Designing Challenging Curriculum

Backward DesignAmy Childre

Jennifer R. Sands

Sanndra Tanner Pope

Mrs. Kintiey loves sdence—she jusi

wishes that her students were as etithu-

siastic about the subject as .s/ie (5. She

covers all the information in the text-

book wiih lectures and ¡\)werPoint

tiotes, and even includes an experiment

at the end of most units. Even with all

of this, iwr students at best memorize

infonnation for a test: they never retain

it beyond the test. In the last unit she

covered, her students kept cotnplaining,

"Why do we have to know this?" "This

is not going to help me in life. " How

can she get her students excited about

learning? How can she help them to

truly understand the content and how

it relates to their lives?

As teachers respond to the mandates ofthe No Child Left Behind Act of 2001and contemplate the import of researchdocumenting poor learning outcomesfor students with disabiiities, the keychallenge is to design curriculum andinstruction that facilitate understand-ing, retention, and generalization [Bul-gren. Deshler. & Lenz, 2007). To meetthis challenge and adequately preparestudents to meet curricular standards,teachers must reach beyond past prac-tices of teaching for curriculum expo-sure and utilizing books as curricularguides (Carnine, 1991; Gersten, Baker.Smith-Johnson, Dimino, & Peterson,2006). This requires a paradigm shift inwhich textbooks are one of a variety of

teaching tools rather than the solebasis for daily teaching.

The move away from textbook-driven curriculum, though, is not anovel approach. It is rooted in the con-structivist approach currently findingfavor in education through the work ofeducational theorists applying theapproach in curriculum design models(Wiggins & McTighe, 2006). Past andcurrent applications of constructiuistnfocus on how students constructunderstanding. Students' prior knowl-edge and experiences are organizedinto schema, patterns, and connectionsfor understanding and remembering.Key to ali applications of construc-tivism is that children need opportuni-ties to connect their prior knowledgeand experiences with new informationthrough their own thought processesand through interactions with othersand the environment (Scruggs &Mastropieri, 1994). Such opportunitiesallow students to use their schema as abasis on which to buiid a frameworkfor understanding new ideas and infor-mation. Through this gradual buildingor scaffolding of knowledge and skills,students can be supported to movebeyond rote knowledge and developdepth of understanding.

Curriculum design is at the centerof developing student ability to con-struct understanding. Without appro-priately designed curriculum, instruc-tion can be ineffective at scaffolding

6 COUNCIL FOR EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN

Targeting Depthof Understandingfor All Learners

understanding. Often students with dis-abilities need more explicit instructionor guidance in applying their schemato new information (Mastropieri,Scruggs, & Butcher, 1997). Thus,instruction must not only be carefullyscaffolded; it must also address stu-dents' unique learning needs (see"What Does the Literature Say AboutEngaging Students and Responding toSpecial Learning Needs?").

Why do so many students fail todevelop understanding of key conceptswithin content? The answer is thatinstruction is too often driven by text-books, lectures, worksheets, and activi-ties that fail to make learning relevant

sive classrooms with students with dis-abilities and across content areas andgrade levels.

The Backward Design Approach

Teacher understanding of Ihe differencebetween student knowledge and stu-dent understanding is critical to imple-menting a backward design approach.Just because a student can memorizefacts for a test does not mean heunderstands what they mean. Forexample, a student may know that thetilt of the earth's axis causes theearth's seasons because he memorizedthe fact. However, he may have noidea how the tilt actually causes the

Children need opportunities to connect their prior knowledge and

experiences with new information through their own thought processes

and through interactions with others and the environment.

for students (Scruggs, Mastropieri, &McDuffie, 2007) and are not groundedin curricular standards. Designing cur-riculum and instruction that scaffoldslearning is a vast paradigm shift formany teachers and may require retrain-ing of teaching methods. One designapproach that has been highly usefulior retraining teachers to design cur-riculum for scaffolding learning is thebackward design approach (Wiggins &McTighe, 2006), easily utilized withgeneral education curriculum. Thisapproach can be implemented in inclu-

seasons; if asked to explain his answer,he would be unable to articulate anexplanation.

Developing instruction that targetssuch level of understanding requiresthoughtful planning and the backwarddesign steps can serve as a guide.Authors Wiggins and McTighe (2006)argue that you cannot plan how you'regoing to teach until you know exactlywhat you want your students to learn:backward design planning focuses onlearning outcomes, and standards andthe assessments for accomplishing

What Doe$ the Literature SayAbout Engaging Students andResponding to Special LearningNeeds?

Scruggs, Mastropieri, Rakken, &Brigham (1993) found that studentsengaged in an inquiry-oriented andexperiential science curriculum per-formed better on end-of-unit testsand follow-up tests as compared tostudents whose curriculum utilizeda textbook approach, Furtherresearch has indicated fewer disci-pline problems (e.g., suspensions,behavioral conferences, vandalism)when students are engaged in ahands-on, experiential curriculum(Cawley, Hayden, Cade, Ä Baker-Kroczynski, 2002). Development ofsocial and personal responsibilityoften accompanies decrease in nega-tive behaviors.

Despite these benefits, studentswith disabilities may still need indi-vidualized support and accommoda-tions to benefit from classroomsemploying experiential or otheractive learning methods (Deshler.Schumaker, Lenz, et al., 2001).Research indicates that studentswith disabilities—especially studentswith mild intellectual disabilities-need to receive increased training inresearch-based learning strategiesand increased guidance to directtheir knowledge construction(Deshler, Schumaker, Lenz, el al.;Scruggs & Mastropieri, 1994). Thelevel of support needed must bedetermined by ongoing formativeassessment of student understand-ing and knowledge construction(Scruggs la Mastropieri). Such learn-ing needs do not necessitate arestrictive learning environment;general education classrooms utiliz-ing active learning, ongoing assess-ment, and appropriate supporistrategies are supportive learningenvironments that can optimize stu-dent learning and potential for stu-dents with disabilities (Schumakeret al, 2002),

TEACHING ExCEiTioNAL CHILDREN | MAY/JUNE 2009 7

those standards. These assessmentsthen guide Ihe development of thelearning activities (i.e., instruction andactivities). With the learning outcomesclearly articulated as assessments, cre-ating learning activities that scaffoldunderstanding toward those outcomesis a more straightforward process.Applying this approach in classroomswith students with disabilities involvesfour key steps.

Step 1: Identify Learners

Knowing your learners is foundationalto designing curriculum (Bulgren el al,.2007}. Prior knowledge, experiences,

Accommodations must be woventhroughout the fabric of instruction;never should they be an afterthought,an add-on to a lesson. For studentswith disabilities, accommodations arean integral component to scaffoldingunderstanding (Bulgren et al., 2007}.

Step 2: Identify Curricular Priorities

Detenmiie Stale and Local Siati-dards. State and local standards willfocus the unit. Some teachers havemore freedom in this decision, whear-eas others have strict parameters. Forinstance, some school systems publishpacing guides to outline curricuiar

For students with disabilities, accommodations arean integral component to scaffolding understanding.

and interests students bring to theclassroom—as well as special learningor behavioral needs—influence studentlearning. Thus, learner needs shouldbe considered throughout all steps ofthe design process.

Identify Classroom Needs. First,identify the class targeted with the cur-ricuiar unit. Beyond general informa-tion such as grade and subject, it isimportant to consider the contextualvariables that impact your studentsand shape their experiences outside ofschool. Consider such factors as com-munity location, resources, socioeco-nomic level, extracurricular activities,and educational background, all ofwhich have an immense impact on stu-dents and the prior knowledge andschémas they bring to the classroom.

Identify Individual Student Needs.Second, you must identify learnerswho have special needs and determinetheir individual learning needs. Ateacher should he intimately aware ofeach individual student's strengths andweaknesses, how a student's disabilityimpacts learning, and what techniquesor accommodalions are necessary losupport the student's learning. Identi-fication of these needs and supportsmust be in place before a teacher candesign appropriate assessment andlearning activities, because studentneeds must shape instructional design.

requirements; in some schools, teach-ers work in teams to determine contentto target; in yet other schools, individ-ual teachers determine how and whenthey will address specific standards.Regardless of how curdcular prioritiesare chosen, (he steps of the processwork the same; The standards serve asthe learning goals that will shape theinstructional unit.

li you are determining your ownstandards, choose a key standard todrive the unit that targets deeper andbroader understanding, a standard thatencompasses or readily bridges toother standards. For instance, withsocial studies standards related loAfrica, a standard on African civil waris a broad issue that could incorporateother standards (e.g., natural resources,geographic locations, the independencemovement, political development}, Tofurther enhance your unit, considertiming. Design units around standardsthat address current news topics (e.g.,teaching about the role of the judicialbranch in government as the SupremeCourt reviews a holly debated issue} ortarget standards during times of theyear when key teaching resources areavailable (e.g.. a unit on ecosystemstaught during spring would offer muchmore opportunity for experientiallearning than if taught in inclementwinter weather).

Create Essential Questions, Essentialquestions frame the standards of iheunit in a way that hooks or engageslearners, and serve to bridge the stan-dards and the curriculum by guidingstudents in creating meaning aroundthe standards (Bulgren et al., 2007).Well-written essential questions piquestudent curiosity and draw them intothe subject, encouraging learningbeyond rote memorization, ideally anessential question is not answered aftera single lesson, but is continually revis-ited througiiout a unil. Whal should bemost clear to students from the essen-tial question is that their job is inquiry,not just a simple answer (Wiggins &McTighe, 2006). Revisiting the essentialquestions throughout a unit keeps stu-dents focused on the "big ideas" sothat they continually consider how thevarious learning tasks and content con-tribute to their understanding of themajor goals or standards of the unit.

Identify Prerequi.'iite Knowledge andSkills. Because scaffolding studentlearning is critical to the developmentof schema and student understanding(Carnine, 1991), examine your slan-dards and consider if there are prereq-uisite knowledge and skills studentsneed to successfully accomplish theidentified learning standards. Failing toconsider necessary prerequisite know!edge and skills is a frequent mistake ofbeginning teachers, but it also occurswith experienced teachers. For begin-ning teachers the mistake may involvefailing to recognize prerequisite contentknowledge or skills needed to accom-plish a standard (such as a teacher cre-ating a unit on budgeting without firstensuring students have prerequisitemath knowledge and skills}. For expe-rienced teachers, the gap is more oftenin recognizing the enabling skills thatstudents need to convey content in themanner requested. Students might per-form poorly when expected to engagein debate, research, or group work, notbecause they fail to understand thecontent but because they do not havethe skills for conveying knowledge inthe manner requested.

If the class does not possess pre-requisite skills, consider how to pro-ceed. Are the prerequisites minimal

8 COUNCIL FOR EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN

such that they could be adequatelyaddressed within the unit? Would theunit be more constructive later in theyear after other prerequisite standardshave been taught? Also, consider indi-vidual students. Are there individualswho do not possess prerequisiteknowledge and skills [e.g., spellingskills for a writing unit) due to disabili-ty? If so, consider accommodations bemade so they can successfully partici-pate. As you move forward, you willfind it useful to revisit this step toensure students have prerequisitektiowledge and skills for successfulcompletion of all components of theunii.

Step 3: Design AssessmentFrame>vork

In this step, you develop the assess-ments used to determine if studentshave mastered the standards. The keyquestion is "What evidence willdemonstrate student understanding ofthe unit standards?" Evidence is nevera single assessment product (Swanson& Deshler, 2003). Ongoing and frequentassessment is fundamental to scaffold-ing student understanding. Also key isa framework of assessments that grad-ually btiild student ability to useknowledge and skills at increasinglysophisticated levels. The aim is tomove students beyond the recall ofmemorized facts to deeper understand-ing of the meaning of content inapplied contexts and in relation toother concepts. The understanding tar-geted within each unit varies depend-ing on the standards, but students canreach deeper understanding throughassessments that require explanation,interpretation, application, analysis,synthesis, and self-evaluation. To targetthis depth of understanding, build anassessment framework including thefollowing types of assessments(Wiggins & McTighe, 2006).

Performance Tasks or Projects.Create one or two tasks or projects thatrequire students to demonstrate depthof understanding of major or overallunit concepts. This assessment willserve .is the anchor to your unit. Aperformance task or project shouldchallenge students to use the content

in a flexible way to answer or solveproblems that mirror real life. Adetailed rubric should be developed toclarify expectations, guide student per-formance, atid encourage student self-assessment.

Oral or Writteti Pmtnpts. These areopen-ended questions that movebeyond memorized facts by requiringstudents to explain, analyze, and/orevaluate. Prompts are similar to essayquestions, but always require criticalthinking to develop and justify aresponse. Prompts are most effectivewhen used as a more formal assess-ment {i.e., typical test conditions).

Quiz or Test. Although teachers usu-ally use tests at the end of a unit as asummative assessment, tests are bestused as a formative assessment togauge if students have gained theknowledge and skills needed for activi-ties and assessments that target deeperunderstandings. Include tests orquizzes for vocabulary, knowledge,and skills students need to accomplishprompts and performance tasks orproject assessments.

Informal Assessments. Informalassessments are the means for prepar-ing students for all other assessments.Use a variety of infortnal assessmentssuch as observations, class activities,discussions, and teacher questionsthroughout tbe unit to reveal studentunderstanding or misunderstanding,and determine any need for additionalinstruction (Gersten et al., 2006).

Step 4: Create Learning Activities

This final step integrates informationfrom all prior steps into a sequence oflessons that guides students towardaccomplishing the desired understand-ing and assessments. In developinglearning activities, consider tbe specificneeds of students with disabilities sothat any required accommodations arean integral part of the unit. Often it issupportive of classwide learning to pro-vide accommodations to the grouprather than to an individual [e.g., inter-active group work, graphic organizer;Gersten et al., 2006). As you movethrough building a sequence of lessons,continually refer to student learningneeds (Step I), standards (Step 2], and

assessments (Step 3) to maintain yourfocus.

Design and Sequence LearningActivities. Keep in mind these key con-siderations as you plan your learningactivities: How will you encourageimmersion in and exploration of theessential questions? How will you uselearning activities to build knowledgeand skills, and promote deeper under-standing? How will you prepare stu-dents for accomplishing the project andprompt assessments? To translate thesequestions inlo practice, consider utiliz-ing the following components to facili-tate the scaffolding process:

• Engage students with essentialquestions and unit vocabulary

• Break instruction and activities intomanageable parts

• Weave assessment across the unit

Begin the unit by engaging studentswith tbe essential questions and keytmit vocabulary. Engaging studentswilb the standards and essential ques-tions using techniques such as visuals,problems to solve, and controversialissues not only generates interest andexcitement, but makes the learningmeaningful (Wiggins & McTigbe,20Ü6). Students need lo know wherethey are going and what they areexpected to accomplish (Swanson &Deshler, 2003). Provide instruction ofkey vocabulary prior to reading andlearning activities so that when stu-dents encoutiter vocabulary within thelearning activities they have a baseunderstanding on wbich to btiild. Thisis particularly beneficial for studentswith disabilities (Vaughn & Bos, 2009).Beginning with tbe essential questionsand vocabulary provides opportunitieslo connect with student prior knowl-edge and experiences to build newschema and to address misconceptionsso that students are not buildingknowledge on faulty bases.

Break instructional parts of tbe unitinto manageable elements; divide classtime into mini-instruction, activity, andrefiecUon/discussion sessions to active-ly immerse students in the content.Breaking up instruction in this way notonly provides students an opportunity

TEACHING EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN MAY/JUNE 2009 9

to develop schemo by utilizing the newcontení, but also eliminates the risk offrontloading a unit with instructionthat diminishes student engagement.In designing learning activities, avoidteacher-directed and textbook-driven

toward depth of understanding; testsand quizzes should be applied early onas formative assessment of studentunderstanding of base concepts, butproject and performance assessmentsare most effective as summative. cul-

Give students opportunities to make the contentmeaningful by connecting it to real life.

instruction where students merelyrecite notes or readings (Scruggs,Mastropieri. Bakken, & Brigham,1993). Instead, give students opportu-nities to make the content meaningfulby connecting it to real Hie. Personalizethe learning by creating opportunitiesto see how the information relates towhal they know and to their lives—Iheir past, present, or future [Deshler,Schumaker, Bulgren. et ai., 2001).Learning activities should encouragestudents to apply information, makeinterpretive judgments, and/or synthe-size information to generate knowledgeand gain understanding of the largerissue (Buigren et al., 2007; Scruggs &Mastropieri, 1994). Start small andbuild toward the higher levels ofunderstanding expected in the assess-ment prompt and performance task orproject. The learning should be drivenby student efforts to answer essentialquestions and solve problems posedthrough unit activities and assess-ments. Through reflection and discus-sion continually revisit essential ques-tions and central concepts so that stu-dents understand how new informationapplies to the larger understanding tar-geted (Gersten et al, 2006). This overallapproach to learning activities movesstudents out of passive roles into activelearning roles more supportive of learn-ing for students with disabilities,because learning is hands-on andmeaningful.

Weave in assessments across theunit to enable continuous insight intothe development of student under-standing (Wiggins & McTighe, 2006).Assessments should gradually build

minating assessments as they allowstudents to demonstrate an integratedunderstanding of unit concepts. Fur-ther, it should be completely transpar-ent to students how the content relatesto the assessments and what is expect-ed from each assessment. This isaccomplished by designing learningactivities that provide the students withexperience in making the types oftransfer sought and by providingexplicit assessment instruction throughsuch means as detailed rubrics andclearly defined steps. When studentsfail to perform on assessments, it isoften because teachers failed to preparethem to make the transfer of knowl-edge. Use learning activities to developthe understanding sought for assess-ment.

Check for Integration af Accommo-dations. Review learning activities toensure all learners' needs identified inStep 1 are supported. Certain needs,accommodations, or individualizededucation program (lEP) goals (e.g.,graphic organizers, group interaction,organization skills) work well and,when implemented classwide, canenhance performance for all students(Gersten et al., 2006; McTighe &Lyman, 1988). For instance, if oralexpression is targeted on one student'sIEP, might not tbe entire class benefitfrom working on this skill? You couldwork oral expression into one of yourassessments and then enhance a learn-ing activity to provide the instruction,modeling, and guidance students needto develop the skill. Other studentneeds may require individual support(e.g., a student may need to talk

through project instructions individual-ly with a teacher or may need assistivetechnology for reading and writingactivities).

The process is not completely linear.Once you have the general frameworkof the information generated from thesteps, you may find that it is necessaryto move back and forth within thesteps as you further conceptualize yourinstructional unit. As you move intoimplementation, ongoing analysis oflearning results and reflection onimplementation will provide feedbackfor refining your use of the approach.

Applying Backward Designin fhe Ciassroom

Figure 1 outlines the use of the processwith an inclusive second-grade class-room and Figure 2 outlines use with aninclusive high school biology class. Keyapplications of the process illustratehow to design instruction to supporthigher levels of understanding for allstudents.

Elementary-Level Example

Most of the students in this inclusivesecond grade class had not traveledoutside their rural county, so they didnot have travel experiences uponwhich to build schema for the newcontení (Step 1). In addition, a largenumber of the students had disabilitiesand needed interactive learning experi-ences wilh repetition and feedback.The general and special educationteachers chose to address standardsfrom two separate disciplines (i.e.,social studies and language arts); thesocial studies unit would serve as anengaging framework for instruction inwriting (Step 2). The teachers usedessential questions to focus studentson critical state content requirementsand to link those requirements to themotivating topic of vacation plans. Thebrochure project linked the requiredwriting and social studies understand-ings as well as anchored the assess-ments and subsequent learning activi-ties (Step 3). Additional assessmentshelped build knowledge and skills forthe completion of tbe brochure.Assessments guided students to usecontent to identify, then to compare

10 COUNCIL FOR EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN

Figure 1. Elam«ntary Level Uniti Second Grade Social Studies ond Language Arli

Step 1:IdentifyLearners

Step 2:IdentifyCurricularPriorities

Step 3:DesignAs.sessmentFramework

Step 4:CreateLearningActivities

Identifyclassroom needs

Identifyindividualstudent needs

Determinestate/localstandards

Create essentialquestions

Identifyprerequisiteknowledge andskills

Performancetasks or projects

Oral or writtenprompt

Quiz or test

Informalassessments

Design andsequencelearningactivities

Check forintegration ofaccommodations

• Second-grade inclusive classroom• One third of students have disabilities• Low- to mid-income families• Limited travel and experiences outside of local rural area

• Mario, Vicky, Darius, Kayla: simplified instructions, visuals and graphic organizers to breakdown content and to increase recall, small group, repetition

• Adam, Terrika: redirection, encouragement/positive feedback, small group, hands-on learning• TVey: extensive feedback and encouragement

• Social Studies: The student will locate major topographical features of the state and willdescribe how these features define the state's surface.

• Language Arts: The student will write a paragraph that states and supports an opinion; useplanning ideas to produce a rough draft; give and receive feedback; and make revisions basedon feedback.

• What cities, landmarks, and attractions are in different regions? Why?• How would information about the regions guitie your vacation plans?• Which region would you most/least like to visit and why?

• Basic map reading skills• Write sentences to form simple paragraph

• Create a brochure to persuade others to visit a chosen region of the state; use rubric to clarifyrequirements for brochure.

• Written reflection in booklet about each region: What makes this region unique?

• Vocabulary quiz (e.g., climate, topography, region, mountain, riverj• Regions and rivers quiz

• Small group or class activities (e.g., Jeopardy activity, Velcro-create-a-map; Web site quiz games]addressing region information cumulatively

• Smalt group map creation

• Present essential questions, vocabulary, map, and intriguing landmark photos• Vocabulary quiz• Present region information

- Encourage student sharing of prior knowledge, vocabulary use, and student contrasting/comparing regions

- Prompt student completion of graphic organizer during lesson- Written reflection for booklet- Include informal assessment activity (small group or whole class)

• Small group clay map creation activity• Regions and rivers quiz• Trip to visit landmarks in our region• Introduce brochure project; model use of think sheet to guide writing process for brochure• Model use of peer edititig checklist; guide peer assessment of writing and revision of writing• Complete writing and ariwork for brochures; share brochures

• Visuals (e.g., slides to show unique aspects of each region)• Mini-lessons and activities to increase engagement• Learning supports (e.g., graphic organizer for regions, think sheet for writing)• Center and small-group activities for individual support

TEACHING EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN MAY/JUNE 2009 1

and contrast, and finally to persuadereaders about state regions and topo-graphical features.

For Step 4, learning activities fordeveloping understanding of the socialstudies content included interactiveinstruction, a retlective writing prompt,and an activity to apply information.Interactive instruction used discussionand informational slide shows repletewith photos, along with teacher model-ing and student completion of graphicorganizers. Activities ranged fromsmall-group activities where studentstracked and e-mailed a hiker as he tra-versed regions of the state to classactivities in which students createdclay map models while the teacherguided them with questions targetingbasic knowledge (e.g., "What riverempties into the Atlantic Ocean?""What region is north of the region inwhich we live?") and higher-orderthinking (e.g.. "Why are so many man-made attractions centered in thatregion?" "How does the climate andgeography of the Coastal Plains regiondiffer from the Blue Ridge region?").Most of the needed accommodations

for this unit were implemented class-wide as they constituted best practicesfor all students. Use of photos. Website tours, and a field trip created visu-als and experiences upon which stu-dents could develop their schema. Useof a graphic organizer for each regionand a think sheet to guide the writingprocess supported the learning for all.Finally, there were opportunities forsmall-group learning with peer Interac-tion for both social studies activitiesand writing feedback.

With this approach, performanceincreased for all students, with andwithout disabilities. The author imple-menting this instruction attributed theincrease to (a) the use of essentialquestions which gave students the bigpicture and encouraged more in-depththought; and (b) scaffolding and activelearning that created a student-centeredenvironment and encouraged studentsto develop understanding step by step.Due to the interactive nature of thelearning activities, the teacher neededto redirect students and focus attentionmore often, but the learning outcomesfar outweighed the increased classroommanagement needs. Students normallyreticent to participate eagerly engaged,and, weeks after the instruction, stu-dents continued to discuss the activi-ties.

High School Example

This class comprised a range of sci-ence-related experience and learninglevel. Although most students had lim*ited interest, several were involved inScience Club and brought uniqueinsight into the classroom (Step 1).With appropriate prompting, theScience Club students shared this inter-est with their classmates and served asa support for struggling students(needs ranging from learning disabili-ties to mild intellectual disabilities toattention deficit hyperactivity disorder).The curriculum sequence for this unitwas determined by the school and wasdesigned to build on prior understand-ing of DNA (Step 2). The challengingtask in designing the unit was makingthe content real and connecting it tostudent lives so as to reduce abstrac-tion and enhance understanding.

Multiple essential questions guided stu-dents to see overall connectionsbetween genetics and their lives, andguided scaffolding by breaking downcomplex ideas. In Step 3. assessmentscontinued to build these connectionsby making concepts applicable to stu-dent interests and "real life" (e.g.. car-toon characters, pets, classmates, cur-rent news issues).

In Step 4, learning activities thatinvolved instruction were divided intointroductory lecture, application activi-ty, and discussion. Stopping activitiesmidway to prompt students to verbal-ize connections between content andthe activity facilitated scaffolding.Students put their ideas into their ownwords, which served multiple purpos-es: it helped solidify student under-standings, gave insight into struggleswith concepts, and allowed the teacherto use student understanding as a step-ping stone for extending ideas. Stu-dents supported and guided one anoth-er when working in small groups orpairs. Teachers continually modeled forstudents how to teach one anotherthrough questioning rather than just by

12 COUNCIL FOR EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN

Figure 2 . High School Level Unit: Biology

Step 1:IdentifyLearners

Step 2:IdenlifyCurricularPriorities

Step 3:DesignAssessmentFramework

Step 4:CréaleLearningActivities

Identifyclassroom needs

Identifyindividualstudent needs

Determinestate/iocalsiaiulards

Create essentialquestions

Identifyprerequisiteknowledge andskills

Performancetasks or projects

Oral or writtenprompt

Quiz or test

Informalassessment

Design andsequencelearningactivities

Check forintegration ofacconimodatiüiis

• Inclusive biology classroom• 20 students, including 5 with disabilities• Several students in science ciub

• Ryan: provide visuals, verbal directions/explanations, processing time• Venicia: pair with peer for written class tasks, oral responses to quizzes and writing prompts• Latrell: pair with organized, even-tempered peers* Marcus: prompts lo focus, hands-on activities• Tina: extra lime, additional support with abstract ideas

• Students will analyze how biological traits are passed on to successive generations.- Using Mendel's laws, explain the role of meiosis in reproductive variability.- Explain how mutations occur and why genetic disorders result.- Examine use of DNA technology in medicine and agriculture.

• Students will demonstrate content area vocabulary knowledge through writing and speaking.

• Whal does probability have to do with genetics?• How are traits, including some you do not see, passed from one generation to the next?• How do meiosis and milosis impact genetic information and cell production?• What happens to trails when meiosis fails?• Who has the right to access and make decisions about your genetic code?

• Prior understanding: DNA

• Predicting and designing offspring project: Given cases with mono and dihyrid crosses, andincomplete dominance and co-dominance, students will predict genotypic and phenotypiccombinations of offspring.

• Genetics defense project: Research and defend a controversial topic related to use of genetics inmedicine or agriculture.

• Use Mendel's laws lo explain the presence or absence of a link between a dog's hair color andtail length.

• What different occurrences in mitosis and meiosis explain why human families look differentfrom one another, whereas bacteria show no variation from parent to offspring?

• Vocabulary quiz• Vocabulary/content quiz

• Informal discussion• Create-a-face coin toss activity• Classroom trait survey• Mutations activity• Genetic mutations activity

• Present essential questions, Mendel and his experiments; check for misconceptions about genetics• Introduce probability and Punnett squares Activity: determine facial phenotypes using coin-toss.• Vocabulary quiz,• Prompt: applications of Mendel's law. Introduce incomplete dominance and co-dominance.

Activity: create and explain cartoon parents' offspring• Predicting and designing offspring. Performance task: Punnell squares• Introduce meiosis. Activity: survey of classroom traits.• Introduce mitosis. Class discussion: compare/contrast mitosis and meiosis; utilize graphic organizer.• Vocabulary/content quiz.• Prompi: milosis and meiosis. Introduce genetic mutations using videos that demonstrate traits of

disorders caused by mutations to genetic code. Activity: use interactive whiteboard lo create andexplain differem types of mutations.

• Introduce genetic ethical issues wilh segment of movie Gattaca (Niccol, 1997} and discussion.Genetics defense project: choice of topic; rubric to clarify required components; pair sharing andgraphic organizer to support reading and formulation of arguments.

• Students present and defend research-in formed position. Self- and peer assessment to identifystrengths and weaknesses of argument and presentation.

• Break up lessons into instruction, activities, and discussion• Use small-group time to provide additional explanations• Instruct stiidenis how to teach one another in small group activities• Use classwide learning supports {e.g., graphic organizers, rubric)• Address individual needs (e.g., prompt sheet for Punnett squares, screen-read ing software]

TEACHING EXCEPTIONAL CHIUJREN MAY/JUNE 2009 13

giving answers. Various supportsensured that all student learning needswere met; for example, a student whostruggled with abstract and complexconcepts used a prompt sbeet for creat-ing Punnett squares and was tben ableto progress to understanding howr^unnett squares applied to genetictraits. In other instances, supportsapplied classwide enhanced learningfor all students. The research projecton ethical issues surrounding geneticresearch incorporated bolb individualand classwide supports:

• Screen-reading software helped stu-dents with disabilities access thearticles.

• All students were paired with peersby topic to paraphrase articles anddiscuss how the information relatedto their stance.

• The leacber provided and modeleduse of a graphic organizer to guidetranslation of article informationinto a persuasive argument.

This combination of supportsenlianced learning for all students.

With use of this approach, studentswith disabilities maintained activeengagemetit in learning activities andachieved the general curriculum objec-tives. The essential questions and dif-ferentiation of learning activities werekey to learning success. The essentialquestions made the science conceptsmore concrete and created a focus forlearning activities, especially helpfulfor students with disabilities. Prior toany discussion, students understoodhow the activity related to the questionthey were trying to answer; the ques-tions served as a reference point uponwhich students created a framework toorganize and understand the concepts.In addition, the small-group applicationactivities and project enabled differenti-ation of instruction and addresseddiverse learning styles. Grouping stu-dents based on individual needs andteaching questioning techniques withinthese activities allowed students withdisabilities to actively participate inapplying and explaining concepts. Thebackward design approach facilitatedtbe equal participation of students vvitb

disabilities in all aspects of the class-room learning community.

Final ThoughtsIncreasing numbers of students wilhdisabilities are being educated in inclu-sive general education classrooms; thechallenge is to provide appropriateinstruction to support student success.Traditional instructional approaches toooften fail to engage learners with dis-abilities, to address their individualneeds, and to ultimately support aca-demic success. Designing curriculumthat both accommodates learning needsand targets deeper levels of understand-ing is possible. Through the use of thebackward design approach, learningcan become relevant atid meaningfulfor all students, supporting tbeir mas-tery of general curricular standards.Wben standards, assessment, andinquiry-oriented activities drive the cur-riculum, learning can be transformed.

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Scruggs, T. E., Mastropieri, M. A., & McDul-fie, K. A, (2007). Co-teaching in inclusiveclassrooms: A metasynthesis of qualita-tive research. Exceptional Children. 7.i.392-416.

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Amy Childre (CEC GA Federation). Asso-ciate Ptvfessor, Department of Special Educa-tion and Edticaiiotial Leadership, GeorgiaCollege & Stale University. Milledgeville.Jennifer R. Sands [CEC GA Federation).Teacher. Jones County Ninth Grade Acad-emy. Gray. Georgia. Saundra Tanner Pope(CEC G A Federation). Teacher. PtitnauiCounty Elemenlary School. Eatonton.Georgia.

Address correspondence to Atny Childre.Georgia College & State University. Depart-ment of Special Educatioti and EducatiotmtLeadership, CBX 072. Milledgemlle. GA 31061(e-maii amy.childre@gcsu.edu).

TEACHING Exceptional Children. Voi 41,No. 5, pp. 6-1"),

Copyright 2009 CEC.

14 COUNCIL FOR EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN