. Ensuring a common
understanding is therefore essential to their functions.
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Use of research to determine level of understanding between management and
publics: Research - formal and informal - is essential in symmetrical PR. Practitioners
use the findings from research activities to develop strategies that will enhance the
level of understanding between key stakeholders and management. Policies
developed by management must reflect the concerns of publics. Through
environmental scanning and formative research, practitioners engage both
management and publics to create a mutual understanding. The result of the interviews
supports what literature says. The forms of research differ depending on management
value of PR activities, the goal is however, the same. A participant acknowledged that
formal research was not done at his organisation but, “we get calls from observers and
practitioners within the industry.” Apart from this, the department also “scans the
environment through the use of media clippings, customer complaint forms etc.”
Feedback from such methods is used to advise management on policy direction. Some
of the participants indicated that when it comes to internal publics, they work with HR
to do informal research which gauges the level of understanding between management
and the internal publics. They also use suggestion boxes and complaints forms (for
both internal and external publics) to determine the level of understanding between the
two stakeholders.
For example, at the beginning of this year, there was an issue of payment
of bonuses and it was filtering in through idle talk and we picked that kind
of intelligence and realised the mood of the staff was not good. We were
even going to do some CSR but when we gauged the mood of the staff
we said this was the wrong time to do the CSR because it was supposed
to be a staff volunteering initiative. We made management aware that
you can't ask them to do volunteering work when they are talking about
their money, so you can't ask them to come and donate their own money.
These inform decisions that are taken. So, we do that even though
sometimes not planned.
In agreement with the two participants, a third participant shared his experience:
We have different tiers of research. We have internal research which is
very important because it is always important to have a beneficial view
on what the internal sentiments are. If all the different publics within the
organisation are properly working in tandem, then we are on the same
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page. Then we have external research too. The objective is similar but
the publics are different.
For this communication manager, he uses both formal and informal tools. Formal tools
are used occasionally due to budgetary constraints. One of the participants had an
interesting perspective, especially with regards to his organisation. According to this
participant, his department mostly uses formal research when dealing with external
publics:
Internal has however been problematic. Most of the time those heading
the PR department are not part of the top management and so there is
always a disconnect. This leads to distortion or prevention of information
flow. Management is therefore on one end; the middle people are also
on another side. Sometimes the one speaking to the issues is not even
from the PR department. In this bank for instance sometimes the HR is
the one in charge of internal communication which I found problematic
because they are not trained communicators, so it created some sort of
conflict. But we try to handle this by using feedback, which sometimes
comes in the form of gossip. We try sometimes to use grapevine to
improve understanding.
Despite the challenges that some of these communication managers go through, what
is certain is that research is key in their efforts to develop a mutual understanding
between management and publics, even though research is more informal than formal.
This result confirms the findings from literature that informal research techniques are
employed more often than formal techniques (Grunig et al 2002: 393). According to
Broom and Dozier (1990: 90), time and budgetary constraints as well as the philosophy
of the dominant coalition are key reasons why much of PR research is informal.
Purpose of PR to change behaviour: One of the key activities that the practitioner
performs as a boundary spanner is to ensure that both management and publics
understand each other. In this regard the PR practitioner works to ensure that attitude
of management towards the public aligns with the behaviour of the publics. The change
process is two-way, which should lead to a beneficial relationship between the
organisation and the publics. Most of the participants agreed to this. Participants
believed that where an organisation has a well-structured system that values the input
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of PR, management is bound to seek the advice of the PR department before taking
any decision. Again, advice from the PR department is taken seriously and acted upon
as an organisation cannot survive if it relies solely on promoting itself while neglecting
concerns of its publics, as a participant noted:
The purpose of PR is to ensure that publics and management have a
shared view, have a shared value creation arrangement, and have a
shared quality relationship. And for that to happen it is useful for all the
different publics to be on the same page in order to have a shared
perspective on issues. And if it is that any of the public on the other side
haven’t or there is a third perspective, the responsibility of the PR person
is to make that happen.
This assertion is in line with the views of Seitel (2007: 6). Some communication
departments have developed core values that reflect the attitude that not just
management, but the entire staff of the organisation should have towards the external
publics. They believe that when the external publics see these being practiced, it will
influence how they also relate to the organisation.
For most organisations when you do have your corporate values, the
responsibility of the PR department is to communicate these values and
encourage staff to embody and emulate them……we try to give staff
incentives to act in a certain way. Part of it is monetary but we also
engage them and employ them to see the greater good that acting in this
manner will have on the bank, so it will improve the bottom-line which in
turn will also benefit the individual employee.
Elaborating on this issue, another participant noted that the duty of management is
to behave ethically and also enhance the image of the organisation: “so if you are
management and you are acting contrary, PR is supposed to bring you in line that,
this is where we are supposed to be and we will draw your attention that where you
are going will create an image problem.”
Some of the participants were quick to acknowledge that changing management
behaviour is not that easy. For participants, it is almost always difficult, especially in
situations where management does not see the value of PR. In some cases,
management is also looking at the budget as this participant said:
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If you go out and do research and find out that the company doesn't have
a good image, the public doesn't have a good perception of you, generally
insurance people are not the best friends of people. It is for us to manage
the one that is coming from management and that one is not easy
because usually, they are looking at the purse, the bottom-line. If it is
expensive, image building is not tangible, and so if I have to spend so
much to build a certain image, that is where you have problem.
Another participant suggested that the structure of the organisation, especially the
place of PR in the organisation, will determine a practitioner’s ability to change
management behaviour.
In some organisations, the PR is part of management and so he/she has
that kind of authority to be able to advise management. But where it is
not, then of course there are certain things discussed at the management
level which the PR is not part of. In this case how can you change the
attitude of management. But when it comes to the public that can be
done.
Bowen et al (2012: 42) acknowledge this challenge when they suggest that the
structure of an organisation tends to have an impact on communication due to the
reporting structure. Commenting on the challenges of changing management
behaviour, a participant noted that although that is the ideal situation, from their
experience it is not always the case.
We are largely successful sometimes in changing the behaviour of
customers, sometimes even part of the internal publics but when the
board believes that this is the right way to go, it means they are set in
their ways and nothing you do can change it. So, on paper that should be
it but in practice it is not the case.
One participant called it “just theory” to emphasise the point that such things are
idealistic but not the reality in organisations as management often appears to be
steeped in its ways. The challenges associated with changing the behaviour of
management has been associated with the value the dominant coalition places on PR.
A participant in the insurance industry however believes that developing a mutually
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beneficial relationship between management and publics has more to do with cultural
settings within the organisation than actual change.
As an organisation, you need to make sure that you build a culture that
is acceptable to your publics, internally and externally. External
stakeholders want to see that what the organisation is doing meets their
expectations while internal publics want to feel valued. When each
other’s needs are met, there is a mutual satisfaction.
This comment is supported by two other participants in the banking sector: “honestly,
I see it in the other direction. In terms of management, I don’t think it has a lot of effect.
It looks more at the external than internal. For management I see them being affected
by the culture of the organisation more than PR. Therefore, I look at it from the client
perspective,” and “I don't think the purpose of PR is to change attitude. I think PR is to
engender mutual respect and mutual coordination between organisations and publics.
You can't change the attitude of managers, but managers can respect their
stakeholders and ensure that they do right in whatever they do.” Participants reiterated
earlier examples they cited in the interview to show that changing management attitude
can be very difficult, if not impossible. Different management teams have different
attitudes to the efforts of PR departments and this is reflected in their treatment of
advice given to them. Interestingly, some of the participants acknowledged that on
many occasions where management failed to heed their counsel, it has ended up
affecting the organisation. When this happens, it sometimes softens management’s
approach to PR.
Role of PR in conflict management: Being part of the strategic management process
puts PR practitioners in a position where they can identify potential problems or conflict
situations and resolve them. Plowman (2005: 132) asserts that managing conflict
ensures that practitioners are able to reduce future cost associated with such conflicts.
PR practitioners are regarded as having the skills and expertise in assisting the
management team to avoid and resolve issues (Broom & Sha, 2012: 34). Grunig et al
(2002: 11) also acknowledge that it is the responsibility of PR practitioners to manage
conflict or potential conflicts with key publics, especially at the programme level.
Participants acknowledged that conflict management is a key responsibility. This is
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because they are seen as the expert in the area of communication management.
Managing conflict is dependent on one’s ability to communicate the issues effectively
and PR practitioners are regarded as experts in this regard. A participant in a savings
and loans company pointed out that “we are the first point of contact when there is a
conflict.” Other comments by participants include the following:
Because we have an interface responsibility, that becomes one of our
key areas of operation and also to the extent that anything that detracts
away from the shared values and the quality relationship, it is the duty of
the PR department,
It is key because some of the complaints come to us first and when that
happens we need to investigate the matter and then let management
know this is what is happening. If it can be rectified immediately they do
so. If they don't have plans to do so almost immediately then that is where
we escalate the matter for management policy to be developed along
those lines. We are therefore in the thick of it. In trying to ensure that
management is aware about customers’ feelings and for them to work at
it to make the customer happy again,
And
Our key role is to provide a certain level of information to assure and
secondly to assuage the sentiments of people.
One participant indicated how, as part of strategies (as noted earlier) to deal with
conflict situations, they sometimes get the bank’s manager to personally call the
aggrieved client and speak to him/her. This participant believes that this strategy has
proven effective on several occasions in resolving issues. Noticeably, conflict
management situations are mostly handled from the external perspective. Participants
acknowledged that they are mostly not involved with internal conflict management.
Internal conflict is handled by human resources and administration, sometimes with
the input of PR. The focus of conflict management is to ensure that customers are
happy and remain with the organisation and so all effort is spent on the external public
while the HR deals with internal publics. The excellence theory acknowledges that for
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PR to resolve issues effectively, it must be part of strategic management. When this is
done, PR can then play a more proactive role of anticipating and reducing as well as
resolving emerging conflicts (Grunig, Grunig & Dozier, 2002; Grunig & Repper, 1992).
Grunig et al (2002: 11) conclude that negotiating and mediating of conflict between
management and strategic publics is a fulfilment of the managerial role of PR. This fact
further points to the need for PR to be part of the strategic decision-making body.
5.3.3 Research objective: Analyse the PR roles (activities) Ghanaian PR practitioners
in the financial services sector are engaged in.
This section will discuss the various activities that PR practitioners engage in. Two
dominant roles have been discussed as reflecting the work of PR practitioners. The
technician and the manager roles have been discussed severally in literature. The
discussion will show whether the practice of PR in the financial services sector is
influenced by both the technician and managerial roles or otherwise. In excellent
organisations, the PR manager plays both the technician role and manager role.
However, this is not the case in less excellent organisation. When the PR manager is
a technician, the PR does not have the authority to function strategically (Grunig &
Grunig, 2008: 336). The analysis will begin with a discussion on the technician role.
5.3.3.1 Technician role
Organisation of media relations activities: Media relations is one of the key activities
that PR practitioners perform. Media relations activities allow practitioners to further
project the activities of the organisation positively through the media. However, it is
more than gaining positive publicity for the organisation. It is also about recognising
the media as a key stakeholder in the PR process. Literature suggests that media
relations is a key component of an organisation’s PR programme as it serves as a
window through which the organisation is exposed to the publics (Smith, 2008: 93).
Results of the interviews show that communication managers within the financial
services sector recognise the role that the media plays in the success of their
programmes. Almost every participant has a media contact list that it uses. The key
media houses and media personnel are targeted and engaged.
Most of the participants have a media plan that they implement using various tools. For
instance, a participant had this to say about media relations:
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we have a media relationship management and a strategy that
underscores that relationship. It is medium to long-term. We treat the
media as a public and we ensure that the same principles that apply to
our relationship and define our relationship with all our important publics
are in application in our dealing with the media. Having them at
programmes is more of an outcome rather than the key layer of our
relationship.
Media relations strategies are developed based on spread, reach, influence, and
popularity among others. Participants do not only engage them when there is a press
release to be issued or they need them to cover their programmes:
We are regularly in touch with them just to engage them and make sure
everything is fine. They understand what we are doing and then when we
have programmes they are invited. We give them overview of what our
schedule or planning is so they can fit it into their schedule, so they can
have key features. We look to them to come to us for opportunities where
we can capitalise on a particular supplement that they are doing for
perhaps a holiday or a particular opportunity for a column or to do a
special series.
Media relations activities include sponsorship programmes for media practitioners,
organising workshops/seminars for senior journalists, visitations to media houses, and
giving out souvenirs at the end of the year. Media relations is one of the technical roles
PR practitioners play and is usually associated with writing and distributing of press
releases, organising press conferences, and keeping updated media lists. Johnston
(2007: 3) however, suggests that media relations is much more than compiling, writing,
and distributing information to the media. Johnston argues that the focus of media
relations should be on the “why” and not just about the “what” to do to achieve business
goals. Evidence from the interviews show this is the case as participants go beyond
the normal press releases or invitations to cover events and engage the media as a
partner.
One key media relations activity that is popular among practitioners in Ghana is what
is referred to as ‘press soirees.’ Most of the participants admitted that at least once a
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year they organise a press soiree for senior editors where they have informal
discussions. This is one way of getting the journalists closer to the organisation. A
participant said:
Press soirees are part of what we do but they are about the low tiers of
the relationship. We do press soirees on significant occasions,
particularly at the end of the year, and the reason is to create the space
for very informal but probing and intrusive discussion, which is typically
off the record.
Another participant concurred by indicating: “We normally do a media soiree to engage
senior journalists on issues affecting the industry or bank. These are mostly off record
events.” This is not a practice among all participants though as some also realise that
the media houses are also in competition and so prefer to meet them one-on-one. The
purpose of media relations is not just to ensure that the organisation is also in the
media for the right reasons, as a participant stated: “Their job is also to try and block
negative information about the brand and any time they pick any negative information,
they quickly call you and give you the information.” Another articulated that,
we are able to speak freely and also have the freedom to clarify
information before it goes out. It is not just that this thing has gone out
and it is inaccurate or not factual. Anything relating to the company is
crosschecked with us and if for some reason it is not cross checked we
draw their attention.
The concept of the press soiree confirms the findings of Sriramesh et al (1999: 278)
that practitioners tend to use interpersonal interaction to develop personal influence
with key stakeholders such as the media by using ‘hospitality relations’ to get them
closer to the organisation in order to solicit favours from them later.
Media relations plays a very crucial role in the lives of participants and they have
specific plans for engaging media relations activities. The purpose is to encourage
positive coverage and minimise negative coverage. The results confirm the comments
of Smith (2014: 82) that media relations go beyond the normal publicity efforts to
develop a mutual relationship between the media and the organisation. There is a
symbiotic relationship as they rely on each other. For instance, whereas organisations
rely on the media to assist them in communicating with their publics, the media also
relies on organisations to provide relevant newsworthy information for their audiences.
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Organising of special events: One of the key areas of PR is the organisation of special
events. Special events are staged activities organised as a means of gaining attention
and acceptance among key publics. Activities are designed to engage the publics and
listen to them (Wilcox et al 2015: 42). Smith (2017: 127) points out that special events
are legitimate means of engaging the publics and interacting with them and warns
against using these purely as a publicity stunt. Therefore, in order to distinguish a
special event from a publicity stunt, a practitioner must be able to answer the question
“even if the news media don’t report this activity, would it still be worthwhile?” (Smith,
2017: 266).
Participants engage in a series of special events as part of their activities. These
activities range from breakfast fora, customer engagements, special dinner meetings
with key clients, organising special training for some key publics, health walks,
promotional activities, customer cocktails, client appreciation events, among others. A
participant noted: “we do work on a lot of events including product launches,
anniversary activities, customer service initiatives as well as corporate banking
initiatives.” The research clearly shows that organising of special activities is the
domain of PR practitioners. What is also significant is that not all of these activities
involve media coverage.
Production of audio-visual and communication materials: Literature states that PR
practitioners are responsible for writing and producing general communication
materials, including audio-visual materials, press releases, feature stories, brochures,
and annual reports to meet organisational information needs (Bowen et al 2012: 22;
Broom & Sha, 2012: 34). This was confirmed by participants who acknowledged that
production of all audio-visual and communication materials was part of their core
activities. From documentaries to newsletters, brochures and commercials,
participants develop the content of the materials. Actual production is however
outsourced to a production agency. Participants work hand in hand with agencies to
ensure production meets requirements.
Projection of organisation’s activities: Participants indicated that they use various
techniques in projecting the activities of the organisation to the publics. Writing of
articles for publication is part of what participants do. “We also use CSR activities as
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well by making donations to institutions and write stories on these donations.” The use
of CSR to project the organisation is especially common within PR departments, as
the interviews revealed. One of the participants indicated that his department uses four
basic channels in projecting the activities of his organisation:
One of the channels is the end media, that is, all the publicity we get from
traditional media, from news media. Why the end media is useful is that
the strength of that channel dwells on the strength that it is an expert
view, when it comes from the media it comes from the journalist. We also
have our own channels that we use. We also have the owned media and
the shared media. The shared media would be more in the public space
where we get people to talk about some of our things and then the final
piece is the media that we would buy sometimes but that is the option we
use least.
Not only does the department use traditional media and new media, it also uses
internal media and sometimes purchases spots for advertising in some of the media
houses. The use of social media has become popular for businesses and this was
evident in the response of some participants. Surprisingly, many of the departments
did not have social media presence although they did indicate they were in the process
of getting on board. This confirms literature which identified the lack of presence by PR
practitioners online even though they do recognise its importance. Other activities
include press conferences, press interactions, sponsorships and partnerships with
well-known institutions. From the results, it can be concluded that media
relations/publicity activities are not the only means by which practitioners project the
activities of their organisations.
5.3.3.2. Managerial role
Literature shows that for PR to be truly symmetrical and excellent, it must be
recognised as a management function. PR must be part of the decision-making body
in order to counsel management on the impact of their decisions or policies on the
organisations. It must also report to the chief executive and not another department.
This section of the analysis will look at whether PR practitioners in Ghana actually
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perform the managerial role.
Involvement in strategic planning: Much has been written about the importance of the
PR department in the strategic planning process of organisations (Mykkanen & Vos,
2015; Dozier, Grunig & Grunig., 2013; Steyn, 2007; Smith, 2017; Grunig & Grunig,
2000). Strategic planning occurs when the dominant coalition leads the management
team in planning activities towards achieving the organisation’s mission and long-term
goals. In the view of Higgins (in Dozier et al 2013: 85) strategic management deals
with the “process of managing the pursuit of the accomplishment of organisational
mission coincident with managing the relationship of the organisation to its
environment.” Consequently, the relationship that an organisation has with its key
publics is critical to the mission of the organisation. There is therefore a strong linkage
between excellent PR and strategic planning (Dozier et al 2013: 85). Grunig et al
(2002: 32) suggest that a failure on the part of an organisation’s chief executive to
recognise the linkage between communication and strategic planning can lead to the
practitioner being prevented from the strategic planning process. This is acknowledged
by Smith (2017: 351) who points out that PR is, most of the time, not viewed as
strategic management but rather as a vehicle for production and distribution of
messages. This means that where PR department is regarded more in terms of
publicity purposes, it is not likely to be part of the decision-making process. For most
organisations in the financial services sector, strategic planning occurs at the end of
the year. Every department develops its strategy, and this is put together and
discussed during strategic planning sessions. These sessions are mostly facilitated by
top management who give out key indicators as to the direction the organisation will
be moving in the following year. Strategies are developed based on the organisational
objectives. Except for three participants, the participants indicated that the PR
department is a part of the strategic planning process. Strategic plans are developed
on a departmental basis and this is then discussed and approved or amended during
the strategic sessions where all heads of department as well as senior executive
members or dominant coalitions will be present. One participant made this known when
she said: “we have a strategic committee in charge of developing strategies and every
functional area is represented on that committee and together we all bring out the
strategy in line with the mission and vision of the organisation.” Another participant
described the role his department plays in the strategic planning process:
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The organisation expects us to show our stakeholder engagement plans
and also show how we will ensure that the value pipeline between us and
important publics is fluid and active. In addition, we will have a view of the
general larger economic operating environment and important dynamics
and how those could impact on numbers in terms of sensibility analysis
and so we would impact on strategy at various levels.
One participant however noted that his outfit is not always involved in the strategic
planning process: “Our involvement is mixed. Sometimes the strategy is brought from
outside which we all have to follow.” The view from this participant confirms views of
scholars such as Smith (2017) about the lack of involvement in strategic planning by
some practitioners. Grunig et al (2002: 143,383) posit the need for practitioners to be
‘empowered’. Empowerment allows the PR department to be present and be part of
the strategic planning and the decision-making process. A female participant also
acknowledged that the overall strategy of the bank is developed by the chief executive,
but each department is allowed to make inputs. In her case she makes input from a
marketing and communication perspective. What is evident from the research is that
participants are key members of the strategic planning process. Even for those who
play a partial role in the strategic planning process, they still get to make an input based
on their communication activities. The dominant coalition in organisations makes
proactive decisions during the strategic planning process including “determining the
organisation’s mission, assessing the external environment, matching the
organisational profile with environmental opportunities, developing short-term goals,
implementing programmes, and evaluating success or failure” (Dozier et al 2013: 85).
In order to achieve these, the PR department can play an important role by being the
“eyes and ears” of the organisation.
Involvement in the decision-making process: PR is regarded as excellent and effective
when the department is situated among the roles or is part of the dominant coalition.
Being part of senior management allows practitioners to help management scan the
external environment and take appropriate proactive steps to respond to it (Dozier et
al 2013: 85). In many of the organisations, the communication manager is usually not
part of the executive body. Grunig et al (2002: 383) advocated a “full participation” for
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practitioners before strategic decisions are made. When practitioners are part of the
decision-making process, they are able to scan the environment in order to identify key
publics that the organisation’s decisions can potentially affect or who can affect the
implementation of the organisation’s decisions. Practitioners are then able to develop
the appropriate strategies to address the issues and maintain relationship. In the
financial services sector there are two levels of management. The first level consists
of the executive management team which is usually made up of the CEO, Chief
Finance Manager and other ranking officers (these differ depending on the
organisational structure). The second level consists of departmental managers, and
this is where PR is mostly found. Interestingly, participants are allowed to sit in
executive management committee meetings “in attendance” to offer advice where
necessary. They are not however active participants in the decision-making process.
Participation in the decision-making process “depends on what is being discussed,” as
one participant puts it.
A participant in the insurance sector had a situation where he tended to sit in board
meetings rather than meetings of the executive management team: “I don't sit in the
executive management team, but I am part of the management meeting. I however
report directly to the MD. There are times when decisions are critical, the board invites
me to sit in the meetings because they always want the perspective of PR to come on
board. So there have been several times when I have been asked to sit in the board
meeting.” These comments reflect available evidence that suggests that although
today’s practitioners report to the CEO they are nevertheless not seen as formal
members of the top management making key contributions to strategic decisions
(Caroll, 2013: 59). When this happens, PR can be more asymmetric than symmetric
with practitioners aiming to convince publics of the organisation’s position rather than
engaging in strategic relationship with mutual benefits.
The lack of active involvement in the decision-making process, however, does not
apply to everyone. One of the participants in a bank explained why he is part of the
executive management, the highest decision-making body: “The merit of what we do
as a department is known. Management knows the value we give to the organisation.
It is quantifiable, consistent and acknowledged.” Interestingly, two of the organisations
reported a topsy-turvy approach regarding the placement of the department on the
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organisational structure. “Sometimes the head of PR is at the very top whilst there are
times when PR is made subservient to marketing,” and
In terms of our experience, it has been topsy-turvy. Sometimes you may
be part of the executive management depending on who is at the helm
of affairs. A particular MD may value PR while another may not. When
this happens, we become ineffective. But if we have a CEO who values
PR that is where we function properly and like I said sometimes they want
to merge PR and marketing and when that happens PR is subsumed,
and someone will come and say as for me I want my PR out of marketing.
The participants attribute this to the value that management attributes to PR and
politicking. Concerning placement of PR under marketing, Grunig (2002: 14) argued
for the integration of excellent communication functions through a top communication
manager with a PR background rather being integrated with either marketing or human
resources. The debate over whether marketing and PR are separate functions or not
has been ongoing for decades. Most marketing books attempt to place PR under
marketing (Papasolomou, Thrassou, Vrontis & Sabova, 2014: 7). Significantly, most
marketing professionals and academicians have demonstrated a lack of recognition
for the expansive literature related specifically to PR (Grunig, 1992) and have often
treated PR as a subset of marketing (Kitchen & Moss, 1995: 108). PR is therefore
subsumed under the more dominant marketing function and treated as a product of
publicity. The subordination of PR under marketing may account for the attitude of
management towards PR. PR therefore is made a tactical support to marketing with
the PR manager reporting to the marketing manager instead of the CEO. PR scholars
(Broom & Sha, 2012; White, 1991; Ehling, White & Grunig, 1992) contend that PR
should be viewed as a separate function directed towards resolving key issues that are
beyond the domain of marketing. Grunig and Grunig (1991: 257) argue that
subordination of PR under marketing will result in more one-way communication than
two-way and the result of PR activities will not be the same if such activities are based
on marketing concepts. Grunig and Grunig (2013: 53) therefore point to the need to
separate PR from other functions, especially marketing, to enable the discipline
provide its unique contribution.
Regardless of their role in the decision-making process, almost all the participants
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acknowledged that they reported directly to the CEO. For PR to function in an excellent
way, the department must report to the head or someone who reports to the head. The
results of the research demonstrate this, as a participant noted: “About a year ago I
was actually reporting to the chief marketing officer who also reported to the CEO but
now I report directly to the CEO.” Three of the participants said they reported
“indirectly” to their chief executives:
because my immediate boss reports directly to the chief executive. But if
he is not there, I can go straight to the CEO. Sometimes my immediate
boss asks me to deal directly with the chief executive even when he is
around. I can therefore go to my chief executive directly. My immediate
boss is the head of business, which is under the deputy CEO.
The second participant also stated:
I usually meet the MD on one on one issues, but I am not part of the
decision-making body. But my head of department may represent and
come back with decisions.
The third participant also made it known that since his department was “under
marketing”, he usually reported to the head of marketing. Nevertheless, he stated he
sometimes spoke to the overall head of the organisation on relevant issues. The
Excellence theory notes that the roles of practitioners are conceptually and empirically
linked to their participation in the decision-making process. Dozier (1992: 342)
postulates that “if practitioners are to help organisations adapt to changes in the
environment, they must participate in the management decision-making process, not
simply implement decisions made by others.”
Advising management on the impact of their behaviour: Literature defines symmetrical
PR as a two-way dialogue whereby the views of key publics are considered in the
decision-making process of management. In the symmetrical PR, influencing the
behaviour of management is just as important as influencing the behaviour of publics.
Grunig and Grunig (2013: 74) therefore contend that the purpose of PR is to make
input into organisational decisions so that organisations “behave in ways that publics
are willing to support rather than in ways that publics oppose with their own
behaviours.” Most participants were of the view that advising management on the
impact of their behaviour on key publics was their responsibility. Participants were also
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quick to acknowledge that it does not work all the time and sometimes top management
does not heed to counsel until their predictions come true. “There have been several
instances where we would have very difficult conversations and try and influence
management behaviour. We are successful a lot of the times. The few times we haven’t
been successful in history points out that we were right, which further increases our
leverage and so we do that actively and aggressively,” noted a participant. Another
participant expressed her frustration with executive management in the following way:
Sometimes when they take a decision and it backfires, they then come
to us to go and do firefighting for them. But, where we have the
opportunity we always say this is likely to happen. The sad part of it is
that when the problem occurs, we are the ones they blame. I believe
they will realise the importance of PR in the management process and
at the executive table. A colleague of mine is on the executive
management so it is easy for him but for some of us it is not that easy
because we have issues with the executive management as we are not
part of it. They do not understand the value of PR to the organisational
process. If you are not at the executive table and certain decision are
taken that tie your hands it becomes very difficult for you to function.
Some of them know the role of PR but others believe they can function
without us until they run into problems and then they come running back
to us.
Participants said there was a clear difference between explaining things to top
management and them accepting it, as reflected in the words of one participant:
Sometimes people have decided, and attitudes are hard to change, and
that is why it is even more important that the PR role is part of the
executive body so that if you recommend and they don't accept at least
you are also there and you can influence it in various other ways.
Participants argued that it was essential to let top management understand that
whatever they do or do not do can have a positive or negative outcome for the
organisation: “So long as management will take decisions that will affect everyone
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around them, it is important that you as the practitioner, who represent the interest of
both parties, point out the implications of such decisions.” Some participants, as part
of this process, organise training programmes for executive management. The
comments validate findings from literature that PR will suffer if it is not valued by
management. What the findings show is that from the view of management, PR should
be practiced in an asymmetric way where the emphasis is on changing the behaviour
of publics more than management.
PR as a warning system: One of the definitions of PR describes the discipline as
“serving as an early warning system to help anticipate trends” (Johnston, 2016: 17).
This means that practitioners are proactive in their approach by constantly scanning
the environment to identify issues that might potentially affect the reputation of the
organisation and to create a management plan for the future. Toth (2001: 246) also
suggests that PR practitioners serve as early warning systems for social change when
they advise management about policy decisions that affect society. They contribute to
this social change through the development of strategies that engage affected publics.
Participants generally concurred that their outfits warn management of issues with the
potential to become a crisis. PR practitioners scan and monitor the environment to
identify not only opportunities but issues likely to lead to a crisis. Practitioners then
advise management on dealing with such issues. Issues can also develop from
decisions or policies management may want to adopt. The recent development in the
financial services sector in Ghana, as enumerated earlier, has made this role even
more important. A participant recounted an experience involving a savings and loans
company with a similar name to his organisation:
Sometimes you can see the danger coming and inform management
before they escalate. I remember recently when these microfinance
institutions were defrauding others, there was another organisation with
a similar name to ours that closed and people started panicking. I got to
know two days before anyone else and so we prepared our mind and
information got out before it became an issue. Based on that, we advised
management what it is they needed to do. Again, last year there was a
fraud in one of our branches and the staff was sacked. We had bad press.
One gentleman came here and unfortunately, I wasn't here so he went
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straight to the CEO. He didn't like the way the CEO interacted with him,
so he went and wrote a nasty thing about the organisation. Initially
management wanted us to write something to tell the public that this is
not true, but I advised them against it. We later did a press release
detailing our performance and how we are supporting our clients.
Another participant also explained how the collapse of two banks (described earlier)
just a few weeks earlier had affected his organisation. The organisation used to be a
microfinance organisation that had transformed into a full bank. Coincidentally, the two
banks that collapsed also used to be microfinance companies before they became
banks. It became an issue as there were suspicions they were next:
The recent collapse of the two banks has affected us so much, if not
handled well it can turn into a crisis for us. It is an issue for us to address
because people are getting scared and we are being informed that
people doubt whether we are well capitalised. We warn management
about such things. I have had feedback from people. A PR of a certain
company called me and said this is something someone is saying
against my institution and the person is about to fire a blog against the
organisation and I should find out how I can deal with that before it
becomes a crisis. So at this level we have the issue of dealing with how
to assure people. We are trying our best to assure that this organisation
is not what people are putting out there.
Grunig et al (2002: 443) say that practitioners serve as an early warning system
when they become the ‘eyes and ears’ of the organisation. They become a key
part of the environmental scanning process and use their knowledge and skills
to bring the voices of the publics to bear in strategic decision-making. Participants
again reiterated that although serving as an early warning system to
management was their duty, management did not always listen to them. This is
reflected in the following comments: “Sometimes I advise them, but it is not taken
until it comes back to hurt them before they heed my warning,” and “sometimes
when management want to push an agenda, they will care less about the
implications of what they will do. But if you are minded by the rules of corporate
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governance, whatever the PR tells you, you will know it has serious implications,
so you will listen.” Notwithstanding these minor challenges participants generally
notified management of potential issues likely to turn into a crisis and worked with
management to resolve such issues.
Development and implementation of communication strategy: Almost every book
on PR acknowledges the value of PR’s strategic contribution to organisational
business goals. It does this through the development of communication or PR
strategies. Various formulas such as John Martson’s RACE formula - Research,
Action, Communication and Evaluation - as well as Jerry Hendrix’s ROPE -
Research, Objectives, Programme and Evaluation - have been widely used to
develop strategic plans to aid the achievement of the overall organisational
objectives. The strategic planning concept though was first muted by Scott Cutlip
and Allen Center in their 1952 classic Effective Public Relations - find the facts,
establish a policy and/or plan a programme, communicate the story, and get
feedback from internal and external publics to help determine modification or
future planning (Newsom, Turk & Kruckeberg, 2010: 218). PR practitioners are
required to develop and implement communication strategies to enhance the
reputation of the organisation. In this regard all the participants acknowledged
that they were responsible for the development of communication strategies.
Participants felt that it was their responsibility and allowing outside agencies to
do it would undermine their value. A participant postulated that most PR agencies
“are not communications people. They are people who have done a bit of
marketing and producing collaterals and they think they are doing
communication.” Another participant was of the view that agencies usually did
not have a full grasp of the situation and so ended up not doing good work.
However, implementation of strategies is mostly done by outside agencies.
Participants indicated that they did not have the capacity to implement strategies
due to the small personnel they had. However, they did not leave everything up
to agencies. They worked hand in hand with the agencies to ensure that
implementation was successful. The results confirm what literature says about
the role of PR in the strategic planning process. Coombs & Heath (2006: 137)
affirm this by noting that PR develops problem-solving strategies to help improve
the organisation as a whole and by enhancing their own effectiveness in the
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process.
Involvement in other key roles: Participants did indicate that their department was
responsible for several activities including community relations/corporate social
responsibility, events management, investor relations, issues management, and
internal communication. Indeed, for CSR, participants indicated that it was under
their domain hence every action or activity that has to do with CSR or community
relations was initiated by them. Participants strongly believe that CSR activities
gave them legitimacy in the eyes of the public. The public sees them as not only
there to make money but also to give back to society, as one participant puts it:
“CSR helps win goodwill more than just publishing things about your company.”
The expanded role of PR practice means PR practitioners are now at the forefront
of an organisation’s CSR activities. This is especially so because of the wide-
spread negative publicity that has confronted organisations and businesses in
the last decade. Organisations are now making every effort to regain public trust
and credibility hence the idea of CSR is now high on the agenda of corporate
executives with the PR department being charged with enhancing the reputation
and citizenship of the organisations (Wilcox et al 2015: 475). In the financial
services sector especially, PR is at the forefront of building trust and credibility
due to the current mistrust of the sector. Research shows that about 42 percent
of an organisation’s reputation is based on perceived corporate citizenship,
sound governance, and quality as a workplace (Wilcox et al 2015: 475).
Concerning internal communication, most participants said it was under their
domain although they worked hand in hand with HR and administration. For
participants, their work did not involve only external publics as they believed that
“your first customers are your internal staff.” Some of the participants said they
usually organised special events that allowed staff to express themselves. All
internal communication activities are managed by the department. Internal
engagement is a critical component of the communication department. As
indicated though, the communication department does not work in isolation but
involves HR and administration due to the employee relations aspect. Literature
suggests that employee communication is one of the most frequent sources of
conflict between the HR and administration department and the PR department.
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While the HR personnel believe that they are responsible for information flow
within organisations, PR departments believe that effective communication with
external publics cannot be successful without effective employee relations
(Wilcox et al 2015: 132).
Three main areas have been identified as contributing to the confusion: 1) when
developing employee relations plans during layoffs, crises, reorganisation,
mergers, and acquisitions; 2) when planning and implementing community
relations efforts involve employee participation; and 3) when programmes
directed to employees require PR thinking and skills more than those from the
HR perspective and skills set (Broom & Sha, 2012: 59). The PR department is
expected to collaborate with other functions such as HR due to the realisation
that internal relationships ultimately extend to external relationships.
The communication departments of the institutions interviewed also engaged in
other activities including exhibitions, sponsorships, representing the
organisation, organising internal events for staff, among others.
Participants as advocates for key publics and role in initiating dialogue with
special publics: Literature suggests that PR practitioners are advocates and
consensus builders for and on behalf of their organisations. In this role,
practitioners work to develop mutuality, build understanding among parties of
opposing sides, mediate, and serve as liaisons. PR is, therefore not one
dimensional as practitioners seek the interest of both the organisation and the
publics (Daugherty, 2001: 391).
Participants were asked to indicate their role in serving as advocates for key
publics. Results suggest that while some play a strong role, others do play a
partial role. One of the participants argued that because practitioners serve as
an interface, it was their job to “speak very persuasively the view of the key
publics so that there is mutual understanding, there is an appreciation and there
are the right behaviours to reflect that appreciation.” The comment of another
participant appears to support this assertion: “we cannot always be on the side
of management, sometimes you have to be on the good side of the client in order
to maintain good balance.” Heath and Coombs (2006: 30) argue that practitioners
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become advocates for the organisation’s clients when they listen to the needs
and concerns of publics who utilise the services of the organisation. By this they
build relationships that are mutually beneficial. For most of the participants
however, they did not play much of a role as far as serving as advocates for key
publics is concerned. In the words of a participant: “here we are very
conservative, so we cannot be touting the issues of external publics.” Another
participant also intimated: “our responsibility as a department is to the bank. We
want to make sure that the bank’s story is effectively communicated to the benefit
of the bank.” To this effect the idea of advocacy for key publics is not pursued
that much. This assertion also confirms the view that although the purpose of PR
is to build consensus through mutual relationship building, ultimately, PR
practitioners are “hired guns whose job it is to serve their employers” (Spicer,
2013: 181).
Concerning initiating dialogue with special publics, most participants were of the
view that they did not play key roles. Indeed, most of the organisations have
committees that engage special stakeholders. The PR department is usually a
part of the committee because “we are seen as the department with the expertise
to bring certain things to bear on deliberations,” as one participant puts it. In most
situations, dialogues are initiated by the chief executive or someone of the
dominant coalition but not the PR department. A few departments are
nevertheless strongly involved in the dialogue and negotiation process. For
instance, a participant was of the view that they constantly initiated dialogue with
some key stakeholders whose activities could have a negative effect on the
organisation. They were able to bring management and these key publics
together to engage each other in a way that would ensure mutual benefits.
Ideally, organisations would like to remain autonomous from regulators and avoid
pressure from activist groups. This allows them to operate with a more closed
system or asymmetric approach. However, this is not possible as organisations
are interdependent on stakeholders to ensure survival. There is therefore a
strong linkage between autonomy, interdependence, and relationships. As much
as relationships limit the organisations’ autonomy, it is essential for organisations
to interact and cooperate with groups likely to limit their autonomy. By adapting,
collaborating, and interacting with stakeholders, organisations ultimately
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increase their autonomy. Organisations that voluntarily establish relationship with
key publics gain more autonomy as they are not coerced into such relationships.
Therefore, the purpose of PR is to build relationships and manage
interdependence to maximise the autonomy of organisations. PR contributes to
organisational effectiveness by building good relationships with both internal and
external publics (Grunig, Grunig & Ehling, 1992: 67-69).
5.3.4. Concluding questions
As part of the interview, participants were asked questions relating to the PR
industry in Ghana in general. Questions ranged from the characteristics of the
practice on this side of the world as compared to the developed countries as well
as political and cultural factors that impacted on the practice, if any.
The PR industry in Ghana: A review of the PR landscape in Ghana earlier
indicated a paucity of information about the current state of PR in Ghana. The
little available information suggests that PR has witnessed tremendous growth
due to several variables including the return to multi-party democracy,
liberalisation of the media landscape, and media plurality. Kudzodzi (2017)
describes it as a movement “from errand boy to professional practitioner.” Earlier
literature (Ming-Yi & Baah-Boakye, 2008, 2009) suggests that there is increased
professionalism and acknowledgement about the value of PR although the pace
of growth was slow. Participants were asked if they thought there was a
difference in the way PR was practiced in Ghana compared to developed
countries. Generally, all the participants were in agreement. Participants were of
the view that the practice in advanced countries such as the USA and UK was
much more professional than in Ghana. The issue of professionalism was
emphasised by practitioners to show the gulf between what is practiced outside
and what pertains to Ghana. “Over here, anyone who can talk or speak good
English thinks he is a practitioner and you will find some organisations recruiting
such people,” said one participant. A participant attributed this to a lack of proper
regulation: “Our problem is regulation. Anyone does anything and they call it PR.
There is no regulation and that is a key challenge.” In the area of strategic value,
some participants believed that PR is not given the proper recognition in Ghana
as it is in other countries.
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One participant was of the view that “PR, for most organisations, is seen as
publicity rather than a strategic tool to move organisations forward.” Another
participant tended to agree by pointing out that “unfortunately, industry does not
recognise our role. PR is often pushed to the backburner until there is a problem.
But in advanced countries, PR is mostly placed at the highest level and they
excel.” Some of the participants partly blamed the national association, IPR,
Ghana, for the perceived lack of recognition as reflected in the following
statements: “I believe PR bodies enhance the way the practice is done, and I
believe that is lacking with IPR. The standards for practice are not clear and no
one knows what is acceptable or not,” and “I think it is also because the PR
association in itself has not done a good job in positioning PR as a strategic tool,
so there is still a lot that needs to be done.”
National associations are believed to play a critical role in the professionalisation
of disciplines including PR. They create normative values, set standards for
practice, and present a common ground for practitioners and organisations that
use their services to operate effectively (Yang & Taylor, 2014: 509). From the
view point of some of the practitioners though, the national association is not
doing much to ensure professionalism. These sentiments agree with literature
that suggests that PR, especially in developing countries, often suffers from a
lack of recognition by management, professionalism, and ethical situations.
Joseph (2017) cited some of the challenges confronting PR practice in Africa
including, a poor understanding of what the profession really is about, a lack of
specialisation in PR, lack of ethics among professionals, and negative cultural
habits, attitudes, and taboos which prevent practitioners from developing
effective campaigns. Although there are many communication schools springing
up at many universities, many people occupying the position are mainly from
marketing, journalism, or other disciplines. Despite these challenges, evidence
suggests that the gap between PR practice in Africa, and Ghana in particular,
and the rest of the developed systems is reducing. As much as PR in Africa is
daunting, progress has been made. The global environment and the ability of
practitioners to draw on global influence make the prospect of PR on the
continent very promising (Skinner, 2013: 15).
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Cultural and political factors: One of the questions that the research sought to
find answers to was whether PR practice in Ghana was influenced, in part, by
cultural and political factors. Literature reviewed showed that culture, for
instance, plays a significant role in how PR is practiced, especially in developing
countries like Africa where the lives of the people are shaped by their cultural
values. Hart (2013: 240) posits that cultural awareness is essential to the design
and interpretation of a message, whether it is press release or a PR campaign.
Sriramesh (2009: 53), one of the well-known PR authors who has written
extensively on this subject, asserts that culture influences communication and is
influenced by it.
Since PR is fundamentally a communication activity, it can be linked to culture, a
view shared by Valentini (2007: 121). The issue of cultural factors did not
generate a definite response from some of the participants. One thing
participants were definite on is that consensus building was critical when dealing
with clients and also communities. Participants believed in consultation to build
consensus before embarking on certain campaigns.
In UK for instance, when you are setting up a business, all you need
is your licence. But in Ghana that will not happen. If you want to set
up a branch, you can have your permit alright, but you will still need
to get the approval of the chief/community leaders before you can
do anything, noted one participant.
The chiefs and opinion leaders are regarded as the ones who keep the peace
hence if an organisation is to operate peacefully within a community, all of them
must be brought on board as they have influence over their subordinate. These
opinion leaders are also influential in driving customers to the organisation.
Commenting on this, another participant also said: “I believe our cultural
background strongly influences how we do business and we are proud of it
because that is who we are. This is our environment and we should practice it
according to the shape and lay of our land.” One participant cited an example to
emphasise the role culture plays in PR.
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Some time ago we wanted to introduce a new product. We had gone
through all the phases of product development and this was a product
mainly targeted at one of the main religious communities in Ghana. I felt,
when it came to me for approval that it was lacking in a lot of respects.
We could do all of that, but it won't sell. We needed to engage the
constituents to get their buy-in into the product before the introduction.
So, we arranged a series of activities with different levels of the
community members. Although it is a savings product, this religion shuns
something like interests on loans, so we did it as a savings towards their
annual religious travels. The PR angle was to go down and engage the
people and find out even if there will be the need to introduce that
product. It was important to get them to understand that this is good for
you, so we now had to go and talk to them using different approaches -
sponsorship, one-on-one meetings, paying courtesy calls etc. On the day
of the launch there was a huge buy-in. Community members made
positive comments and called on others to patronise the product and we
had a very good one.
Another participant also gave an example to buttress his argument:
If I am opening a branch in Tamale I cannot go to Tamale without going
to the chief's palace to inform him that I am coming to set up a branch.
Before the branch is opened the chief and his entourage as well as other
opinion leaders must all be invited. Again, there is no way you can go to
Kumasi and not go to the Asantehene's palace. When the Asantehene
has an issue, we need to go and support. That is the relationship and
that is the way to establish a relationship between Asanteman and the
organisation.
The point participants made is that culture is key in business and “anyone who
eliminates the influence of culture will end up shooting himself in the foot,” as one
participant put it. To participants, culture is key to one’s livelihood and therefore one
needs to look at the cultural setting and amend and change certain things that do not
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suit the cultural setting in which one finds oneself operating. “In UK, it is a straightjacket
thing, but in Ghana you don’t just get up and do things that way. You won’t succeed,”
said a female participant from an insurance company. What is clear is that social
interaction is key to relationship building. The idea of bonding with the people in the
community and seeing them as part of the organisation as a whole, is very critical for
the success of the organisation. Participants recognise the need for a collectivist
approach that builds consensus, not an individualistic approach if an organisation is to
succeed within the Ghanaian environment. The views of participants agree with the
belief that effective PR is premised on communication and collaboration (Verčič,
Grunig & Grunig, 1996: 31). The result clearly links with the concept of ubuntu, as
explained in literature. It also confirms results of other research on the continent
(Mersham et al 2011; Sriramesh & Vercic, 2009; Ming-Yi & Baah-Boakye, 2007; Van
Heerden, 2004) which show that cultural influence is pervasive in PR and practitioners
cannot de-link it from their activities.
On the political perspective, participants also agreed that political environment has
some influence on PR practice but not in the same way as cultural factors. Political
factors were seen more in terms of government using PR within the various agencies
as a propaganda tool to further its own agenda. Participants were of the view that
political factors tend to affect the professionalism of practitioners within the public
sector as they are forced to compromise their values and follow the ways of the sitting
government. What they also agreed on was that the political transition from a military
rule to democratic rule has greatly influenced the growth of the practice. As successive
governments put in measures to ensure political stability and peace within the country,
it is allowing for a boom in the economic sector and opening the country for investors.
The influx of investors and multinational organisations is also opening more
opportunities for practitioners to be recognised as such organisations come from
countries where PR is held in high value. Participants believe that this is helping the
practice to grow.
According to one participant, management of most multinational organisations believe
in the value of PR because such organisations move by global standards even though
they operate in a local environment. Much has been written about how political
systems influence how PR is practiced in a country. Evidence (Molleda, 2008; Braun,
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2007; Molleda & Moreno, 2006; Sriramesh & White, 1992) show the influence of
political and socioeconomic systems on the practice of PR. Sriramesh and Verčič
(2001: 105) also identified five environmental variables that influenced the practice of
PR: political ideology, economic system, level of activism, culture, and culture and
media. The findings of the research agree with the now widely accepted view that the
economy, location, and history of a country impact greatly on the practice of PR, and
culture is also inextricably linked with how PR is practiced (Valentini, 2014: 121).
Suggestion for improvement of PR industry in Ghana: Participants acknowledged the
need for more professionalism in the system to enhance the growth of the industry.
This, they suggest, can be achieved through constant professional training by the
parent association, IPR, Ghana. Participants were of the view that the PR industry is
changing daily and there was the need for practitioners to be abreast with current
trends in order to remain relevant. Training must not be limited to only those in the
industry but to top management as well in order for them to understand the value of
PR to the organisation. “We can organise conferences that will change perspectives
for both CEOs and practitioners. You can have a very good practitioner but if the CEO
is not on the same page, your work is as good as zero,” said a participant in an
insurance company. These suggestions confirm evidence adduced that for PR to
grow, it must be valued by management. The understanding of management is critical
for strategic PR practice. Participants asserted that consistent upgrading by
professionals would make them relevant to their organisation. Black (2014) asserts the
need for the practitioner to constantly develop his/her personal qualities and
professional/business skills in order to remain relevant. Apart from training, some also
called for a bill to regulate the practice as it is the practice in other disciplines. This way
people who are not professionals cannot carry themselves as PR practitioners.
According to one female participant, regulation of the industry must not be from just
IPR but also practitioners themselves: “Practitioners must take pride in their profession
and make sure they work to ensure that people who are not qualified don’t find their
way into the profession.” In relation to that, two participants also emphasised the need
to enhance the IPR code of ethics. Ensuring that the code of ethics is enforced in the
practice will sustain the growth of the practice.
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The issue of journalists being recruited for PR work was also mentioned by
practitioners as contributing to the problems within the profession. Most participants
acknowledged that it was important for organisations to hire people who have actual
PR background and not people who are purely journalists.
One participant in particular chose to focus on the need to make measurement and
evaluation a core part of PR work to constantly show value: “We need to make
measurement the way we live; remembering that we are doing this job to add value to
our organisation and to other stakeholders. The moment we start destroying value
nobody will take us seriously.”
5.4. A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK FOR PR PRACTICE IN THE FINANCIAL
SERVICES SECTOR
The first aspect of this chapter discussed the findings of the interviews in relation to
literature. The study revealed significant findings as to how PR functions within the
financial services sector. These findings will guide the framework. In developing the
framework, this research will be guided by an understanding of the theoretical
statements reviewed in chapter 2.
5.4.1. Theoretical statement for the proposed framework
In relation to the research objective of investigating the conceptualisation and practice
of PR by means of literature review and based on the findings from the study, the
development of the framework will be based on the theoretical statements realised
from literature. These theories outline how PR should be practiced in order to establish
a mutually beneficial relationship between the organisation and its key stakeholders.
The interviews conducted gave further insight into how these theoretical statements
are applied within the financial services sector in Ghana. Before the outline of the
proposed framework is developed, this section will discuss the theoretical statements
as seen in the literature review.
As outlined in chapter 2, the theoretical statements consist of the Systems Theory, the
Relationship Management Theory and the Excellence Theory.
The Systems Theory argues that organisations are systems made up of interrelated
and interdependent subsystems. Organisations are perceived as having a relationship
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with their environment. Actions of the organisation therefore benefit both the
organisation and the environment in which it operates. PR practitioners serve as a
boundary spanner in this system where they facilitate an open and transparent
relationship between the organisation and its publics. The purpose of PR is to scan
and monitor the environment, detect issues of relevance to the organisation, and
develop the appropriate strategies to deal with these issues. The systems theory is
therefore viewed as holistic in nature and that each subsystem (in this case PR as a
subsystem) relies on the support of other departments and the dominant coalition to
succeed.
The Relationship Management Theory and the relational paradigms focus on the
concepts of trust, mutuality, openness, mutual satisfaction, mutual understanding, and
reciprocity in the relationship process. The focus is on the management of relationship
between an organisation and its publics. Relationship then, is at the heart of PR
practice. This relationship is managed through communication. The relationship
management theory and the relational paradigm are consistent with the systems theory
and the two-way symmetrical theory. Communication is therefore used strategically to
ensure a mutually beneficial relationship. The theoretical statement of the Excellence
Theory encapsulates the various theories and paradigms discussed in chapter 2 of the
literature. The Excellence theory focuses on the practice of PR strategically in order
for PR to contribute effectively to the bottom-line. The Excellence theory posits that
PR must be part of the dominant coalition and must be based on two-way symmetrical
communication if it is to achieve its goal of ensuring a mutually beneficial relationship
between the organisation and its publics. Furthermore, the Excellence theory is
practiced at four key levels, the organisational, functional, societal, and the programme
levels. At the organisational level the theory considers PR as a managerial function
and part of the dominant coalition. In simple terms, the practitioner contributes to
strategic decision-making. The practitioner scans the environment to identify potential
publics that the organisation can develop a relationship with. Formative research is
also used to evaluate the quality of relationship between the organisation and the
publics and develop communication strategies to reinforce, improve, or maintain the
relationship. At the functional level evaluation of PR programmes is critical in order to
contribute to improving organisational and societal effectiveness.
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The PR functions can be audited by comparing the structure and processes with those
performed in other departments with similar structures and processes or with
theoretical principles from scholarly research. At the programme level components of
the overall communication programmes such as media relations, marketing
communication, community relations, or employee relations are evaluated to
determine their level of effectiveness. Such programmes are considered successful
when they influence cognitions, attitudes, and behaviours of both the organisation and
its publics. At the societal level, PR ensures the organisation is accountable to society
through its ethical behaviour and social responsibility programmes. This is the impact
of organisations going beyond business goals. Organisations affect other
organisations, individuals, and publics in the society. Their effectiveness is therefore
tied to their responsibility to society. When PR contributes to the social responsibility
of organisations, it is considered to have value.
Based on the theoretical statements and the review of the PR models which highlighted
the essential guidelines for excellent PR practice, and in relation to the key findings
from the study, it can be concluded that PR practice within the financial services sector
cannot be fully accepted as having the key excellent principles. The results noted
serious gaps between the characteristics of excellent communication in terms of the
models and roles, and actual practice. The following key findings defined the research:
PR practitioners in the financial services sector do not have communication/PR
background. The PR department (mostly combined with marketing) is headed
by a professional with a background in marketing or finance.
PR is mostly given a marketing focus in terms of conceptualisation.
Practitioners, especially those with a non-PR educational background, mostly
believe experience in the field is enough to improve their knowledge of PR
practice.
Measurement of PR programmes is mostly informal in nature with media
clippings dominating the measurement process.
Social media measurement is not practiced much and where it is practiced,
measurement is based on likes and comments.
Importance of research is acknowledged but not practiced much.
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Evaluative research is mostly informal and tends to focus on outputs and
outtakes more than outcomes and impacts.
Formative research has a marketing focus rather than a purely PR focus. Most
research is based on customer satisfaction surveys rather than attitudinal
research.
PR practice based on the four models of PR with a strong leaning towards
asymmetric and symmetrical practice.
Practitioners are not part of the decision-making body although they are
sometimes invited to sit “in attendance” during executive management
meetings. Most however report directly to the CEO.
PR is practiced both at the technician and managerial levels.
Culture plays a huge role in PR practice in Ghana.
Interpersonal relationship is integral to relationship building.
Absence of social networking sites limit the reach of practitioners.
Advocacy is practiced at a low level.
As noted earlier, the excellence characteristics supports the various paradigms and
theoretical applications discussed in the literature, that is, public relations must be
strategic, be based on relationship management, and focused on symmetrical
communication processes. The current landscape of the financial services sector
means that PR practice must promote openness, honesty, based on trustworthiness,
mutual understanding, collaboration, and sound ethical practices in order to build,
maintain, and sustain effective relationship between the organisation and its publics.
What this means is that PR practice must be holistic in nature. In view of this, it is
recommend that the proposed framework for effective PR practice within the financial
services sector should consist of three main building blocks – strategic approach,
symmetrical approach (asymmetrical and symmetrical), and relational approach -
each built around clusters of sub-themes and processes which are discussed in turn.
Because the PR process is a continuous cycle, the framework should be considered
as a continuous process and not separate. They are interdependent and function at all
the levels of the PR process. The framework also represents a holistic view of what
constitutes excellent communication management within the financial services sector.
The proposed framework will be discussed in detail in the next chapter.
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5.5. SUMMARY
The current chapter discussed and interpreted the results of the one-on-one interviews
held with 22 PR practitioners within the financial services sector. In terms of
demographics, there were more males (15) than females (7). Most of the participants
were in their mid-thirties or early forties. The study also found that the majority of the
participants had marketing or other business backgrounds with very few having a
communication background. Whereas some who did not have formal
education/knowledge in communication/PR had taken some certificate or diploma
courses in PR, others had not. Regarding designations, the study found that most of
the departments were merged with marketing.
In line with one of the objectives which sought to determine the conceptualisation of
PR by practitioners, results showed that PR had different but inter-related definitions.
PR was viewed by mainly publicity, relationship and reputational management,
creating a positive image. A significant finding from the study was that PR was also
defined from a marketing perspective.
Another objective was to analyse the views of practitioners about the various PR
models, specifically the four models of PR as posited by James Grunig and Todd Hunt
(1984). Results showed that PR was practiced at all the levels with a strong leaning
towards asymmetric and symmetric communication. A significant finding here was the
practice of marketing from a marketing perspective. The findings showed marketing
and PR department were integrated and so the activities of the department tended to
lean towards marketing more than PR. Measurement and evaluation of PR
programmes were mostly unscientific and also focus more on traditional means rather
than digital analytics. Media clippings and media content analysis dominated the
measurement process and were used to determine programme success. Results also
showed focus of PR is more on development and production of communication
materials rather than research, especially attitudinal research.
The chapter also analysed the activities that practitioners performed. It sought to
determine whether the roles performed were technical, managerial, or both. Results
showed PR in the financial services sector was both managerial and technical.
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Participants engaged in a number of activities including media relations, production of
communication materials, and communication strategies. Although participants were
involved in strategic planning, they were not part of the executive management and so
could not influence decisions in the way that the excellence PR demands. They were
not involved in the decision-making process although they did “sit in” during executive
management meetings.
The study also revealed that the environment that an organisation finds itself in greatly
influences how PR is practiced. In this regard, participants believed that cultural and
political factors greatly influenced how the profession is practiced.
Participants indicated the need for proper policies to regulate the industry, especially
in the area of professionalism and ethical behaviour. Emphasis was placed on training
of top management in the profession.
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CHAPTER SIX
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS AND
FRAMEWORK FOR PUBLIC RELATIONS PRACTICE
6.1. INTRODUCTION
The previous chapter focused on the analysis and interpretation of the results of the
research. The analysis was based on the structure of the interviews and linked to
findings in literature. As the goal of this research is to develop a framework for PR
practice within the financial services sector, a framework for the practice of effective
or excellent PR was proposed. The current chapter will focus on the summary of the
entire research work, make conclusions based on the key issues realised from the
results and make recommendations to deal with these issues. The chapter will also
present an empirical framework for PR practice in the financial services sector. The
framework will be based on the various theoretical statements realised in literature
and the issues drawn from the interviews. The chapter will therefore summarise the
entire study in a concise and comprehensible way that allows the researcher to clearly
show his understanding of the research problem, thereby answering the ‘so what?’
question, which is usually the focus of all scientific research. This closing chapter will
therefore be structured based on the research problem and research objectives.
6.2 SUMMARY OF RESEARCH FINDINGS
The goal of the study was to develop a framework for effective PR practice within the
financial services sector. In this regard, the study sought to determine how PR was
conceptualised and practiced - at the theoretical and role levels - by
PR/communication practitioners in the financial services sector. What was evident
from the findings was that most of the people heading the communications department
of the various organisations did not have a communication background. These
practitioners had mostly a marketing background and were performing dual roles of a
marketer and a PR practitioner. Indeed, some did not have any of these backgrounds
but rather had backgrounds in law, business development and other disciplines. The
dual roles were reflected in the titles given to the departments - Marketing (and)
Communication. The study realised that the practitioners, as part of their MBA, went
through a semester course in basic PR, hence the conviction that this was enough to
know how to practice PR effectively. The marketing background also showed in the
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way PR was conceptualised. Several of the practitioners conceptualised PR in terms
of publicity, and most significantly, by using marketing terms. PR was thus given a
marketing focus in its conceptualised form.
Significantly, research and evaluation were mostly unscientific and research was
mostly informal in nature. Although research was viewed as an integral part of PR, this
was more talked about than actually done. Formative research to determine attitudes
and perception as well as understanding before programmes were done was rare
among participants. The situation was the same with evaluative research where
evaluation was mostly through word of mouth, logs, internal feedback, debriefing
sessions, unsolicited feedback from external publics, mystery shopping, etc. Very few
engaged in actual scientific evaluation. Scientific research, when done, was part of a
broader institutional research and mainly focused on customer satisfaction surveys
rather than an initiative of the PR department. The department used part of the overall
institutional research result to formulate its strategies. Another significant finding is that
not much was made of web analytics although participants realised its importance.
Very few used any form of web analytics such as Google analytics for research,
monitoring and evaluation. Measurement of online media was based on ‘likes’ and
‘coverage’ more than ‘content’ and ‘communities’. Overall, measurement of PR
programmes was based on outputs (media clippings and extent of coverage) more
than on outcomes. Media clippings, in particular, played a key role in the
measurement of programme success as the findings demonstrated. For many
participants, the number of times their organisation received coverage was an
indication that they were doing well. The result demonstrated a domination of media
clippings, and to an extent content analysis, as a tool in the measurement of PR
programmes. This, among other factors, is due to the fact that management want to
see the ‘good’ name of the organisation in the media at all times. Comments from
participants reflected this trend. Media monitoring was however practiced mostly using
traditional methods. Many of the organisations do not even have social media
presence, although they did indicate plans to join soon.
The research also found that some participants would prefer to speak the good deeds
of their organisations but were not prepared to volunteer negative information which
may jeopardise their organisation. The phrase “washing one’s dirty linen in public” was
used frequently by practitioners to explain that it was not appropriate to share negative
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information, especially in an area as sensitive as the financial sector. It must be noted
that not everyone shared this view. Some practitioners, especially, those who had a
strong communication background, differed with this position. Although they did not
advocate a full disclosure, they were however of the view that being transparent and
seeking help is better than trying to hide because when the information eventually
surfaces, the repercussions would be greater. They were of the view that in this
technological era, trying to hide negative information would not be effective. Generally,
many participants noted that circumstances will dictate whether to volunteer negative
information or not.
On changing of behaviour, it was realised that PR efforts were focused on changing
the behaviour of publics/stakeholders more than management. Results revealed that
due to the lack of understanding about the purpose of PR by senior management, it
was usually difficult to change their behaviour, especially in situations where they take
decisions likely to create issues. The boundary spanning role of practitioners was
sometimes ineffective as senior management implemented policies without input from
PR practitioners. This situation occurs mainly because PR is not part of senior
management or what is referred to as the dominant coalition. They are therefore
unable to influence policy or effectively partake in the decision-making process.
Overall, results showed that PR is practiced at both the asymmetrical and the
symmetrical levels. There is however a slight leaning towards the asymmetrical level
compared to the symmetrical level.
Concerning the activities that PR practitioners perform, the result indicated that PR in
the financial services sector is practiced at both the technician and managerial levels.
At the strategic level, participants were very much involved in strategic planning. At
the reporting level, most of the participants reported to the CEO. A few however,
reported to either the marketing manager or the business development manager who,
in turn, reported to the CEO. The research also found that PR was not part of the
executive decision-making body. What was interesting though was that the PR
managers were sometimes made to sit in executive management meetings “in
attendance,” to offer useful advice where needed. They were not, however, active
participants in deliberations by the dominant coalition. Participants attributed this
situation to the lack of understanding of PR. PR was also sometimes placed under
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marketing or made part of corporate affairs - consisting of legal, HR and marketing
communication - and headed by a legal practitioner.
Concerning their role as advocates, especially for internal and external publics, the
results revealed that many participants did not play this effectively. The advocacy role
was geared towards benefitting the organisation more than mutual benefits. Most
participants saw their responsibility as towards their organisations rather than to the
stakeholders.
The research concluded by looking at the general PR industry in Ghana. Results
demonstrated that PR is growing exponentially. Many PR practitioners are now
occupying managerial positions. Participants noted though that the profession still has
a long way to go before it is fully accepted, especially by senior management. Lack of
professionalism, unethical practices, lack of understanding of the purpose of PR by
both senior management and society, and budgetary constraints, were some of the
issues raised as being factors that inhibit the growth of the profession in Ghana.
Results also showed that the practice is influenced very much by the cultural and
political environment within the country, which is consistent with literature. Overall, the
results demonstrated that PR in Ghana is at an advanced stage despite these
challenges.
6.3. CONCLUSIONS ON RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
The previous section summarised the research objectives that were formulated in
chapter one. The next session will briefly discuss conclusions on the specific research
objectives. This is to ensure that the objectives for the research were achieved and
also determine if the research problem was adequately addressed.
6.3.1. Conclusion on the conceptualisation and practice of public relations by
means of literature review
The first objective was to investigate how PR was conceptualised and practiced by
means of literature review. Based on the literature reviewed in chapters 2 and 3, it can
be concluded that PR worldwide is defined based on one’s (be it individual,
organisational or societal) understanding of the concept. PR can be defined as
reputational management, publicity, management of communication, management
function, developing strategies that gain social legitimacy for organisations, a two-way
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communication, among others. What is certain from the many definitions is that PR is
planned, deliberate and develops strategies aimed at influencing public opinion and
impacting society in order to enhance the reputation of organisations. Based on
literature, the study also concludes that PR has grown in terms of practice globally.
Globalisation has influenced how PR is practiced. The study also concluded that PR
practice is not based on one particular model, especially the two-way symmetrical
model, and that several factors influence the type of model used in the practice. PR is
also practiced both at the technician and managerial level. However, its effectiveness
is determined by support from senior management and accurate knowledge of the
field by practitioners. The study posits that PR practice has variations in different
environments, mainly influenced by political and cultural factors. In Africa, and Ghana
for that matter, the concept of ‘ubuntu’ certainly shapes how PR is practiced.
6.3.2. Conclusion on the conceptualisation of public relations by means of
empirical data
PR practitioners generally have an idea of the purpose of PR. While some of the
conceptualisations are in line with known definitions, others are conceptualised based
on the background of the practitioners, especially in the area of marketing. Based on
the results, the study concludes that PR in the financial services sector is associated
with information dissemination/publicity, relationship and reputation management,
creating a positive image, and marketing - using marketing terms to define PR.
6.3.3. Conclusion on the selected models of public relations by means of
empirical data
This objective sought to analyse the views of PR practitioners in the financial services
sector on the models of PR. Based on one-on-one in-depth interviews with
practitioners, it is concluded that PR is practiced at all levels. There is however a strong
leaning towards asymmetric and symmetric PR. PR practice is asymmetric because
the conditions under which two-way symmetrical PR or excellent PR can be practiced
are not fully seen. Practitioners still see themselves as working for the interest of their
organisations and their duty is to influence public perception rather than their
organisation. The lack of understanding and value placed on PR by management, the
lack of professional background of most practitioners, and the association with
marketing means that PR will continue to be asymmetrical. PR practice is still growing
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but has not reached the level where it can be considered as two-way symmetrical only.
The study also concludes that two-way symmetrical practice is also practiced within
the sector. Practitioners engage key stakeholders through two-way dialogue.
However, there is lack of appreciation of these models as practitioners do not engage
fully in either the asymmetric or symmetrical models. The lack of scientific research
and evaluation means that PR cannot be practiced effectively. The focus on informal
means of intelligence gathering is likely to hamper the relationship building efforts of
practitioners. As stated earlier, the philosophy of the dominant coalition regarding the
value of PR is key in the effective practice of PR in the sector. The overall conclusion
on this objective is that PR is practiced based on the four models of PR but there is a
focus on the two-way asymmetric and the two-way symmetric. There is also a strong
influence of the personal influence and cultural interpreter models. It is also posited
that within the current financial environment, attempts to focus on the two-way
symmetrical, which is considered the ideal form of PR practice, will not work.
6.3.4. Conclusions on the public relations roles (activities) by means of
empirical data
The final objective sought to determine the roles that practitioners in the financial
services sector engage in. Based on the result, it is concluded that the PR practice is
at both the technician and managerial level. It is headed by a manager with assistants.
PR practice is not fully strategic, and this affects the performance of practitioners in
the sector. Since the department is not part of the dominant coalition, it cannot
influence policy decisions effectively. Senior management are not likely to value the
views of PR if they do not understand the purpose of PR. This can only happen if PR
is made part of the executive decision-making body and the practitioner is made to
report to the senior-most person – the CEO or the one next to the CEO. In a volatile
environment such as the financial services sector, efforts by practitioners to build and
maintain mutual relationships will be difficult if they do not obtain the support of
management or they are placed under another department. PR practice at the
managerial level was found to have several challenges, some of which have been
enumerated above. The fielding of the department with people with more business
background than communication and the merging of both communication and
marketing as one department poses a challenge to effective PR practice.
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6.4. RECOMMENDATIONS
The following recommendations are based on the findings of the study. It is posited
that following these recommendations will lead to effective PR practice in the financial
services sector.
6.4.1. Training of department staff and management
The result of the study clearly shows that PR practice cannot be effective if staff in the
department do not have a full grasp of the purpose of PR. It is also clear from the
result that excellent PR is being affected by the lack of understanding and the value
placed on PR by senior management. Based on this, it is recommended that
practitioners, at both the technician and managerial levels, be engaged in constant
training to enable them to fully appreciate the purpose and role of PR in organisations
and society. Given the fact that most have a marketing background, an understanding
of the field and the activities PR plays will influence how these practitioners eventually
practice the profession. Sponsorship for certificate or postgraduate training will be
essential in the delivery of effective services for the organisation. The heads of the
departments, together with their deputies and other subordinates, should be fully
trained in the field of PR for them to have a better understanding of what the profession
actually entails. Otherwise speaking, effective PR practice should be knowledge
based. Although experience is essential, the theoretical foundation is critical to
balance the experience. When this is done, it is believed that PR will not be practiced
with a marketing focus. Practitioners will also understand what constitutes excellent
PR and will be likely to develop the right strategies to practice excellent PR.
Although literature acknowledges the lack of understanding by the dominant coalition
as influencing the practice of excellent PR, the idea of training the dominant coalition
has, however, not been broached. It is therefore recommended that training should
not only be for the marketing communication department. It is important for
practitioners to engage senior management on the essence of PR and how it
contributes to the organisational development. Regardless of the training that
practitioners engage in, if the decision-makers do not understand and appreciate the
value of excellent PR, practitioners in the industry will still face challenges in the
implementation of excellent PR practice. The training of senior management and the
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influencers within the organisation will contribute to raising the value of PR in the eyes
of senior management.
This means that the department should be able to develop its own training policies for
the internal publics of the organisation, especially the decision-makers. This training
should also cover sectional heads including legal, marketing (in situations where
marketing is separated from the communications department), HR and business
development. This also ensures the identification of clearly defined roles between PR
and other functions. This will also prevent misunderstanding of different managerial
roles.
6.4.2. Focus on formal environmental scanning and evaluative research
The findings of the research show that formative research to determine public
understanding, knowledge, and attitude is not given priority in the formulation of
programmes. Formative research is however critical to the success of any PR
programme. Excellent PR must be based on understanding the needs and attitudes
of the constituents. Knowledge and understanding of constituents ensure that the right
programmes are developed to build mutually beneficial relationships. It is
recommended that the current practice of focusing on marketing-oriented research,
which is mainly based on customer satisfaction, is not sustainable in the practice of
excellent PR. It is therefore recommended that, since almost all the PR departments
do not have their own research unit, the PR department work with their various
organisational research units to constantly conduct scientific research that is PR
specific. Customer satisfaction surveys tend to focus on marketing-oriented issues
more than attitudinal issues. Formative research allows practitioners to detect
issues/opportunities as well as determine the understanding between management
and key publics. PR research therefore goes beyond customer satisfaction.
Development of PR programmes cannot be effective if these are not backed by formal
research. Evaluation research on the other hand will allow practitioners to effectively
gauge the outcome of their programmes. In the short-term, practitioners will be able
to determine the effect of programmes on cognitions, attitudes, and behaviours of
publics and management. In the long-term, it will demonstrate the effect of PR efforts
on the relationship between the organisation and the publics. The current focus of
evaluation using mostly informal methods will not be successful. It is recommended
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that more scientific and rigorous methods such as surveys, interviews, and focus
groups are used for evaluation purposes. It is posited that PR will gain high value as
it will be able to show how it clearly contributes to the bottom-line. It is believed that
the use of scientific methods in measurement and evaluation will also be critical in
persuading senior management on the value of PR in contributing to achieving
organisational goals. Formal evaluation must be conducted often without neglecting
the informal methods. Evaluation should be a continuous process through the PR
process. It should not only be at the end of a programme.
Again, it is recommended that web analytics be an integral part of the measurement
and evaluation process. The digital evolution has greatly shaped the way PR is
practiced. Practitioners in the financial services sector therefore cannot rely solely on
the traditional forms of measurement and evaluation. The advent of the Internet and
social networking sites means that information is now in the hands of the publics. News
is now what the public says it is. This makes it imperative for practitioners to use the
available web analytical tools to monitor, measure, and evaluate PR and sentiments.
It is also recommended that measurement and evaluation of internet and social media
should not focus on “likes” and “coverage” but “content” and “community” as these tell
the real stories.
Measurement and evaluation should also not be based on media hits and coverage
but, in terms of actual effects on organisational-public relationships. The findings
showed measurement and evaluation tends to focus on outputs rather than outcomes.
It is, however recommended that practitioners in the financial services sector focus on
outcomes without neglecting outputs and outtakes. Essentially, practitioners should
focus on the effect of PR programmes on awareness, attitudinal change, action, and
behaviour. This can be in the short, medium, and long term. It is believed that focusing
on outcomes will eventually result in impact - increase in revenue, more
clients/customers, cost savings, and strong relationships. The PR departments should
therefore develop a policy on measurement and evaluation procedures that will clearly
spell out how measurement and evaluation of programmes will be conducted. This will
guide the department in truly showing return on investment (ROI).
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6.4.3 Separation of public relations functions from other functions
As indicated in literature, for PR to be truly effective, it must not be sublimated to other
departments. The findings of the research showed that PR is either integrated into
marketing under the name ‘marketing communication’ or placed under or part of other
departments such as marketing, legal, and business development. Only a few
institutions had a separate department in charge of communications. However, if PR
in these institutions is to be truly effective, it must be recognised as a separate
management function that exists to link all the other departments in an interdependent
way. It is therefore recommended that PR should be given a separate role and be
headed by a professional PR manager in order for the department to operate in a more
strategic manner. As the results found, when the PR function is placed under a
different management function, the focus tends to be on publicity to the neglect of key
communication functions. For the contribution of PR to be truly valued in terms of how
they contribute directly and indirectly to an organisation’s success, separating it from
other management functions and being given the necessary resources to work is
critical. The findings of the research give an indication that the merging of PR with
marketing in particular, and headed mostly by professionals with a marketing
background, is detrimental to the role of PR in establishing mutually beneficial
relationship between the organisation and its publics. This is because activities of the
department tend to have a marketing focus. It is proposed that the separation will
ensure that practitioners focus on proactive actions that enhance reputation. The
current image of the financial services sector is that of suspicion and this is likely to
continue if effective PR strategies are not used as a way of gaining credibility. There
is no doubt that the integration of marketing and communication functions under the
concept of ‘integrated marketing communication’ is especially strong in the financial
services sector. There is also the need to recognise that these functions are different
even if they have overlapping functions. Much as the assumption that integration of
the two functions will lead to a sublimation of PR to marketing has not been empirically
validated, the findings show a strong focus on product and brand management, market
penetration and development, publicity, and less on gaining social legitimacy through
the implementation of strategic programmes influenced by formal environmental
scanning and evaluation. It is posited that for excellent PR to occur, PR should not be
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integrated with other functions. They should remain distinct but coordinate to maintain
effective organisational-stakeholder relationship.
6.4.4. Empowerment of the PR manager in the decision making process
A key outcome realised from the research was that PR was not part of the decision-
making process. However, as seen from literature, for PR to be practiced in an
excellent way, it must be part of the decision-making process. The PR department
must therefore be empowered to not just “sit in attendance” but be an active participant
in the decision-making process. Although the practitioner has access to the chief
executives, they cannot influence decisions effectively if they are not part of the
executive management that take the day-to-day decisions which affect the
organisation. It is proposed that PR can only contribute to strategic management of
the organisation’s publics if it is made an integral part of the dominant coalition. By
being part of the dominant coalition, the practitioner can influence organisational
decisions and also ensure the efficiency of the department. The purpose of PR is to
proactively engage in activities that build long term relationships with publics that can
affect the organisation’s mission and that can be affected by the organisation’s
policies. The outcome of PR efforts is relationship premised on trust, reciprocity,
commitment and mutual satisfaction. This can only be achieved if PR is practiced in
an excellent way. But for that to occur, the department must be part of the decision-
making body. The research proposes that empowering the PR function to be part of
the dominant coalition will enhance the ability of the department to serve the interest
of the organisation while also ensuring a mutually beneficial relationship between the
organisation and its publics.
6.4.5. Integration of communication functions across departments
Findings from the research show that internal communication functions are often
shared with the human resource and administration department. Moreover, there are
occasions where these functions appear to overlap, leading to conflict situations.
However, in order to have an excellent communication function, it is proposed that all
communications across the various departments be integrated into the PR department
and coordinated by the department. To build mutually beneficial relationships
internally and externally, messages must be consistent and aligned to the
organisation’s goals. Internal communication activities ultimately affect external
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communication and reputation. The integration and coordination of communication
activities by the PR outfit will result in the organisation speaking with one voice.
6.4.6. Two-way communication
The purpose of the PR function is to build and maintain a mutually beneficial
relationship between the organisation and its publics. For that to happen there must
be a mutual understanding between the organisation and its publics. This is based on
dialogue or what is commonly referred to as two-way communication. Literature
describes two types - the asymmetrical and the symmetrical. Though both are dialogue
based, the asymmetrical is regarded as persuasive communication with the purpose
of serving the organisation’s interest while two-way symmetrical is regarded as the
ideal and the most ethical form of PR practice. Much has been said about the excellent
nature of the two-way symmetrical being the best form of PR practice as it considers
public interest, uses collaboration, and negotiation, and reflects the interdependent
nature of organisations. The two-way symmetrical also reflects the concept of trust,
transparency, honesty, commitment and shared vision, and mutual understanding.
This research proposes a combination of the two-way symmetrical and the two-way
asymmetrical. The nature of the financial services sector is such that information must
be carefully managed without causing fear and panic among stakeholders. It is
generally acknowledged that the financial services sector is undergoing serious
credibility challenges due to past events of perceived fraud, dishonesty, and lack of
transparency. In the technological era, the need to be accountable and open has
become even more intense. Two-way symmetrical communication is therefore
regarded as the ideal form of communication in establishing a relationship premised
on trust, honesty, open communication, interdependency, and mutual interaction.
Two-way symmetrical communication has been promoted at length as the best form
of PR as it is reciprocal, ethical, and based on dialogue. However, based on the results
of the findings and review of literature, it is proposed that the two models can be
practiced together effectively. Literature views the asymmetrical as premised on
persuasive communication to influence attitudes and behaviours of key publics to take
an action that will benefit the organisation rather than the mutual benefit the
symmetrical deals with. In other words, it is based on self-interest although the element
of feedback features strongly, but the feedback is used to develop strategies that are
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in the best interest of the organisation. In the financial services sector, full disclosure
of an organisation’s actions can result in unintended consequences such as closure
of accounts, moving of investment, among others. This is more so when most of the
population do not fully understand the financial services sector and do not trust the
sector. It is believed that PR can be persuasive yet ethical and based on trust, honesty,
and credibility. The element of feedback within asymmetrical communication ensures
that practitioners are able to review the cost and benefits of the organisation’s actions
to the external publics and make adjustments which are deemed ethical. The nature
of asymmetrical communication means that remaining loyal to both one’s employer
and key stakeholders can be challenging. However, it is believed that following the
golden rule of “do unto others that which you want done unto you” will ensure that
practitioners balance their loyalty to their organisation and their commitment to
ensuring the organisation’s stakeholders get the best from the organisation. In PR,
persuasive communication is crucial, but it can be done ethically. When creating
persuasive messages, practitioners can use a number of ethical strategies to ensure
that their messages are sincere, honest, and legitimate. It is believed that the “public
interest”, a term used in symmetrical communication, can still be served when the
actions of the practitioner are said to be sincere. The two-way asymmetrical concept
has various benefits including the idea of feedback as well as consideration of the
outcomes of persuasive messages on publics. Even though the concept appears to
be based on self-interest, it does incorporate relevant concerns of those that its actions
affect. Literature suggests some ethical strategies that can be used in persuasive
communication, including Baker and Martinson’s TARES test (Truthfulness,
Authenticity, Respect, Equality, and Social responsibility).
The dialogue and reciprocal based two-way symmetrical, if strictly adhered to as
Grunig argues, will mean giving up critical information necessary for the survival of the
organisation. In a conservative business environment like Ghana, that will not happen.
Moreover, dealing with financial matters requires tact and carefulness without
compromising ethical standards. Again, because the financial services sector deals
with different stakeholders, practicing only two-way symmetrical communication will
unquestionably lead to conflicts with different publics which may be difficult to resolve.
This research agrees with literature that says that open communication is not
necessarily a panacea for ethical behaviour and in some circumstances may not be
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appropriate. This research also agrees with literature that two-way symmetry cannot
be used as a “one-size fits all solution,” That is, there may be occasions when the two-
way symmetry cannot work due to legal or regulatory issues. Based on this, it is
proposed that PR in the financial services sector should be a balance between the two
influential models. Open-based communication should not override the need to
disseminate information that is based on truth, trust, and sincerity.
6.4.7. Development of social network policy
Much has been written about the influence of social media on contemporary PR
practice. Social media has opened the way for PR to become more interactive as
practitioners constantly communicate with their publics who are active and ever
present online. In the financial services sector the use of social media, as the research
discovered, was not prominent. In fact, many of the departments did not even have
social media accounts. Social media has become the new interactive tool that
practitioners can use to reach out to their publics and further create a better and
sustained relationship. Social media sites such as Facebook, Twitter, YouTube and
other social media management services serve as an integral part in businesses
worldwide. In some businesses, individuals have been employed for the sole purpose
of managing the social media account of the organisation. The situation does not
appear to be the case in the financial services sector in Ghana. Social media is not
only about sharing information it can also be used as a measurement tool to measure
PR outcomes. This means practitioners do not have to just look at likes, followers or
shares but measure real outcomes in relation to PR goals. Social media can be used
to bring publics closer than ever before. In this vein, it is recommended that
practitioners develop a social media policy as well as social media accounts on
relevant social networks that will enable them to engage their constituents fully. This
will also mean they will need to train some of their staff to be in charge of this process.
The social media policy will demonstrate how conversations around products and
services, brands, and the organisation itself are being socialised. At a time of mistrust
and credibility issues, engaging the virtual publics is essential in telling the story of the
organisation and building mutually beneficial relationship for the long-term.
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6.4.8. A strong focus on advocacy role
The findings of the research noted that practitioners in the financial services sector are
not really involved in playing the advocacy role required of them. One of the key roles
of PR managers is to serve as advocates for key stakeholders. This allows them to
interpret the concerns of key publics to management, get management to understand
these concerns, and work together to build a stronger relationship. Advocacy is a two-
dimensional process that allows the practitioner to seek the interest of both the
organisation and the publics. Practitioners must therefore recognise the role of
advocacy in their jobs - advocacy, not only for the organisation but more importantly
for the publics on whom the success or failure of the organisation depends. This
agrees with literature that states that PR will continually be apologising for its
perceived lack of objectivity unless it embraces its advocacy role. There is therefore
the need for practitioners to be strongly involved in advocating for and on behalf of the
key stakeholders. The nature of the financial sector means that key stakeholders will
have serious issues/concerns and these concerns must be addressed in line with
organisational goals for mutual benefits. Practitioners can therefore not be
disseminators of organisational information but active participants in the organisational
process as they seek a mutual understanding between the organisation and its
publics.
6.5. THE PROPOSED FRAMEWORK
The purpose of the present study is to develop a framework for effective PR practice
in the financial services sector. The framework is premised on the theoretical
statements discussed in literature and the findings, recommendations, and
conclusions of the study.
In the previous chapter, it was posited that PR is a continuous cycle. Hence the
framework should be considered as a continuous process premised on clusters and
non-linear components. The framework is perceived as a holistic view of the PR
process at the functional, organisational, and departmental levels, and must be
practiced simultaneously and not sequentially if it is to achieve its purpose.
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The framework consists of three main building blocks - strategic, relational and
symmetrical. Within the broader building blocks are clusters of activities that define
how the various building blocks should operate. Again, it must be emphasised that
these activities are not sequential but must be practiced simultaneously as one
depends on the other. The framework should therefore be viewed from a holistic and
integrated approach. The cluster of activities has equal levels of importance. Indeed,
some of the activities overlap hence one is not more important than the other. The
framework represents PR practice at both the theoretical level and communication role
level, especially at the managerial level, thus the absence of one invariably affects the
effectiveness of the others. It is posited that the framework will promote a proactive
approach to PR practice within the financial services sector. PR practitioners are at
the forefront of ensuring that their organisations are regarded as the first choice when
it comes to doing business. The framework therefore presents a proactive means by
which practitioners can engage in excellent PR in order to build and maintain
relationships that will stand the test of time.
Figure 6 below demonstrates the nature of the framework. It consists of the three key
building blocks, each with several characteristics that defines it:
Figure 6: Framework for excellent public relations practice in the FSS.
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6.5.1. Explanation of the framework
This section will discuss the three building blocks that form the framework and the
approaches that define each building block. It will start with the strategic building block,
followed by symmetrical and relational. As it is depicted in the figure above, the
development of the framework was premised on the theoretical statements which were
empirically verified through the findings of the study. A framework, as seen in the figure
above, is quite simple and easy to understand.
6.5.1. 1. Strategic Approach
In the literature it was posited that for PR to excel and contribute to organisational
effectiveness it must be practiced strategically. The results of the findings however
show this is mostly not the case in the financial services sector. This framework posits
that for PR to really contribute to the bottom-line in the financial services sector, it
should be strategic in nature. As the framework depicts, for PR practice to be really
effective, it must be founded on sound research. Since much of the activities of PR in
the sector are influenced more by informal research than formal scientific research,
practitioners are not likely to know the true effect of their programmes or the true
attitudes or perceptions of their constituents. Research ensures that practitioners are
able to develop comprehensive programmes that build trust, mutual satisfaction, and
commitment. However, these cannot be fully achieved if there is not much focus on
research. Tied to formative research is the need to engage in formal monitoring and
evaluation. Again, this is essential as knowledge and understanding of how
programmes are faring or have fared allows the practitioner to truly contribute to the
bottom-line. Environmental scanning and evaluation research are very relevant to the
relationship-building process.
For PR to be practiced strategically it must be based on knowledge and experience.
The senior PR manager must have essential knowledge of the field including the
theoretical underpinnings that influence the practice. Having professional knowledge
of the profession will influence the policies and programmes that practitioners adopt
to enhance organisational reputation. However, knowledge of the field should also
extend to the executive as this is crucial in their understanding of the field and how it
shapes organisational reputation. In addition, PR functions must be distinct from other
management functions, especially marketing. This is important if the PR department
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is to effectively sell the organisation rather than focus on selling the organisation’s
products and services. As the figure shows, PR managers should be empowered to
be part of the decision-making body. The ability to truly influence policy is dependent
on the ability to be an active member of the executive and one whose views are taken
seriously. This will also help change the mindset of the executive about PR being about
publicity and media. Finally, the communication functions of the various departments
should be integrative and coordinated by the PR department. This will allow for
message consistency. The recognition of the strategic role of the PR function is critical
to the success of PR programmes.
6.5.1.2. Symmetrical Approach
In line with the findings of the research and based on the literature reviewed, the
research proposes that PR in the financial services sector should be symmetrical.
However, it deviates from the much discussed total two-way symmetrical
communication. This framework posits that practicing both symmetrical and
asymmetrical communication is more ideal than focusing on the two-way symmetrical
communication.
For two-way communication to be really effective, it must be based on disclosure and
transparency. Symmetrical PR is dialogue-based and aimed at influencing behaviour
of management and key publics. Communication is enhanced because it is based on
shared values, common views, and understanding. The participants are both active.
Disclosure and transparency are indications that the views of key stakeholders are
considered important. This allows for the creation of a dynamic communication
environment that is built on trust and authenticity. However, disclosure cannot always
be complete . As expressed when discussing asymmetrical communication, there are
situations, especially in the financial services sector, when full disclosure will not be in
the interest of the organisation. Disclosure can therefore be full or limited depending
on the situation. Limited disclosure should be ethical in all situations. PR practitioners
are also socially responsible to the publics they serve, and open communication is
therefore important in gaining social legitimacy to operate. The framework therefore
suggests that practitioners in the financial services sector must engage in socially
responsible acts if they are to gain the trust of stakeholders. A key feature of
symmetrical communication is the notion of public consent. However, consent cannot
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be granted without the required information. It is therefore important for practitioners
to involve the publics on issues that concern them in order to gain their consent.
Socially responsible behaviour is ethical and important for practitioners. Practitioners
cannot expect to build long lasting relationships without seeking approval of the key
publics. Approval is based on truthful information. The symmetrical framework also
projects PR as ethical. In the effort to develop and sustain mutually beneficial
relationship, PR in the financial services sector must be based on ethical decision-
making. The central theme for two-way symmetrical communication is dialogue.
Gaining mutual understanding must, however, be guided by ethical considerations.
This means that both parties must treat each other with respect and openness. PR
practice must therefore be premised on sincerity, truthfulness, appropriateness, and
comprehensiveness if it is to be effective. This also ensures that practitioners are
accountable to their publics. Finally, in symmetrical PR, as suggested by the
framework, the notion of mutual interest is important for establishing a sustainable two-
way relationship. Reciprocity is based on the notion that people give as much as they
want to receive. Reciprocity is essential for the development of trust and goodwill in
any relationship. When there is mutual interest, the outcome is mutual satisfaction,
trust, and commitment to each other. Reciprocity also demonstrates a sense of
responsiveness to each other’s needs. When key stakeholders know that their needs
and concerns are always factored in the decision-making process, they are likely to
return the favour through recommendations, and positive coverage, among others.
6.5.1.3. Relational Approach
The third building block, relational PR, is premised on building a strong relationship
between the organisation and its stakeholders. Here the framework demonstrates that
building of beneficial relationships is dependent on a number of factors. Several
factors have been discussed in literature as defining relational PR. In this framework,
relational PR should be based on trust. Trust is the basis of all relationships. In an
environment filled with mistrust and suspicion, this approach becomes even more
critical for relationship building. Practitioners must work to build confidence in their
stakeholders to get them believing in the sector again. Publics should have confidence
in the ability of the organisation to take care of their investments. At the heart of PR is
relationship management. The purpose of PR is to establish and maintain relationship
between the organisation and key stakeholders on whom the success of the
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organisation depends. For PR to achieve its goal in the financial services sector,
stakeholders must believe in the message of the organisation. Trust and credibility are
two critical factors that a practitioner must possess. Trust is therefore essential in
gaining credibility with the stakeholders. In addition to trust, relationship must be based
on mutual cooperation between the organisation and key stakeholders. Mutual
cooperation is embedded in the systems theory which acknowledges the
interdependent nature of systems. Since the organisation and publics depend on each
other, supporting each other for mutual gain is essential. Practitioners must therefore
put in place policies to gain the cooperation of the publics. When publics are assured
that their concerns are viewed as legitimate, the relationship will be improved. The
opposite is also true where publics feel the organisation is only after its own self-
interest. Support for the organisation will diminish and the organisation is likely to
suffer. The relationship between the organisation and its publics should be strongly
cultivated where concerns raised are looked at in sincerity. When this happens, the
relationship will be regarded as based on mutual cooperation, which is fundamental
for trust. The relational approach should also be based on mutual commitment. For
the relationship to thrive, stakeholders must feel that the relationship is worth
maintaining. Commitment refers to a desire to continue the relationship between two
parties and thus every effort is expended to maintain it. Commitment occurs when
parties believe in the value of the relationship. The framework therefore demonstrates
that for effective PR to occur, it must be based on mutual commitment. If the
organisation sees the publics as key to their survival it will be committed to ensuring
that its publics are satisfied with their services. A satisfied public is also committed to
ensuring that the organisation gains societal acceptance and legitimacy. Ultimately,
commitment will lead to mutual satisfaction, loyalty, trust, and cooperation. Finally,
relational PR must be practiced at the interpersonal level. The research demonstrated
that interpersonal communication is very important in a culturally sensitive
environment like Ghana. In other words, the cultural environment does not allow one
to just do business without first establishing a relationship with the opinion leaders who
are very much held in high esteem by their subjects. Interpersonal relationship is
necessary to gain acceptance and help in times of need. Cultivating individual
relationship with key stakeholders is necessary to be able to advocate strongly on
behalf of the organisation. In the Ghanaian business environment, dealing with
communities, regulators and other influential individuals at the interpersonal level is
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regarded as a sign of deference. However interpersonal relationship must be based
on ethical values which bind the work of the practitioner. Interpersonal interaction can
be used as a driving force to influence mutual understanding, consensus, trust, and
credibility. By this, the PR practitioner creates goodwill between himself, and by
extension, the organisation and key stakeholders. Developing interpersonal
communication skills through training will be crucial to cultivating interpersonal
relationship.
Overall, relationships can be enhanced when practitioners in the financial services
sector practice communication that is premised on honesty and timeliness as well as
encouraging the free flow of important information that is of public interest. They must
also disseminate accurate information while correcting inaccurate information without
hesitation. They must also be sensitive to the cultural norms and beliefs while
engaging in communication activities that lead to mutual understanding. Crucially,
actions of practitioners must be based on ethical decisions.
6.6. FRAMEWORK JUSTIFICATION AND IMPLICATION FOR THEORY, POLICY
AND PRACTICE
The importance of any scientific research is that audiences must be able to relate to
the findings and also connect them to organisational challenges and what they already
know. The implementation of the framework will therefore enhance PR practice in the
financial services sector. The present study demonstrated that PR practice in the
financial services sector is fraught with certain challenges and can therefore not be
described as excellent. These challenges need to be addressed if PR practice in the
sector is to improve. The paucity of literature on the subject of excellent PR practice
in Ghana makes this study and its recommendations even more relevant. The present
study is therefore critical in its contribution to the existing body of knowledge on
excellent PR practice from a different cultural setting. The present framework presents
an opportunity for practitioners in the financial services sector to review their modus
operandi regarding the profession. The financial services sector is currently going
through serious credibility challenges and the framework will assist practitioners to
review their work and develop new policies that will enhance their work in rebuilding
the trust of a sector bedevilled with suspicion and mistrust.
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6.7. CONTRIBUTION OF THE STUDY
The main contribution of this study is the development of an integrated, non-sequential
framework for the practice of excellent public relations practice in the financial services
sector of Ghana. The study has provided insight into the nature of public relations
practice in Ghana. The framework was developed based on both theoretical/ literature
review and empirical evidence. The framework also makes a significant contribution
to the discussion on the practice of public relations from an African perspective. As far
as the researcher is aware, this framework is the first of its kind in Ghana and
contributes to the attempt by scholars on the continent to fashion a common theoretical
framework that underpins the practice on the continent. another contribution of the
study is that because the research was viewed from a practical point of view
(perspectives of practitioners) it was able to offer practical solution that will improve
efforts to manage reputation and contribute to organisational success. The solution is
aligned to the principles of the Excellence study as well as the unique cultural
environment of the country.
Since the objective of the research was to determine the conceptualisation and
practice of PR vis-à-vis western principles, it has created new knowledge for the
unique environment in Ghana in which there is the need for more research. The
researcher believes that this research contributes to the debates on the applicability
of the generic principles of excellent PR and specific applications in a different cultural
setting by offering a framework of the key variables influencing the practice of PR in
Ghana.
It is hoped that the framework will provide practical solution to practitioners not only
in the financial services sector, but also in other sectors (transference) as well as public
relations students embarking on a career in PR.
6.8. RECOMMENDATION FOR FURTHER RESEARCH
The present study showed that much can be learnt in how the excellence study is
practiced in different cultural settings. Also, in view of the fact that the present study
focused on the financial services sector only, the following is recommended in terms
of further research:
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One of the key issues that emerged from the research was attitudinal research
in developing PR programmes. It is therefore important to determine whether
communication strategies developed by practitioners are backed by formative
and evaluative research, and if so, what goes into this research.
There is also the need to conduct comprehensive research on measurement
and evaluation research and methods used for such research. This aspect was
highlighted in the current study. Much has been said about the importance of
measurement and evaluation and the tools used and a study in this area will
contribute to the wider discussion from an African perspective.
In relation to the issue of measurement and evaluation is the use of online
measurement and evaluation. This is also a weakness that the study
highlighted and it will be essential to investigate this.
The researcher also recommends a study into the knowledge, understanding,
and usage of models of PR by practitioners on a wider scale. The study
highlighted that some practitioners may not even be aware of the Excellence
theory let alone the symmetrical models of PR practice. The question then is
on what foundations are PR programmes are built on.
An interesting area that future research can also look at is evaluating
management perception and value of PR. This will contribute highly to the
debate on placement of PR within the organisational structure in an African
country like Ghana.
Finally, the framework can be tested on other sectors to determine if the result
will be the same or different. This will allow for a broader framework that can
regulate PR practice in Ghana.
6.9. CONCLUSION OF THE STUDY
The goal of this study was to develop a framework for PR practice in the financial
services sector. The study was premised on understanding the conceptualisation
and practice of PR in relation to the models (purpose) and roles (activities) in the
sector. Based on the result, an integrated non-sequential framework was proposed
that allowed for excellent PR that is strategic, symmetrical, and relational. The
framework, when practiced in its fullness, will provide the foundation for a solid
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based relationship that is long-term, especially in a sector lacking credibility
because of years of financial scandals.
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ADDENDUM A: One-on-one Interview guide
Section A: General questions
1. Can you tell me a little bit about yourself?
a. Your full designation
b. How long you have been working as a PR/communication practitioner
c. Educational background –certificate, diploma, masters
d. Formal education in public relations?
e. Age
f. What, in your view, is the main purpose of public relations
Section B: Public Relations models (purpose of public relations)
These set of questions seek to determine the models upon which PR is
conceptualised and practiced.
Press Agentry/publicity
Can you tell me the main purpose of the PR/communication department?
How do you measure/evaluate success after a PR programme?
How will you react to the view that the success of any PR programme is based on
the amount of publicity it receives?
Public Information
What role does media clippings play in the measurement of PR programme in your
department?
what is your view on the assertion that practitioners tend to disseminate accurate
information but keep unfavourable information from the public?
It has been suggested that practitioners serve as negotiators and mediators between
management and publics rather than neutral disseminators of information; what are
your views in relation to your work in this organisation?
In relation to what you do here, is the writing and production of stories for publication
given a priority over research? please explain?
Two-ay asymmetry
What is the position of the department concerning attitudinal research against the
organisation and how the organisation might change it before organising any PR
programme?
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What is the role of the department in relation to persuading publics/stakeholders to
act in line with organisational goals?
How do you evaluate the outcome of PR/communication programme? Is evaluative
research a core part of what you do?
Two-way symmetry
What is the role of the PR department concerning the development of mutual
understanding between the organisation and its publics/ key stakeholders?
How does the department use research (formal or informal) to determine the level of
understanding between management and the publics about each other?
What would you say to the view that PR’s purpose is to change behaviour and attitude
of management and vice versa?
What is the role of the department in relation to conflict between the organisation and
its stakeholders/publics?
Section C: Public Relations Roles (Activities)
This section will look at the activities currently performed by the PR/communication
department of the organisation.
Technician role
How does the department organise its media relations activities?
Does part of your activities involve organising special events? Why or why not?
What is the role of your department regarding the production of audio-visual
materials?
How do you project the activities of the organisation to the publics/stakeholders (e.g.
writing articles for publication)?
How will you describe the role of the department regarding production of
communication materials?
Managerial Role
How, if at all, are PR practitioners involved in strategic planning here?
What can you tell me about the place of PR within the organisational structure? Do
you report to the CEO? Why or why not?
One of the key responsibilities of a PR practitioner is to explain to top management
the impact of their behaviour on key publics. Is this the case in your situation?
In what ways do the department serve as an early warning systems to top
management before issues become crisis.
What is the role of the department in the development of communication strategies
to support corporate strategy?
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How is the department involved in:
Community relations/ corporate social responsibility?
Internal communication
What other PR activities does the department engage in?
What role does the department play in terms of being an advocate for key publics?
How will you describe the department’s role, if any, in initiating dialogue with special
groups/ associations that limit the autonomy of the organisation?
What role does the department play in the implementation of communication
strategies/ plans?
How does the department use research, if any, in its day to day activities?
Concluding questions
What, in your view, are some of the peculiar characteristics of the local PR industry?
Do you see a difference in the way it is practiced as compared to more developed
countries?
Do you suppose there are some political, cultural factors (collectivist, social
responsibility/ interpersonal/communal, participatory approach -
consultation/consensus) that affect PR practice in Ghana? if so, can you tell me
about it?
What suggestions, if any, can you give to improve the way PR is practiced in
Ghana?
Finally, can you tell me a little about the background of the PR/ communication
department (set up, staff strength)?
Thank you
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ADDEDUM B: Letter requesting permission to conduct research at the
financial organisations
Pentecost University College PO Box KN1739, Kaneshie Accra – Ghana Tel: 0244767223 Email: [email protected]
Dear Sir/Madam
REQUEST FOR PERMISSION TO CONDUCT INTERVIEW
My name is Albert Anani-Bossman, a lecturer at the Pentecost University College,
Sowutoum and a Communication Science student at the University of South Africa
(UNISA). I am conducting a research for my Doctoral thesis (PhD) on the topic
“Developing a framework for public relations practice: A study of the financial
services sector”. The aim is to determine the nature of public relations/
communication as practiced in Ghana by means of the models used (purpose) and
roles (activities) performed. In essence it seeks to determine whether
PR/communication is practiced in Ghana the same way as in the developed countries,
what models (if any) are used in the practice of public relations/communications, do
activities of practitioners reflect what is practiced in countries with well-developed
PR/communication systems especially in the age of globalisation or there are other
factors that are unique based on our culture, economic issues etc. The key outcome
of the research is to gain insight into how PR/communication is practiced not only in
Ghana but in Africa, especially as there is a paucity of literature on this subject. This
will contribute to the body of knowledge on PR practice and further increase
understanding of the unique features (or otherwise) that influences how
communication is practiced in African countries. The findings will aid in the
development of a framework that will guide the practice of PR in the financial services
sector
I am hereby seeking permission to interview you as part of my research participants.
The interview will be part of 22 other interviews that will be conducted with practitioners
in the financial services sector.
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Attached is an information sheet that gives details of the research and also addresses
CONFIDENTIALITY and ETHICAL issues. There is also a consent form that both the
participant and the researcher will sign before the interview takes place.
Sincerely
Albert Anani-Bossman
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18 January 2017
To Whom It May Concern,
RE: RESEARCH PROJECT ON THE PUBLIC RELATIONS ACTVITIES OF SELECTED ORGANISATIONS IN GHANA
We hereby request that you assist Mr. Albert Adjei Anani-Bossman (student number:
55716423) to collect relevant data as part of his PhD research project on the public relations
activities of selected organisations in Ghana. The title of his study is “Developing a public
relations framework for selected organisations in Ghana”. The study will shed light on how the
organisations use public relations to create and nourish stakeholder relationships. Significantly,
the study will produce a public relations framework for the selected organisations.
Thank you very much for your anticipated support and co-operation.
Yours Sincerely,
Dr Takalani Mudzanani Supervisor Department of Communication Science Tel: 012 429 6025 E-mail: [email protected]
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ADDEDUM C: consent information sheet and consent form
PARTICIPANT INFORMATION SHEET
Title: Developing a Framework for Public Relations Practice: A Study of the Financial
Services Sector
Dear Sir/Madam
Developing a Framework for Public Relations Practice: A Study of the Financial
Service Sector
My name is Albert Anani-Bossman and I am doing research with Dr. Takalani Mudzanani, a
Senior lecturer in the Department of Communication Science towards a Doctoral Degree at
the University of South Africa. We are inviting you to participate in a study entitled Developing
a Framework for Public Relations Practice: A study of the Financial Services Sector.
WHAT IS THE PURPOSE OF THE STUDY?
I am conducting this research to find out how PR/communication practitioners in Ghana
conceptualise and practice public relations in relation to the models (purpose) and roles
(activities). The study will gain insight into how PR is practiced and the factors that influence
such practice in a different cultural setting such as Ghana. This will contribute to the body of
knowledge on the subject, especially from an African perspective. and the factors that
influence
This study is expected to collect important information that would lead to the development of
a framework that will shape how PR is practiced within the financial services sector.
WHY AM I BEING INVITED TO PARTICIPATE?
You have been randomly selected as one of the participants in the study since you are the
head of public relations/communication in your organisation. Again we believe that your
experience in the field will lead to the provision of rich data that will shed light on how PR is
practiced in Ghana, more so as the literature on this subject is lacking.
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WHAT IS THE NATURE OF MY PARTICIPATION IN THIS STUDY?
Your role, should you choose to participate in this research, will be to provide the relevant
information based on the questions asked and also allow the researcher to take notes as well
as audio tape the interview. The audio taping will be for academic purposes only.
The questions will involve the purpose of PR practice as well as the various activities that you
perform in the department. The interview will not require you to expose any strategic plans of
your organisation so neither you nor the organisation will be at any risk.
The interview will take approximately 45 minutes to 1 hour
CAN I WITHDRAW FROM THIS STUDY EVEN AFTER HAVING AGREED TO
PARTICIPATE?
Participating in this study is voluntary and you are under no obligation to consent to
participation. If you do decide to take part, you will be given this information sheet to keep
and be asked to sign a written consent form. You are free to withdraw at any time and without
giving a reason.
WHAT ARE THE POTENTIAL BENEFITS OF TAKING PART IN THIS STUDY?
One of the key benefits of this study is that you would have contributed immensely towards
the growth of the body of knowledge on the subject, particularly from the perspective of a
developing country such as Ghana. Also insight gained will be used to develop a framework
that will guide the practice of public relations/ communication. your department/organisation
can benefit from the result by using it to enhance organisational effectiveness.
ARE THEIR ANY NEGATIVE CONSEQUENCES FOR ME IF I PARTICIPATE IN THE
RESEARCH PROJECT?
Responses will be kept confidential and at no time will your actual name or organisation be
revealed. You will be assigned a random code to ensure this anonymity. The transcript of the
interview will be kept pending the acceptance of my dissertation after which it will be
destroyed.
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WILL THE INFORMATION THAT I CONVEY TO THE RESEARCHER AND MY IDENTITY
BE KEPT CONFIDENTIAL?
At no point will your name or that of your organisation be revealed. With the exception of the
researcher and the supervisor, no one else will know of your identity or that of your
organisation. No one will therefore be able to connect you to the answers you give. Your
answers will be given a code number or a pseudonym and you will be referred to in this way
in the data, any publications, or other research reporting methods such as conference
proceedings.
Your answers may be reviewed by people responsible for making sure that research is done
properly, including the transcriber, external coder, and members of the Research Ethics
Review Committee. Otherwise, records that identify you will be available only to people
working on the study, unless you give permission for other people to see the records.
The result of the research may be used as the basis for journal articles or conference
proceedings in the future. However, neither your name or information would be used in any of
the publications
HOW WILL THE RESEARCHER(S) PROTECT THE SECURITY OF DATA?
Hard copies of your answers will be stored by the researcher for a period of five years in a
locked cupboard/filing cabinet at UNISA for future research or academic purposes; electronic
information will be stored on a password protected computer. Future use of the stored data
will be subject to further Research Ethics Review and approval if applicable. Hard copies of
the transcripts will be shredded and/or electronic copies will be permanently deleted from the
hard drive of the computer through the use of a relevant software programme.
WILL I RECEIVE PAYMENT OR ANY INCENTIVES FOR PARTICIPATING IN THIS
STUDY?
The research is voluntary and you will not be paid for the information. However, a copy of the
key findings will be given to you upon request.
HOW WILL I BE INFORMED OF THE FINDINGS/RESULTS OF THE RESEARCH?
If you would like to be informed of the final research findings, please contact Albert Anani-
Bossman on 0244767223 or [email protected]
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Should you require further information or want to contact the researcher about any aspect of
this study, please do so on the above details.
Should you have concerns about the way in which the research has been conducted, you may
contact Dr. Takalani Mudzanani. Tel: + 27124296025 or [email protected].
Thank you for taking time to read this information sheet and for participating in this study.
Thank you.
Albert Anani-Bossman
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CONSENT TO PARTICIPATE IN THIS STUDY
I, confirm that the person asking my consent to take part in this research
has told me about the nature, procedure, potential benefits and anticipated inconvenience of
participation.
I have read (or had explained to me) and understood the study as explained in the information
sheet.
I have had sufficient opportunity to ask questions and am prepared to participate in the study.
I understand that my participation is voluntary and that I am free to withdraw at any time without
penalty (if applicable).
I am aware that the findings of this study will be processed into a research report, journal
publications and/or conference proceedings, but that my participation will be kept confidential
unless otherwise specified.
I agree to the recording of the interview
I have received a signed copy of the informed consent agreement.
Participant Name & Surname………………….. ……………………………
Participant Signature……………………………………………..Date…………………
Researcher’s Name & Surname…… …… ……………..…………………
Researcher’s signature…………………………..Date…………………
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ADDENDUM D: Ethical clearance certificate
College of Human Sciences
Department of Communication Science
24 May 2017
Reference number: 2017_CHS_Staff_CommSt_010 Proposed title: Developing a Framework for Public Relations Practice: A Study of the Financial Services Sector. Principle investigator: Albert Anani-Bossman, Department of Communication Science
Approval status recommended by reviewers: Approved The Ethics Review Committee of the Department of communication Sciences at the University of South Africa has reviewed the research proposal and considers the methodological, technical and ethical aspects of the study to be appropriate. Albert is requested to maintain the confidentiality of all data collected from or about research participants, and maintain security procedures for the protection of privacy. The committee needs to be informed should any part of the research methodology as outlined in the Ethics application (Ref. Nr.2017_CHS_ Staff_CommSt_003) change in any way. It is the responsibility of the principal investigator to ensure that the research project adheres to the values and principles expressed in the UNISA Research Ethics Policy, which can be found at the following website: http://staffcmsys.unisa.ac.za/cmsys/staff/contents/departments/res_policies/docs/Policy%20on%20Research%20Ethics%20-%20rev%20appr%20-%20Council%20-%2015.09.2016.pdf This certificate is valid for two years. Sincerely
Prof K Khan Chair: Departmental Research Committee Department of Communication Science
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POLICY ON RESEARCH ETHICS
PART 2
GUIDELINES FOR RESEARCH INVOLVING HUMAN
PARTICIPANTS
1. BASIC PRINCIPLES FOR RESEARCH
1.1 Moral principles
UNISA promotes the following four internationally recognised moral
principles of ethics as bases for research:
autonomy (research should respect the autonomy, rights and dignity of research participants)
beneficence (research should make a positive contribution towards the welfare of
people)
non-maleficence (research should not cause harm to the research participant(s) in particular or to people in general)
justice (the benefits and risks of research should be fairly distributed among people)
These principles are not ranked in any order of preference. In
disputes a balance between the four principles should be pursued.
1.2 General ethics principles
In addition to, and expanding on, the above moral principles, the
following ten general ethics principles should be adhered to by
researchers. Again, the ethics principles may not, by themselves, resolve
all ethical problems and dilemmas which confront researchers.
Researchers may be required to balance the demands made by moral
principles of research and to privilege one principle over another,
depending on the context and circumstances of the research involved.
1.2.1 Essentiality and relevance
Before undertaking research adequate consideration should be
given to existing literature on the subject or to the issue under
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study, and to all available alternatives. In view of the scarcity of
resources in South Africa, it should be clearly demonstrated that
the research is in pursuit of knowledge and/or the public good.
1.2.2 Maximisation of public interest and of social justice
Research should be carried out for the benefit of society, and with
the motive of maximising public interest and social justice. All
efforts should be made to make public in an appropriate manner
and form, and at an appropriate time, information on the
research undertaken, as well as the results and implications of the
completed research.
1.2.3 Competence, ability and commitment to research
Researchers should be both personally and/or professionally
qualified for the research that they undertake. A commitment to
research in general and to the relevant subject in particular is
an essential prerequisite for good and
ethical research.
1.2.4 Respect for and protection of the rights and interests of participants and institutions
Researchers should respect and protect the dignity, privacy and confidentiality4 of participants and where relevant, institutions. Researchers should ensure that the personal information of participants used for research
purposes is adequately protected to prevent possible loss, damage
and/or unauthorised access as required by Protection of Personal
Information (POPI) Act, No. 4 of 2013. They should never expose
such participants and institutions to procedures or risks not
directly attached to the research project or its methodology.
Research and the pursuit of knowledge should not, in themselves,
be regarded as the supreme goal at the expense of the rights of
participants and institutions.
1.2.5 Informed and non-coerced consent
Autonomy requires that individuals’ participation should be
freely given, based on informed consent and for a specific
purpose, as required by the POPI Act. Direct or indirect coercion,
as well as undue inducement of people in the name of research
should be avoided. These act as barriers to autonomous decision
making and may result in people consenting against their better
judgment to participate in studies that may involve risks.
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1.2.6 Respect for cultural differences
Researchers should treat research participants as unique human
beings within the context of their community systems, and should
respect what could be traditionally sacred and secret. Research
should preferably be undertaken with, the members of an
identified community or communities rather than merely about
such community(ies). In some situations the consent of
“gatekeepers” may have to be obtained in addition to that of
research participants.
1.2.7 Justice, fairness and objectivity
Criteria for the selection of research participants should be fair,
as well as being scientific. Easily accessible individuals or groups
should not be inordinately burdened with repeated demands on
their time and knowledge by the researcher.
1.2.8 Integrity, transparency and accountability
The conduct of research should be honest, fair and transparent.
Researchers should be honest about their own limitations,
competence, belief systems, values and needs. The contribution of
other researchers or members of the research team should be
properly acknowledged. Researchers should not abuse their
positions or knowledge for personal power or gain.
1.2.9 Risk minimisation
Researchers should ensure that the actual benefits to be derived by
the
4 That is, the nondisclosure of personal information (e.g. direct quotations or identifiable images) to others. Participants may
consent to disclosure, preferably in writing.
participants or society generally from the research clearly
outweigh any possible risks, and that participants are subjected
only to those risks that are clearly necessary for the conduct of
the research. Researchers should ensure that these risks are
assessed and that adequate precautions are taken to minimise and
mitigate risk in line with the UNISA Research Ethics Risk
Assessment Standard Operating Procedure.
1.2.10 Non-exploitation
There should be no exploitation of research participants,
researchers (including students and junior members),
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communities, institutions or vulnerable people. The researchers
should ensure that the use of the participants’ personal
information is done in line with the requirements of the POPI Act
(4 of 2013) and should ensure that the information is not used for
unlawful and secondary purposes incompatible with the original
purpose consented by participants. There should be benefits to
the community in which research is conducted. As far as possible,
feedback should be given to participants and other relevant
stakeholders. When research is carried out with communities
they must receive feedback on the results of the research.
2. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN RESEARCHERS
AND PARTICIPANTS
2.1 Participants should be seen as indispensable and worthy partners in research. Researchers should respect and protect the rights and interests of participants at every stage and level of research and acknowledge their contribution.
2.2 The risks and benefits of the research to the prospective participants should be fully
weighed and the participants must be informed of them. Research that could lead to unnecessary physical, social and/or psychological harm should not be undertaken. Researchers should identify potential risks to participants and make provision for avoiding them. When risks form part of the conduct of the study, efforts should be made to mitigate the risks and protect the participants.
2.3 All steps should be taken to prevent harm (physical, psychological and/or spiritual) injury
or loss of opportunity to participants. In the event of that harm, injury or loss of opportunity should occur, It should be dealt with in accordance with the relevant policy and/or legislative frameworks.
2.4 If during the course of the research it becomes evident that a participant has suffered harm
in a way not foreseen by the researcher, this should immediately be reported to the university ERC and the relevant unit ERC for immediate investigation and action. Such action may, for example, include the need to refer the participant for counselling.
2.5 The criteria for selecting research participants should be fair.
2.6 A mutually beneficial agreement should be in place if a community or research setting is
used as a continuous and long-term resource for collecting data to be used for curricular research or training.
2.7 The relevant social, cultural and historical background of participants should be taken into
consideration in the planning and conduct of research.
2.8 Researchers should not infringe the autonomy of participants by resorting to coercion, undue influence or the promise of unrealistic benefits. Coercion may include taking undue advantage of individuals or abusing their participation in the research. Inducement may include a promise of material or financial gain, services or opportunities. No financial or other inducement should be offered to research
participants, whether children or adults, parents or guardians of
children. Reimbursement of expenses (e.g. transport costs, meals) or
compensation for the time or effort expended or any opportunity that
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may be lost is allowed, on condition that all participants are offered
similar reimbursement and that such reimbursement is only aimed at
recompensing the participants.
2.9 Participants should be informed of the existence of the UNISA Policy on Research Ethics and
given details of the Ethics Review Committee. The policy should be made available to them if it can help them make an informed decision regarding their participation. Participants may not be instructed by researchers to participate in research under conditions that can be burdensome, abusive or threatening or that have the potential to risk or abuse the researcher’s position. Unfairness or anything that prevents the participant from freely terminating his/her participation is not permissible nor should there be any negative implications should the participant choose to do so.
3. INFORMED CONSENT
3.1 Personal information should be collected in adherence to the Protection of Personal Information Act 4 of 2013.
3.2 The participation of individuals should be based on their freely given, specific and informed
consent. Researchers should respect their right at any stage to refuse to participate in particular aspects of the research or to decide to withdraw their previous given consent without demanding reasons or imposing penalties.
3.3 Participants should give their consent in writing and preferably accompanied by their
signature. They, in turn, should be given written information containing adequate details of the research, including any risks associated with the study. If participants refuse to provide their consent in writing, consent may be recorded verbally, provided that verbal consent can be linked to the individual providing such verbal consent. For example, where a participant is illiterate, consent should be obtained in the presence of a literate witness who should verify and sign a document stating that informed consent had been given. Where the research is done on-line or electronically, informed consent can be obtained electronically but in a format separate from the on- line research in order to protect the identity of the participant.
3.4 Consent for participation in research is freely given and informed if
3.4.1 it is given without any direct/indirect coercion or inducement.
3.4.2 prospective participants have been informed on the processing and purpose of
the intended research.
3.4.3 prospective participants have understood this information and have indicated so
as per paragraph 3.3.
3.4.4 the researcher has answered any question(s) about the research and their participation.
3.4.5 it is given before research commences.
3.5 If research is conducted in a foreign country, the relevant standards as set out in the UNISA
Research Ethics Policy will take precedence and will apply.
3.6 Non-disclosure of all information
3.6.1 In some situations the methodology or practicalities of a research project may
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necessitate the concealment of information. This may be due to the possibility that behaviour changes may result or responses be affected when such details are revealed to participants. In such a case the researcher should determine beforehand.
(a) whether the use of such a methodology is justified by its potential scientific,
educational or applied benefits
(b) whether alternative procedures which do not require the concealment of
information should rather be used
3.6.2 If the use of such methodology is deemed justified by the researcher, there are
steps which he/she should take:
(a) When obtaining informed consent a detailed justification for not revealing
all necessary information should be provided in the research proposal and methodology. This justification should be subject to scientific and ethical review by the relevant Ethics Review Committee. Only after the committee has given its approval should such research be undertaken.
(b) The participants' right to privacy, anonymity and confidentiality gains
additional importance in such cases as they do not know the real purpose or objectives for which they are providing information.
(c) Even should both scientific and ethical reviews allow that some of the
information about the study need not be revealed, participants should be provided with all other information. In no case, however, should researchers withhold information regarding risks, discomfort, unpleasant emotional experiences, or any such aspect that would be material in making the decision to participate.
(d) Participants should be given the reasons for not providing full information
as soon as is possible after completion of the research. Where needed, services such as counselling and referral should be offered.
3.7 Consent where gatekeepers or organisational structures are involved
3.7.1 It is the responsibility of the primary researcher to ensure compliance with the
research policy/directives of gatekeepers or organisational structures.
3.7.2 In some situations there may be a need to obtain permission from the “gatekeeper” to access the participants, information and/or research sites. Care should be taken in the following situations:
(a) Permission obtained from the gatekeeper may not be substituted for the
need to obtain separate and informed consent from the participants. The rights of participants in such a situation are the same as in all other cases.
(b) In the process of research or data collection, care should be taken to ensure
that the relationship between the gatekeeper and the participants is not jeopardised.
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3.8 Vulnerable participants
3.8.1 Researchers should be take particular care of the rights and interests of vulnerable participants.
3.8.2 Research results that can be obtained if carried out on adults should never be carried out on children. Children should participate only when their participation is indispensable to the research. The protection and best interests of children are of prime importance.
3.8.3 Therapeutic research or experimentation on a child under the age of 18 years may be conducted only if it is in the best interests of the child, and if the assent of the child (if he or she is capable of understanding) and the consent of his or her parent or guardian, has been obtained.
3.8.4 Non-therapeutic research or experimentation may only be conducted on a child
under the age of 18 years with the consent of the following persons: the Minister responsible for social development, the parent or guardian of the child, and the child if he or she is capable of understanding.
3.9 Where research involves the participation of persons unfamiliar with the language in which
the research is to be conducted, the principle researcher must ensure that:
3.9.1 the participant’s information statement has been translated into the participant’s language
3.9.2 it is his/her responsibility to ensure that the participant understands the
information statement he/she has been given
3.9.3 an interpreter is present during discussions with the participants about the
project. As a rule the interpreter should be independent, but when the research proposal is of minimal risk, a relevant language-speaking relative or friend of the
participant may be acceptable.
4. PRIVACY, ANONYMITY AND
CONFIDENTIALITY
4.1 All research participants have the right to privacy to the extent permitted by law or as directed by legal frameworks.
4.2 Privacy includes autonomy over personal information, anonymity and confidentiality,
especially if the research deals with stigmatising, sensitive or potentially damaging issues or information. When deciding on what information should be regarded as private and confidential, the perspective of the participant(s) on the matter should be respected.
4.3 All personal information and records provided by participants should remain confidential.
It should be made clear during data collection that confidentiality and anonymity will be safeguarded unless waived by the research participant. Whenever it is methodologically feasible, participants should be allowed to respond anonymously or under a pseudonym to protect their identity and privacy.
4.4 All personal information obtained directly or indirectly on or about the participants (e.g.
names obtained by researchers from hospital and school records), as well as information obtained in the course of research which may reveal the identity of participants, should
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remain confidential and anonymous. This guarantee should also be given when researchers ask consent to use data which is not already available within the public domain (e.g. classified data on prisoners held by the Department of Correctional Services).
4.5 In the case of observation (e.g. of a public scene) steps should be taken to ensure that the information will not be used or published in a form in which the individuals could be identified.
4.6 Researchers should maintain privacy, anonymity, and confidentiality of information in collecting, creating, storing, accessing, transferring and disposing of personal records and data under their control, whether these are written, automated or recorded in any other medium, including computer equipment, graphs, drawings, photographs, films or other
devices in which visual images are embodied.
4.7 Researchers should preserve research records for a minimum of five years (or as required
by policy or legal frameworks) after the submission of the report or the results.
4.8 Researchers should take reasonable technical and operational steps to ensure that research
records are stored in such a manner as to protect confidentiality of records and the anonymity of participants.
4.9 Codes or other identifiers should, where possible, be used to break obvious connections
between data and individuals/organisations/institutions. Where there is a mixture of information obtained from the public domain and that obtained with the participants’ informed consent, there should be no traceable link between the two sets of information.
4.10 Confidentiality and anonymity of participants and their localities should be maintained
when reporting to clients/sponsors/funders. Participants should not be identified or made identifiable in the report unless there are clear reasons for doing so. If the researcher or institution needs to identify participants or communities in the report, their informed consent allowing such disclosure should be obtained, preferably in writing.
4.11 Research findings published in the public domain (e.g. theses and articles) which relate to
specific participants (e.g. organisations or communities) should protect their privacy. Identifiers which could be traced back to the participants in the study should not be included. However, public interest may outweigh the right to privacy, and may require that participants be named in reports (e.g. when child labour is used by a firm).
4.12 Participants’ consent should be sought where data identifying them are to be shared with
individuals or organisations who are not part of the research team.
4.13 The obligation to maintain privacy, anonymity and confidentiality extends to the entire
research team, other researchers at UNISA, UNISA administrative employees, and all persons (from or outside UNISA) not directly associated with the research who may possibly have access to the information.
5. COLLABORATIVE RESEARCH INVOLVING
HUMAN PARTICIPANTS
5.1 In national and international collaborative research the parties are host institutions, collaborating institutions, researchers from both institutions, research participants and/or communities.
5.2 There should be clear justification for the need for and benefit of collaborative research.
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5.3 Research involving human participants must not commence without ethics approval by the Ethics Review Committees of all collaborating institutions. This requirement may be waivered under certain conditions by an Ethics Review Committee.
5.4 Research cannot commence without informed consent from participants and/or communities.
5.5 There may be no exploitation of institutions, researchers, research participants or communities.
5.6 Institutions and researchers should assist indigenous communities and traditional societies
to protect their knowledge and resources, and should respect that which is traditionally sacred and secret.
5.7 Researchers involved in international collaborative research should have some
understanding of, and be sensitive to, the social, economic and political conditions in which the research is carried out. This will alert them to the need to protect research participants who are, for example, subject to deprivations through poverty.
Acknowledgements and works consulted
1. Belmont Report (1978) (http://www.hhs.gpv/ohrp/humansubjects/guidance/belmont.htm)
2. Intellectual Property Amendments Bill of 2010
3. Protection of Personal Information Act 4 of 2013
4. South African Human Sciences Research Council Draft Code of Research Ethics
http://www.hsrc.ac.za/about/researchEthics/draftCode.html)
5. Stellenbosch University Framework Policy for the Assurance and Promotion of Ethically Accountable Research (http://www0.sun.ac.za/research/assets/files/Policy_Documents/Framework%20Policy_for_the
_Assurance_and_promotion_of_Ethically_Accountable_Research_at_SU.doc)
6. South African Medical Research Council Guidelines on Ethics for Medical Research: General Principles (Book 1) (2002)
7. University of Pretoria Code of Ethics for Research
(www.ais.up.ac.za/research/docs/code_ethics.pdf)
8. University of Johannesburg Research Policy and Strategy
(http://www.uj.ac.za/EN/Research/Research%20Information/Pages/ResearchPolicies.aspx)
9. University of Kwazulu-Natal Research Policy V (http://research.ukzn.ac.za/research-ethics/Overview.aspx)