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Desirable Supervisory Roles for CurriculumImprovementPai Obanya aa Institute of Education University of Ibadan , NigeriaPublished online: 28 Jul 2006.

To cite this article: Pai Obanya (1984) Desirable Supervisory Roles for Curriculum Improvement, School Organisation, 4:2,149-160, DOI: 10.1080/0260136840040207

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D e s i r a b l e S u p e r v i s o r y R o l e s f o r

C u r r i c u l u m I m p r o v e m e n t

Pai ObanyaInstitute of EducationUniversity of Ibadan, Nigeria

Introduction: Between-school and Within-schoolSupervision

A supervisor, in the school system, is someone formally charged with theresponsibility of ensuring that the machinery set in motion for theimplementation of educational policies functions effectively. In practice aschool system has a variety of persons who play supervisory roles. One canconveniently distinguish between persons engaged in within-school super-vision and-those engaged in between-school supervision. The first refers topeople supervising the delivery lines and activities of the individual schoolwithin a school system, while the latter refers to a supervision that is externalto the individual school in that those involved in it are persons specificallydesignated by the school system as persons responsible for ensuring that eachschool contributes adequately to the smooth running and the efficiency of theentire system.

Figure 1 shows the typical hierarchy of a within-school supervisionsystem. In each case the person immediately below is answerable to (i.e.being supervised by) the one above. The directions of the arrows show thetypical direction of'answerability'. It can be seen from the diagram that thereare, in some cases, multiple directions of answerability. This phenomenoncan be a potential cause of conflict in the school and can impede within-school supervision.

Between-school supervision is organized outside the individual school butthere is also a pattern of answerability established (formally or informally)between the individual school and the official organ of supervision. Figure 2is an attempt to show the pattern of answerability in this case moregraphically. Here, the inspectorate division of a Ministry of Education isanswerable to the Ministry. It has close links with the other professional armsas well as with the administrative and technical departments of the Ministry(this link is represented by curved lines on the diagram). The arrows showthe direction of answerability. Most inspectorate divisions of Ministries ofEducation have field inspectorate staff who operate along zonal or subjectarea lines. In the former arrangement the field inspector is an all-purpose

SCHOOL ORGANIZATION, 1984, VOL. 4, NO. 2,149-160

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Figure 1 A typical hierarchy pattern for within-school supervision

Heads o:

Teachin

Head of school

Assistant head

/

/

-

Students officers

Main body of students

\X

Figure 2 A Typical hierarchy pattern for between-school supervision

Ministry of Education

Inspectorate division Other professionaldivisions

Field supervisory staff

Supervisory staff of individualschools

Teaching and non-teaching staff of schools

Administrative andtechnicaldivisions

person who takes care of all between-school supervistory functions in a director local government area. The second arrangement provides for subjectspecialist supervisors who supervise the teaching of specific subjects in awider geographical area than that covered by the zonal supervisors.

There are cases in which supervisory staff at the headquarters of theMinistry deal with the supervisory staff of schools. One should also point out

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DESIRABLE SUPERVISORY ROLES FOR CURRICULUM IMPROVEMENT 151

that the schools can also be supervised by other arms of the Ministry ofEducation. The administrative and technical wings can, for example, offerguidance in financial, technical and management matters to schools. In mostcases, however, this is done through the officially designated supervisorystaff.

It appears from the discussion so far that every member of a schoolcommunity (including student officers) is a supervisor, since almost everyoneis supposed to contribute to ensuring that the school serves the purpose forwhich it was set up. We are however limiting the term 'supervision' to theperformance of officially designated supervisory roles in the school system.This will involve:

(a) co-ordinating the activites of a group of teaching staff;(b) ensuring the correct interpretation of educational policies;(c) serving as link between classroom teachers and others involved in

the educational enterprise;(d) helping other professional staff improve themselves and their

performance on a continuing basis.

These roles are performed both on within-school and between-schoolbases. This paper will accordingly deal specifically with Ministry ofEducation school supervisory staff and teachers in schools with 'duty posts' -principals, vice-principals, and heads of departments.

This paper is also specifically concerned with those aspects of schoolsupervisory roles aimed at curriculum improvement. This is in itself a termfor which some clarification will be necessary. The curriculum is regardedhere as 'what the school does to help educate the learner'. Schools havealways aimed at educating the learner but this should not be done in a staticway. The notion of curriculum improvement therefore implies a continuoussearch for relevance and appropriateness in educational policies, goals,objectives, materials and methods.

Curriculum improvement can be carried on in a systematic or a haphazardway, in a co-ordinated or a discordant manner. Up till about two decades agomost countries of the world approached curriculum improvement in ahaphazard and discordant manner. In Nigeria systematic curriculumdevelopment started with the national curriculum conference of 1969.Efforts at training people in curriculum development have multiplied sincethen. There is now a national curriculum centre (the Nigerian EducationalResearch Council). An area in which enough progress has not been made isthat of co-ordination. There are, for example, several federal governmentsponsored curriculum efrorts, e.g. the efforts of CESAC (ComparativeEducation Study and Adaptation Centre), of the National Language Centre,of the Book Development Council, the National Teachers' Institute, etc., theactivities of which are not co-ordinated by any central body. There are state-sponsored curriculum projects that are not known in other states. There areuniversity projects that are known neither in the Ministries of Education norin the schools. There are also scores of individual projects (particularly inNigerian universities) for which no central authority has a register.

The most important characteristic of systematic curriculum improvement

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is its emphasis on planned change. Presented schematically the process lookslike this:

(a) study of societalneeds

study of learnercharacteristics

study of nationaleducational policy

(b) seeking to under-stand key conceptsin educational goals

relating goals to thesociety, the schooland the learner

(c) seeking to be morespecific on educ-ational objectives

(d) continuouslyquerying theappropriateness ofobjectives, contents,methods, materials,etc.

drawing appropriatelessons from these

SITUATIONALANALYSIS

restating the goals in CURRICULUMmore specific terms OBJECTIVES(i.e. in terms ofconcrete school-related end-products)

seeking detailedanswers to the how,when, what of thecurriculum

taking appropriatedecisions/actions onaspects of thecurriculum

CONTENT,TEACHING,LEARNINGACTIVITIES,MATERIALS,METHODS

EVALUATION

It is the point of view of this paper that supervisors (both within-school andbetween-school) have desirable roles to play during all phases of a nation'scontinuous efforts at curriculum improvement. The rest of this paper willaccordingly discuss these roles.

Desirable Supervisory Roles for MeaningfulSituational Analysis

This is a phase of curriculum improvement which involves studying theprevailing situations in and around the school as well as the evolution ofgovernment policy guidelines on education. At the within-school level therole of the supervisor will be to:

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DESIRABLE SUPERVISORY ROLES FOR CURRICULUM IMPROVEMENT 153

(a) set up a procedure for collection of data on learner characteristics(age, interests, achievements, etc.) as well as on school facilitiesand problems;

(b) get every teacher to be involved in the collection and classificationof such data;

(c) keep adequate and appropriate records of data collected tofacilitate decision-making at other phases of curriculumimprovement.

Responsibilites can be delegated in various ways here. Data on students'characteristics (these are continually changing) can be collected by classteachers who then report to the vice-principal. Data on achievement inspecific subjects, as well as on attitudes, can be collected by subject teacherswho are supervised by heads of departments, who in turn are answerable tothe principal through the vice-principal. Data on school equipment (librarytexts, non-text teaching materials, laboratory equipment, etc.) can becollected by non-teaching staff (librarians, laboratory staff, etc.). Where suchstaff do not exist teachers can be assigned the responsibility under the generalsupervision of more senior members of staff who are again answerable to theprincipal through the vice-principal.

Data collection and record-keeping are areas which need to be fullydeveloped in our schools. The absence of data on students' performance,student enrolment, the development of students' attitudes and interests, etc.impedes the work of curriculum improvement within the school. It alsoreduces the usability of information sent from the school to the Ministry andimpedes government decision-making and execution.

Between-school supervision during this phase of curriculum improvementshould aim at strengthening data collection and record-keeping in individualschools. This will entail:

(a) standardizing the instruments and procedure for data collection;(b) controlling the quality of record-keeping;(c) collating data and records from individual schools as input into a

central data pool.

Between-school supervisors will also have to help in getting governmentpolicy statements to schools. The current practice is one in which veryimportant documents like the 1977 National Policy on Education, the Reportof the Implementation Committee, major decisions of the Joint ConsultativeCommitte on Education (JCC) and of the National Council on Education,policy statements by Ministries of Education, etc., get to schools in awatered-down form through abstracts in the mass media. It may be necessaryfor the professional supervisory wings of Ministries of Education to establishcommunication channels (newsletters, distribution of essential documents,talks on recent developments, etc.) with schools and teachers to acquaintthem with evolutions in government educational policies. This is a necessaryfirst step in ensuring that schools infuse government policies into curriculumobjectives, materials and methods.

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Desirable Supervisory Roles for the Determinationof Appropriate Curriculum Objectives

Schools are used to adopting centrally imposed syllabuses (or curriculumcontent). In most cases examination requirements constitute the curriculumof our schools. To ensure that each school really caters for the needs of itsown student population, teachers will have to be trained and helped todetermine school-specific curriculum objectives, that is, objectives designed tomeet the specific learning needs of the children in each school.

Within-school supervision will have to undertake the bulk of the taskinvolved during this phase of curriculum improvement.

Younger and less experienced teachers will have to work under thesupervision of their more senior colleagues to derive instructional objectivesthat have a bearing on the observed and predicted learning needs of learners.Subject-specific objectives will need to be formulated for every level ofinstruction (i.e. every class in the school). Such efforts would have to besupervised and co-ordinated by heads of departments who are answerable tothe principal through the vice-principal. Co-ordination will also have to bedone across subject areas. This is to ensure that the objectives assigned toeach subject have a bearing on the general objectives of the school. It alsohelps in ensuring horizontal integration of the efforts of teachers. In thiscontext higher level supervision within the school will be necessary, perhapsat the level of the vice-principal.

Between-school supervision will be concerned with ensuring that theindividual school, in its efforts to be school-specific, does not deviateunnecessarily from national curriculum objectives. Each school will have tostrike a balance between two poles in this regard. The national curriculumobjectives are at one pole while the need to relate school curriculumobjectives to the learning needs of the student population is at the other. Bothpoles have to be taken care of and between-school supervision has to ensurethat this is done. Between-school supervision should also help with theexchange and borrowing of ideas and practices from one school to another.Where an approach is found to work it can be sold to teachers in other schoolsworking in similar circumstances.

Desirable Supervisory Roles for the Improvementof Content, Materials, and Methods

This is the phase which involves drawing up and reviewing teachingsyllabuses, selecting, developing, and reviewing teaching materials, andadopting and reviewing strategies for fostering classroom learning. The bulkof the work of supervision is usually concentrated here. It would perhaps bebetter for supervisors (whether within-school or between-school) to relatethe work they do here to whatever has gone on during other phases ofcurriculum improvement.

At the within-school level, efforts should be geared towards the organi-zation of team work. This will be necessary both within subjects and acrosssubjects. Every effort should be made to ensure that every member of the

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teaching team participates in whatever work is to be done. This ensures thateveryone understands the rationale of what is being done and how it is to bedone. More important still, everyone learns in the process of participating.

In developing or reviewing syllabuses and teaching materials the tasks canbe broken down according to individual subjects and individual levels ofinstruction. For specific subjects the work of individual teachers can besupervised by heads of departments. It is also, possible, in large institutions,to have sub-heads in charge of specific subjects within a subject area. One canhave, for example, a sub-head in charge of Physics in the subject area ofScience or a sub-head in charge of Efik in the language subject area. Suchpersons will share out responsibilities to their colleagues, and supervise andco-ordinate their efforts. Each supervisor, or sub-supervisor, thereforebecomes a team leader who should:

(a) understand the abilities and limitations of his colleagues;(b) be capable of helping each member of the team to further develop

his capabilities and remedy his weaknesses;(c) be able to communicate with his colleagues in the professional and

phatic language they understand;(d) command the respect of his colleagues.

All these team-leading activities can go into all the various categories ofwork demanded of teachers during this phase of curriculum improvement.For syllabus design, for example, the supervisor (team leader) has the task ofensuring that every member of the teaching team:

(a) understands the objectives of the school syllabus in general and ofspecific school subjects;

(b) joins in the preliminary discussions that go into deciding whatshould go into the syllabus, how the content should be ordered,what specific skills, attitudes and values should be stressed in eachcontent area, and the amount of time and effort to be devoted toeach content area;

(c) knows what is going on in other subject areas to ensure a cross-fertilization of ideas and horizontal integration in curriculumcontent;

(d) undertakes specific responsibilities related to syllabus design andrevision (i.e. ensuring that every member of the team reallycontributes something - ideas, practical work, etc.).

For the selection of material for teaching and learning, within-schoolsupervisors will have to help in ensuring that selected material meets thespecific learning needs of the students of the school. Such supervisors willalso help with deciding where supplementary material will be necessary, theform such material should take, and how it can be made or obtained. If it is tobe purchased, the task of bulk purchase may have to be undertaken bypersons designated by within-school supervisors. If it is to be made, teachersand their immediate supervisors will have to identify persons who can makeit. These can be either teachers or pupils with special talents in painting,

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drawing, carving, moulding, photography, etc. The efforts of such peoplewill also need to be co-ordinated to avoid duplication and waste of efforts.

The most important, but often neglected, aspect of curriculum materialdevelopment is that which deals with storage and retrieval. Within-schoolsupervisors will have to organize this. It may be necessary to start bydecentralizing efforts here. There will be need to work first along subjectlines and along levels of instruction. It will also be necessary to identifymaterials that will be usable across subject lines. In addition, materials haveto be correctly labelled and stored in such a way as to make them easilyretrievable. Moreover, occasional catalogues can be published (under thesupervision of a person specially designated for the job by the principal) ofavailable teaching material and the use to which it can be put.

Within-school supervision also has to be extended into the area of pupil-teacher-material interaction in and out of the classroom. Heads of depart-ments can prepare general guidelines on teaching methods for specificsubject areas. Such guidelines should be prepared in consultation with othermembers of the teaching staff and be revised periodically. They can be usedin inducting untrained and/or inexperienced teachers. The school should, inaddition, have general guidelines on teaching strategies applicable to allsubjects. A good example of these will be strategies that stress themaximization of pupil participation and the practicalization of classroomlessons.

Within-school supervisors can also arrange for teachers who have be-nefited from in-service programmes on material development and teachingmethods to share their experience with other members of staff. This can bedone through the circulation and discussion of the reports of such courses,through demonstration of new materials and methods, etc. By so doing theschool will be helping to ensure that each in-service programme has amultiplier effect on curriculum improvement.

Between-school supervisory efforts in this phase will fall into three maincategories - standardization, reinforcement, and the provision of opportu-nities for the continuous improvement of school staff. Standardizationimplies ensuring that the individual school does not become too idiosyn-cratic. The individuality of each school should be maintained. Each schoolshould be encouraged to develop its own teaching syllabuses, to adapt, select,and develop appropriate teaching materials, to develop school-specificteaching strategies. At the same time the school should not deviate too muchfrom national policy guidelines. It should also keep as closely as possible tocurriculum objectives. Between-school supervisors have to ensure that thisdoes not happen; that while each school is doing its own thing, probably in itsown way, it is working towards the attainment of the same goals as otherschools in the same society.

Reinforcement implies that between-school supervision should aim atstrengthening the efforts made at the within-school level. Where individualschools have their own resources (particular personnel) this will be limited toperiodic inspection and consultation. Where such resources are lacking (andthis is more often the case) the consultations will be more frequent.

The third main task of the between-school inspector involves ensuringthat school teachers are constantly up-dating their knowledge and skills in

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the areas of material development, syllabus design and teaching methods.-This can be done in a variety of ways, depending on circumstances. Formal,regular, in-service courses can be organized for inculcating, examining andspreading new ideas. Newsletters from the inspectorate arm of the Ministrycan publish abstracts of new ideas, of research relevant to curriculumimprovement, of innovative practices in nearby schools, of successfulexperiments by teachers in classroom situations, of new books and otherteaching materials, etc. Between-school supervision could also train thetrainer, that is, improve the skills of the within-school supervisor to enablehim to do most of the work of supervision locally. Whatever the form takenby the input from between-school inspection it has to be based on the needsof specific teachers and of specific schools. This implies that the mostimportant between-school supervisory role here is knowing what the schoolsare and what they are doing or are not doing, in order to be able to launchthem in the correct way on the path to curriculum improvement.

Desirable Supervisory Role for EfficientCurriculum Evaluation

In this phase the major supervisory role is to get teachers to accept the all-embracing view of educational evaluation, that is, that evaluation, asfeedback and guide to curriculum improvement, goes beyond merelyevaluating student performance. Instead it involves the evaluation ofantecedent conditions (prior to the introduction of a curriculum or to thebeginning of instruction), of the goings-on during the use of curriculummaterials for teaching and learning, and of both cognitive and non-congitiveoutcomes of instruction. In other words, evaluation is supposed to go onduring the other phases of curriculum development already discussed (apractice usually referred to as formative evaluation) as well as towards the'end' of the process of instruction and of curriculum development-a practiceknown as summative evaluation.

Within-school supervision has to set in motion the. machinery forevaluation. Procedures and techniques for the evaluation of materials andmethods will have to be worked out by within-school supervisors, afterconsultation with their colleagues. It is possible, and advisable, to developformal evaluation instruments like structured interview schedules, tests, andquestionnaires. It is also possible to start with less formal approaches(unstructured interviews and observations together with teacher-made tests,followed by departmental and whole-staff discussion of findings). Suchdiscussions should always aim at finding ways of improving the schoolcurriculum.

An important area in which within-school supervision will need toconcentrate a great deal of its efforts is that of continuous assessment ofstudents' achievement. This is something that is receiving increasingemphasis in government policy statements. Educationalists agree that it is abetter way of assessing student performance and that it provides essentialfeedback for the continuous improvement of curriculum and instruction. Yetmany Nigerian schools have still to formalize the practice of continuous

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assessment. Here again, within-school practice may have to be decentralizedalong subject lines. Heads of departments will have to oversee the develop-ment of tests that cover specific chunks (or units) of the syllabus of a subjectat each level of instruction. Such tests can be analysed after they have beenused, then 'corrected' (i.e. enriched with necessary amendments), and kept(stored and correctly labelled for future use). Heads of departments shouldalso oversee the record-keeping necessary for the efficient use of continuousassessment for reaching decisions on the fate of children and of instructionalmaterials. Arrangements can be made within the school to improve the testconstruction and interpretation competence of teachers.

Another important area in which within-school supervisors will need towork hard is that of the evaluation of the non-cognitive aspects of schoollearning and of the development of appropriate instruments and techniquesfor doing the job. Thus, within-school supervisors have to help in trainingother teachers in the use of questionnaires, rating scales, observationinstruments, and interview schedules. Such training will facilitate thecollection of data on children's attitudes, opinions and interests, on theperfromance of teachers, etc. Such data is of immense value for decision-making on the appropriateness or otherwise of the school curriculum.

Between-school supervision for efficient curriculum evaluation will, as wesaid while discussing the other phases of curriculum improvement, centrearound standardization, reinforcing the efforts of within-school supervision,and providing information on recent developments. In a relatively new arealike evaluation, between-school supervisors will have to help in re-orientation programmes for within-school supervisors. They will also needto oversee what they are doing in their schools and give advice where andwhen necessary. When they discover successful ideas and practices in certainschools they should make these available to other schools. They should alsomake available to schools and teachers sources of current information (books,journals, etc.) as well as of continuous self-improvement (conferences,courses, workshops, etc.).

Conclusions

A major point of clarification that needs to be made in concluding thisdiscussion is that, in practice, curriculum improvement does not follow thelinear model adopted in this paper. The movement is in fact more zig-zag.The first American efforts at systematic curriculum improvement weresparked off by a crisis - Russia's landing of rockets on the moon. This led topublic discussions on the appropriateness of American school programmes,especially in Mathematics and the Sciences. Consequently the publicdiscussions led to a spate of curriculum development projects some of whichhave found their way to Africa.

In Africa the challenges of independence, and the demand for high-levelmanpower, for an educational system suited to the needs of the African child,etc., has led to a curriculum crisis. This is still being tackled everywhere inAfrica with the establishment of national curriculum centres, with reforms inthe school system, with the mounting of new curriculum projects, etc.

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In Nigeria we witnessed the national debate on 'modern' Mathematics in1977-8. This has led to mathematicians and educators taking a second look atthe programme of Mathematics in our schools. There has also been publicoutcry on the poor performance of students at the school certificateexaminations. Within each school, curriculum crises arise now and again. Asthey arise teachers and within-school and between-school supervisors areprompted to re-examine a number of issues - the objectives of instruction,the needs of the present-day child, the perfromance of teachers, thepreparation of teachers, the availability and suitability of curriculummaterials, the appropriateness of examination systems, etc.

There will always be curriculum crises in our schools because changingtimes will make new demands on our society, our learners, our teachers, ourcurriculum, and our schools. What is important is that we should always bealive to these changing demands. To be systematic in our continuouscurriculum improvement efforts is not so much a question of going fromsituational analysis down the line to curriculum evaluation, like counting 1 to10. What is required is the avoidance of piecemeal solutions. A curriculumcrisis has to be looked at in all its ramifications so that the solving of oneproblem does not create more serious ones.

What part does the supervisor have to play here? This paper seems toassign most of the task to within-school supervision. Within-school effortsare important because they allow the organization and conduct of super-vision to be an everyday affair by persons who deal directly with situations inthe school. This also appears to be a good approach in an era of acute shortageof supervisory capacity in our Ministries of Education. For the between-school supervisor we would recommend the tasks of co-ordination, ofstandardization, and of the provision of training opportunities for within-school supervisory staff.

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