design & drafting lab manual

8/12/2019 Design & Drafting Lab Manual

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DEPARTMENT OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING & I.T.

MATS UNIVERSITY, RAIPUR

DESIGN AND DRAFTING

LABORATORY MANUAL

Compiled by:

Mr. Kalpit P. Kaurase,

Assistant Professor,

Dept. of Aeronautical Engg.,School of Engg. & I.T.,


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Ex No: 1 DESIGN AND DRAFTING OF RIVETED JOINTS

Date:

AIM:

To design the riveted joints by over lapping and butt joint method using AUTOCAD

2004 software.

THEORY OF RIVETED JOINTS:

TYPE OF JOINTS:

Riveted joints may be classified according to

Purpose for which it is used for Ex., structure (or) leak proof joints. The method of placing and joining members as lap (or)

butt joints.

The type of rivet employed such as solid tabular (or) explosive rivets. The number of rows of rivet such as single, double, triple (or) quadratic riveted

joints.

LAP JOINT:

The places to be connected over lap each other and rivets pass through drilled holes.when the plates are tension (or) compression Fig(1),a couple acts about the rivets, being not in

same plate tending to bend joints. To avoid the plates are sometimes bend before riveting to

approximately infinite force shown, to reduce the bending action.

BUTT JOINT:

The plates are kept in alignment and a butt strap (or) cover plate {either single or double}

is plate over the joint and rivets are inserted through the hole in plates aligned over another. The

connection of two main plates is through but straps. The butt joint with single butt strap has some

fracture that of lap joints. Thus therefore should never be used for high loading and pressure feed

areas which are fuselage, wings attachment are scalped that they be efficiently caused.

Those joints are called single riveted, a double riveted etc, depending upon the no of rows of

rivet on each main plate.

SINGLE COVERED BUTT JOINT:


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DOUBLE COVERED BUTT JOINT:

TEMINOLOGY:


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1. Gauge line:

The line through the centers of rivet and parallel to edge of plate is termed as a row (or)

gauge line.

2. Pitch:

The distance between centers of adjacent rivet measured on gauge line called the pitch p.

3. Back pitch (or) Transverse pitch (Pb):

The distance between the rivet centers in the adjacent gauge line in the some plate is called

the back pitch (or) transverse pitch.

4. Diagonal pitch:

The distance between the adjacent rivet centers to adjacent gauge line for zigzag riveting.

DESIGN CONSIDERATION OF RIVETED JOINTS:

1. Failure modes of riveted joints:

A joint is said to have failed if plate gets separated from other. This separation can take

place.

All the rivets gets sheaved for lap joint and butt joint with single strap the rivets are in

single shear while in butt joints with double strap, the rivets are in double shear shown figure..

A plate get torn along any section in this case all the rivets except these between the edge of

torn plate and tearing section gets sheared. It is only by this combination that the plate small tear

along a section.

2. All the rivets are crushed:

The number of rivets failed shall change with the change in no of rows and no of rivets in a

row. The basic relations derived below consider only one row of rivets and one pitch length of

joint and these equations of rivet subjected to failure.

TERMINOLOGY RIVETED JOINTS:


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Let

c=allowable crushing stress at the place or rivet

t=allowable tensile stress in place

s=allowable shear stress in place

3. Plate tearing in front of the rivet:

This mode of failure is rarely encountered when the distance of the edge from the nearest row

is very small generally the margin M is taken as 1.5d.

4. Tearing of the plate:

The plate is the weaker between the rivet holes.

Tearing area of the plate per pitch length=t[p-d] Tearing resistance of plate per pitch length= t[t(p-d)]

5. Shearing of rivets:

Shearing area of rivet in single {lap joint} = d2


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Shearing area of rivet in double shear is not exactly double of that in single but little less. As

per in Indian boiler regulations, it is taken as 1.875times the area in single shear. According

shear as of a rivet in double shear =d21.875

Shearing area shall be different for lap and joints.

Shearing resistance of rivet in double shear =sd2

Shearing resistance of rivet in double shear =1.875d2

6. Crushing of rivets:

Crushing area of a single rivet =dt and if n be the no of rivets under crushing the crushing

resistance is equal to cr.

The no of rivets in shear equal the no of rivet in crushing.

ALL RIVETS SHEARED:

7. Number of rivets in shear and crushing:

If the joints has more than one row of rivets then following method a shall help in

flinching out the no of rivet in shear in one pitch in of the joints.

Draw the joints to be designed.

Consider the pitch length of joints draw two parallel lines AB and CD at a distance p apart

and passing through centers of adjacent rivets of a row.

PP


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The rivets in shear are equal to the no of rivets contained between these lines for Eg in fig.

First row and second row has one rivet each in shear.Thus the rivets in shear are two.

Description of joint like lap joint,butt joint with single strap (or) double strap determines the

shearing area per rivets (ie) d2

(or) 1.875d2

Total shearing area of rivets equal the produce the value determined at above.

8. Estimation of strength of riveted joints:

For a given the rivets are so designed for failure to occur the strength of rivets in all the

possible modes of failure should be equation form different type of failure discussed earlier

following equation are obtained.

Equating shearing resistance to crushing resistance n* d2

(or)s=n*dtpcr and assuming cr=s

,it simplifies to

d=2.54t ,for rivets in single shear d=1.075t,for rivets in double shear.

Thus for d


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ALL RIVETS SHEARED:

=p-(d/p)

Shearing efficiency:s=shearing resistance of rivets per pitch length/tearing resistance of

undrilled plate.

Crushing efficiency:cr=crushing resistance of rivets or holes per pitch length of joint/tearing

resistance of undrilled plate.

For

Lap joints,

single 45% to 65% double 03% to 77% triple 77% to 85%

Rivets

Plates

Tear along this line


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Butt joints,

single 60% to 80% double 75% to 85% triple 80% to 90%.

Command used:

Line Circle Offset Hatch Arc


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PLATE TEARING IN FRONT OF THE RIVET:

TEARING OF RIVETS:

PP

PP


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SINGLE SHEAR FOR LAP JOINT:

DOUBLE SHEAR FOR BUTT JOINT:

P

P

P

P

P


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DRAFTING:

Ex No: 1 BUTT JOINT

Date:

ALL DIMENSION ARE IN MILLIMETERS


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Ex No: 1 LAP JOINT

Date:

RESULT:

Thus for riveted joints with over lapping and butt joints method has been

designed with the consideration of failure which are being occurred in riveted

joints and also has been drafted by using AUTOCAD 2004 software.


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Ex No: 2 DESIGN AND DRAFTING OF WELDED JOINTS.

Date:

AIM:

To design the welded joints which are used for assembling aircraft structures by using

AUTOCAD 2004 software.

WELDED JOINTS:

Welded joints are threaded, cottered, or knuckle joints are permanent in nature and the

component together cannot be separated or dissembled without breaking the weld metal to theconnected part. A machine part or structure whose component parts are joint by welding is called

weldment.

Welded joints are light in weight, when compared to riveted joints due to elimination of

corer plates or straps, gassed plates, chip angle

TYPES OF WELDED JOINTS:

There are five basic forms of welded joints:1. Butt weld

2. Lap weld

3. Edge weld

4. Corner weld5. T-weld.

BUTT WELD:

A butt weld is obtained by putting together the edges of two pieces having practically the

same cross section and heating until fused together.

LAP WELD:

The plates to be joined are made to overlap each other for a certain distance and the right

angle recess so forward along the width of the plates are filled with weld metal.


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EDGE WELD:

This type of joint is not recommended for plates thicker than 6mm.

TEE WELD:

The plates to be joined to form a tee may be beveled at on one side, on both sides or is

may not be beveled at all. Although, these joints should preferably be welded on both sides, this

is not always possible as the two sides may not be accessible.

TEE WELD:


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CORNER WELD:

If a fillet weld is placed on the inside of a corner joint, it is usually a light weld. The total

throat t of the weld is of the order of 1.35 times the thickness of the plate.


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DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS OF WELDED JOINT:

Strength of welds in plane loading:

Welded joints subjected to tension may be divided into three classes with respect to theinternal

Stress set up at the external load.

IN CLASS 1, the weld is subjected only to longitudinal shear.IN CLASS 2, the weld is in transverse shear in tension.

IN CLASS 3, the weld is in pure tension.

CLASS 1: LONGITUDINAL FILLET WELD:

In this type, it should be noted that the shear area of weld resisting the ext ernal load. p

2tl, where l is the effective length of each weld and t is the throat thickness because failures are

most often across the throat.s= p/2tl

Since t=bcos450, b is the size of the weld equal to plate thickness the shear stress is

s=p/1.44bl or o.707p/bl

If the welds are long enough the load is not distributed uniformly, permissible loads

should be thereafter reduced to about 80 to 90% of those for short welds.

If case of the longitudinal of parallel fillet weld is subjected to variable loads, theeffective of stress concentration at the ends of the weld must be considered. If the loadp in the

case considered is a variable load the weld size would be worked out as follows

Area resisting shear =2tl=1.414 blIf s is the permissible shear stress intensity, then allowable load per unit length of weld=1.414

s.Taking the effect of stress concentration in account allowable load per unit length of weld

=1.414s/kt.

Then required weld size b= p.kf/1.414zigma s. and if weld size is known and stress intensity in

weld metal is required and it is given by.s= p.kf/1.414, s=0.707p.kf/bl

CLASS 2: TRANSVERSE FILLET WELD:

In the case of class-2 weld the shear of the weld metal results in failure. It can be provedmathematically that the plane of max shear stress in the conventional 45 fillet weld, weld withboth legs equal is the 45, throat when subjected to transverse load. This results in greater strength

for transverse

Fillet weld are taken to be of equal strength index static load considered.Area in shear for both welds=2tl

Resisting strength=1.414 s.bl, s= p/1.414 bl.

For variable load = s=0.7071 p.kf/b


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CLASS 3: BUTT WELD:

The weld metal is subjected to tensile stresses for a flush weld, area resisting failure=bl.Resisting strength of weld metal=bl. t= p.In variable load t= p.kf/bl.

Command used:



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DRAFTING:

Ex No: 2 WELDED JOINTS

Date:

ALL DIMENSIONS ARE IN MILLIMETERS

RESULT:Thus for the welded joints are designed according to its different loading conditions and

has been drafted by using AUTOCAD 2004 software.


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Ex No: 3 DESIGN AND DRAFTING CONTROL COMPONENT

CAM

Date:

AIM:

To design and draft control component cam by using AUTOCAD 2004 software.

DESCRIPTION:

CAM MECHANISMS:

The transformation of one of the simple motions, such as rotation, into any other

motions is often conveniently accomplished by means of a cam mechanism. A cam mechanism

usually consists of two moving elements, the cam and the follower, mounted on fixed frame.cam

devices are versatile, and almost any arbitrarily-specified motion can be obtained. In some

instances, they offer the simplest and most compact way to transform motions.

A cam may be defined as a machine element having a cured outline or a groove, which

by its oscillation or rotation motion, gives a predetermined specified motion to another element

called the follower. The cam has a very important function in the operation of many classes of

machines, especially those of the automatic type, such as printing presses, textile machinery,

gear-cutting machines, and screw machines. In any class of machinery in which automatic

control and accurate timing are paramount, the cam is an indispensable part of variety. Some of

the most common forms will be considered in this chapter.

CLASSIFICATION OF CAM MECHANISMS:

We can classify cam mechanisms by the modes of input/output motion, the configuration

and arrangement of the follower, and the shape of the cam. We can also classify cams by the

different types of motion events of the follower and by means of a great variety of the motion

characteristics of the cam profile.

CAM- NOMENCLATURE:

TRACE POINT:

A theoretical point on the follower, corresponding to the point of a fictitious

knife-edge follower. It is used to generate the pitch curve. In this case of a roller follower, the

trace point is at the center of the roller.


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PITCH CURVE:

The path generated by the trace point at the follower is rotated about a stationary

cam.

WORKING CURVE:

The working surface of a cam in contact with the follower. For the knife-edge

follower of the plate cam, the pitch curve and the working curves coincide. In a close or grooved

cam there is an inner profile and an outer working curve.

PITCH CIRCLE;

A circle from the cam center through the pitch point. The pitch circle radius is

used to calculate a cam of minimum size for a given pressure angle.

PRIME CIRCLE (REFERENCE CIRCLE):

The smallest circle from the cam center through the pitch curve.

BASE CIRCLE:

The smallest circle from the cam center through the cam profile curve.

STROKE :

The greatest distance or angle through which the follower moves or rotates.

FOLLOWER DISPLACEMENT:

The position of the follower from a specific zero or rest position (usually its the

position when the follower contact with the base circle of the cam) in relation to time or the

rotary angle of the cam.

PRESSURE ANGLE:

The angle at any point between the normal to the pitch curve and the

instantaneous direction of the follower motion. This angle is important in cam design because it

represents the steepness of the profile.

Command used:

Circle Offset Hatch Arc


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DRAFTING:

Ex No: 3 CONTROL COMPONENT CAM

Date:


RESULT:

Thus the control components of cam has been drafted by using AUTOCAD 2004

software.


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Ex No: 4 DESIGN AND DRAFTING CONTROL COMPONENTS

BELLCRANK

Date:

AIM:

To design and draft the control components of ell crank by using AUTOCAD 2004

software.

MECHANISMS OF BELL CRANK:

A bell crank is a type of crank that changes motion through an angle. The angle can be

any angle from 0 to 3600, although 90

0and 180

0are common.

A bell crank is shown fig 1. Bell crank are the most component in mechanical linkage.

Bell cranks are simple devices that are used to change the direction of movement. In fig 1, the

input and output direction of movement differ by 900. Bell crank can also create mechanical

advantage when

L1 L2.

Command used:



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DRAFTING:

Ex No: 4 BELL CRANK

Date:


RESULT:

Thus the control components of bell crank has been drafted by using AUTOCAD 2004

software.


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GEAR

Date:

AIM:

To design and draft the control components of gear by using AUTOCAD 2004 software.

DESCRIPTOPN:

A gear or more correctly a "gear wheel" is a rotatingmachinepart having cut teeth, or

cogs, which mesh with another toothed part in order to transmit torque. Two or more gearsworking in tandem are called atransmission and can produce amechanical advantage through a

gear ratio and thus may be considered asimple machine.Geared devices can change the speed,magnitude, and direction of apower source.The most common situation is for a gear to meshwith another gear, however a gear can also mesh a non-rotating toothed part, called a rack,

thereby producingtranslation instead of rotation.

The gears in a transmission are analogous to the wheels in a pulley. An advantage of

gears is that the teeth of a gear prevent slipping.

When two gears of unequal number of teeth are combined a mechanical advantage is

produced, with both the rotational speeds and the torques of the two gears differing in a simple

relationship.

TYPES OF GEAR:

o External vs. internal gearso Spuro Helicalo Double helicalo Bevelo Hypoido Crowno Wormo Non-circularo Rack and piniono Epicyclico Sun and planeto Harmonic driveo Cage gear
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotatinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torquehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_(mechanics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanical_advantagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gear_ratiohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simple_machinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_(physics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation_(physics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wheelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulleyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotational_speedhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gear#External_vs._internal_gearshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gear#Spurhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gear#Helicalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gear#Double_helicalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gear#Bevelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gear#Hypoidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gear#Crownhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gear#Wormhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gear#Non-circularhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gear#Rack_and_pinionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gear#Epicyclichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gear#Sun_and_planethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gear#Cage_gearhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gear#Cage_gearhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gear#Sun_and_planethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gear#Epicyclichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gear#Rack_and_pinionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gear#Non-circularhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gear#Wormhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gear#Crownhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gear#Hypoidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gear#Bevelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gear#Double_helicalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gear#Helicalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gear#Spurhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gear#External_vs._internal_gearshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotational_speedhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulleyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wheelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation_(physics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_(physics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simple_machinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gear_ratiohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanical_advantagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_(mechanics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torquehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotating


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SPUR GEAR:

Spur gears or straight-cut gears are the simplest type of gear. They consist of a cylinder

or disk with the teeth projecting radially, and although they are not straight-sided in form, the

edge of each tooth is straight and aligned parallel to the axis of rotation. These gears can bemeshed together correctly only if they are fitted to parallel shafts.

HELICAL GEAR:

Helical gears offer a refinement over spur gears. The leading edges of the teeth are notparallel to the axis of rotation, but are set at an angle. Since the gear is curved, this angling

causes the tooth shape to be a segment of a helix.Helical gears can be meshed in a parallel or

crossed orientations. The former refers to when the shafts are parallel to each other; this is the

most common orientation. In the latter, the shafts are non-parallel, and in this configuration aresometimes known as "skew gears".

DOUBLE HELICAL:

Double helical gears, or herringbone gear, overcome the problem of axial thrust presentedby "single" helical gears by having two sets of teeth that are set in a V shape. Each gear in a

double helical gear can be thought of as two standard mirror image helical gears stacked. Thiscancels out the thrust since each half of the gear thrusts in the opposite direction. Double helical

gears are more difficult to manufacture due to their more complicated shape.

For each possible direction of rotation, there are two possible arrangements of two

oppositely-oriented helical gears or gear faces. In one possible orientation, the helical gear facesare oriented so that the axial force generated by each is in the axial direction away from the

center of the gear; this arrangement is unstable. In the second possible orientation, which isstable, the helical gear faces are oriented so that each axial force is toward the mid-line of the

gear. In both arrangements, when the gears are aligned correctly, the total (or net) axial force on

each gear is zero. If the gears become misaligned in the axial direction, the unstable arrangementgenerates a net force for disassembly of the gear train, while the stable arrangement generates a

net corrective force. If the direction of rotation is reversed, the direction of the axial thrusts is

reversed, a stable configuration becomes unstable, and vice versa.

Stable double helical gears can be directly interchanged with spur gears without any need

for different bearings.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helixhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helix


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DRAFTING:

Ex No: 5 GEAR ASSEMBLY

Date:


RESULT:

Thus the control component of gear has been drafted by using AUTOCAD 2004 software.


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PUSH PULL ROD

Date:

AIM:

To design and draft the control component of push pull rod by using AUTOCAD 2004

software.

DESCRIPTION:

The push pull rod is used between bell crank and from bell crank to torque arms

(horns) to transmit the force and motion from one to the other. A push-pull rod connected to a

bell crank is shown in fig. push pull rods are also called control rods because they are often in

control systems.

APPLICATION:

AIRCRAFT:

The push-pull rod is used to move the control surface of the Aircraft.

IC ENGINE:

The push pull rod is used to operate the inlet and outlet port of the IC engines.

Command used:



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DRAFTING:

Ex No: 6 PUSH PULL ROD

Date:


RESULT:

Thus the control components of push pull rod has been drafted by using AUTOCAD

2004 software.


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Ex No: 7 THREE VIEW DIAGRAM OF TYPICAL AIRCRAFT

Date:

AIM:

To design and draft the three view diagram of typical aircraft by using AUTOCAD 2004.

CATEGORIES OF AIRCRAFT:

Supported by lighter-than-air gases (aerostats)Unpowered Powered

Balloon AirshipSupported by LTA gases + aerodynamic lift

Unpowered Powered Hybrid moored balloon Hybrid airship

Supported by aerodynamic lift (aerodynes)

Unpoweredfixed-wing Poweredfixed-wing

Glider hang gliders Paraglider Kite

Powered airplane (aeroplane) powered hang gliders Powered paraglider Flettner airplane Ground-effect vehiclePowered hybrid fixed/rotary wing

Tilt wing Tilt rotor Coleopter

Unpoweredrotary-wing Poweredrotary-wing

Rotor kite Autogyro Gyrodyne ("Heliplane") HelicopterPowered aircraft driven by flapping

Ornithopter
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerostathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airshiphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hybrid_moored_balloonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hybrid_airshiphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircraft#Heavier_than_air_.E2.80.93_aerodyneshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fixed-wing_aircrafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fixed-wing_aircrafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glider_(sailplane)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hang_glidinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paragliderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Powered_hang_gliderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Powered_paragliderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flettner_airplanehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ground_effect_vehiclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiltwinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiltrotorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coleopterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotorcrafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotorcrafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotor_kitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autogyrohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gyrodynehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helicopterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ornithopterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ornithopterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helicopterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gyrodynehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autogyrohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotor_kitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotorcrafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotorcrafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coleopterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiltrotorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiltwinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ground_effect_vehiclehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flettner_airplanehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Powered_paragliderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Powered_hang_gliderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paragliderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hang_glidinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glider_(sailplane)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fixed-wing_aircrafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fixed-wing_aircrafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircraft#Heavier_than_air_.E2.80.93_aerodyneshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hybrid_airshiphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hybrid_moored_balloonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airshiphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerostat


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Other means of lift

Powered

Hovercraft FlyingBedstead Avrocar

WHAT IS AN AIRCRAFT:

Aircraft arevehicles which are able toflyby being supported by theair,or in general, the

atmosphere of a planet. An aircraft counters the force of gravity by using eitherstatic lift or by

using thedynamic lift of anairfoil,or in a few cases the downward thrust fromjet engines.

MILITARY AIRCRAFT:

A military aircraft is any fixed-wing or rotary-wing aircraft that is operated by a legal orinsurrectionary armed service of any type. Military aircraft can be either combat or non-combat:

Combat aircraft are aircraft designed to destroy enemy equipment using its ownarmament.

Non-Combat aircraft are aircraft not designed for combat as their primary function, butmay carry weapons for self-defense. Mainly operating in support roles.

Combat aircraft divide broadly intofighters andbombers,with several in-between types such as

fighter-bombers andground-attack aircraft (includingattack helicopters).

Other supporting roles are carried out by specialist patrol, search and rescue, reconnaissance,observation, transport, training andTanker aircraft among others.

CIVIL:

Civil aircraft divide into commercial and general types, however there are some overlaps.

COMMERCIAL:

Commercial aircraft include types designed for scheduled and charter airline flights,carrying both passengers andcargo.The larger passenger-carrying types are often referred to asairliners,the largest of which arewide-body aircraft.Some of the smaller types are also used in

general aviation,and some of the larger types are used asVIP aircraft.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hovercrafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying_Bedsteadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying_Bedsteadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying_Bedsteadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying_Bedsteadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avrocarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vehicleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flighthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospherehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buoyancyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lift_(force)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airfoilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jet_engineshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fixed-wing_aircrafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotorcrafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fighter_aircrafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bomberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fighter-bomberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ground-attack_aircrafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attack_helicopterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerial_refuelinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airlinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cargohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airlinerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wide-body_aircrafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_aviationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_transports_of_heads_of_state_and_governmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_transports_of_heads_of_state_and_governmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_aviationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wide-body_aircrafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airlinerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cargohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airlinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerial_refuelinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attack_helicopterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ground-attack_aircrafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fighter-bomberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bomberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fighter_aircrafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotorcrafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fixed-wing_aircrafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jet_engineshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airfoilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lift_(force)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buoyancyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospherehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flighthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vehicleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avrocarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying_Bedsteadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying_Bedsteadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hovercraft


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GENERAL AVIATION:

General aviation is a catch-all covering other kinds of private and commercial use, and

involving a wide range of aircraft types such as business jets (bizjets), trainers, homebuilt,aerobatic types,racers,gliders,war birds,firefighters,medical transports,andcargo transports,

to name a few. The vast majority of aircraft today are general aviation types.

Within general aviation, there is a further distinction betweenprivate aviation (where the

pilot is not paid for time or expenses) and commercial aviation (where the pilot is paid by a clientor employer). The aircraft used in private aviation are usually light passenger, business, or

recreational types, and are usually owned or rented by the pilot. The same types may also be

used for a wide range of commercial tasks, such as flight training, pipeline surveying, passenger

and freight transport, policing, crop dusting, and medical evacuations. However the larger, morecomplex aircraft are more likely to be found in the commercial sector.

For example, piston-powered propeller aircraft (single-engine or twin-engine) are

common for both private and commercial general aviation, but for aircraft such as turboprops

like the Beech craft King Air and helicopters like the Bell Jet Ranger, there are fewer private

owners than commercial owners. Conventional business jets are most often flown by paid pilots,whereas the new generations of smaller jets are being produced for private pilots.

Command used:

Line

Circle Offset Hatch Arc
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_jethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trainer_(aircraft)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homebuilt_aircrafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerobaticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_racinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glider_(sailplane)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warbirdhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerial_firefightinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MEDEVAChttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cargo_aircrafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_aviationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beechcraft_King_Airhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell_206http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell_206http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beechcraft_King_Airhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_aviationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cargo_aircrafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MEDEVAChttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerial_firefightinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warbirdhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glider_(sailplane)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_racinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerobaticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homebuilt_aircrafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trainer_(aircraft)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_jet


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SIDE VIEW

RESULT:

Thus the three view diagram of a typical aircraft has been drafted by using AUTOCAD

2004 software


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Ex No:8 LAYOUT OF TYPICAL WING STRUCTURE

Date:

AIM:

To draft and study the wing structural layout of a specified aircraft by using AUTOCAD

2004 software.

WING:

The primary lifting surface of an aircraft is the wing. Wing are attached to airplanes in a

location vertically and longitudinally

BASIC FEATURES OF WING CONSTRUCTION:

Conventional wing are three general types: mono spar, two spar, multi spar. True stressed

skin. Wing may have shear weds but no true spars.

WING SPAR:

It is sometimes called a wing beam, is a principal span wise member of a wing structure

WING RIB:

It is sometimes called a plain rib, is a chord wise member of the wing structure used to

give the wing section is shape and also to transmit the air loads from the covering the spar.

STIFFENERS (OR) STRINGERS:

To assist holding the shape of the wing span wise called stiffness (or) stringers is attached

to the skin.

For wooden wing construction, the wing spars must be made of a/c quality solid wood

and plywood. Wood spars may be solid or may be build up

STRESSED SKIN METAL CONSTRUCTION:

The skin of the wing is riveted to the ribs and stringers are serves not only as a covering

but also a part of the basic structure of the wing. Most a/c use aluminum as wing covering. The

aluminum skin has high strength and is employed as a primary load carrying member. The skin

is quite string in tension and shear and if stiffened by other members may be made to carry some

compressive load.


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DRAFTING:

Ex No:8 LAYOUT OF TYPICAL WING STRUCTURE

Date:

RESULT:

Thus the layout of typical wing structure has been drafted by using AUTOCAD 2004

software.


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Ex No:9 LAYOUT OF TYPICAL FUSELAGE STRUCTURE

Date:

AIM:

To draft and study the fuselage structure layout of specialized aircraft by using

AUTOCAD 2004 software.

FUSELAGE:

The fuselage is the body of aircraft to which the wings and the tail unit are attached. It

provides space for the crew, passenger, cargo ,control and other items, depending upon it size

and design of the aircraft. The aircraft structure is designed to provide maximum strength and

minimum weight.

In general, fuselage are classified into three types depending upon the method, to which

the stress are transmitted to the structure. The three types according to this classified are truss,

semimonocoque, monocoque.

CONSTRUCTION OF FUSELAGE:

The fuselage are designed with a variety of structural components. The great majority of

fuselage are all metal and semi monocoque in construction. This statement applies to small

medium and large aircraft.

The interior structure to which the skim or plating is attached consists of longerons,frames, bulkheads, stringer, gussets, and possible internal coastal members, riveted bound or

jointed together form a rigid structure that shapes of fuselage. The skim or plating is riveted or

bonded to the structure to form the complete unit. Fuselage for aircraft are designed with many

similarities. The forward section of the fuselage usually contain the cockpit and passenger cabin.

The shape of this section depends upon the passenger capacity and the performance specification

for the aircraft. The real section of the tail cone is usually circular or rectangular in cross

section and taper towards the tail.

TYPICAL FUSELAGE STRUCTURE OF TRANSPORT AIRCRAFT

LOCKHEAD L-1101:

Fuselage for transport aircraft generally include a section forward of the main cabin to

provide a streamlined nose, a main cabin section, which is almost uniformly cylindrical in shape

and tail section. Which tapes to minimum size at the extreme real and the material most

commonly used throughout the structure are high strength fiber glass, graphite, Kevlar on

secondary areas of structure and of many control surfaces.


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FRAMES:

These are circumferential members gradually spaced at regular intervals along the length

of fuselage. Frames can stabilize the skin and stringers can distribute the concentrated loads.

BULKHEADS:

Heavy frames reinforced by beams attached to webs are usually called bulkheads.

STRINGERS;

These are longitudinal members spaced around the fuselage circumference the extend the

full length of fuselage. The stringers attached to the out board edge of frame and the in board

face of skin.

FLOOR BEAMS:

It provides the support for the cabin floor attack to the frame and skin horizontally across

the fuselage.

KEEL BEAMS:

It is a major longitudinal fuselage component in the wing center section and wheel well

area. It extends along the fuselage center line through the wheel well and under the wing center

section. The transport fuselage contains one or more mid section assemblies. These mid section

assemblies one basically circular in shape with a constant cross size. The mid section of the

structure contains landing gear attached points.

The off section changes the cross sectional shape of the fuselage into the size and shape

necessary to join with fuselage at the body or tail cone. The center body or tail cone is in the

point of attachment for the flight control surface and depending on the aircraft design. The

fuselage sections are joined to complete the basic assembly of the fuselage may also in corporate

an engine installation area.

Command used:



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DRAFTING:

Ex No: 9 LAYOUT OF TYPICAL FUSELAGE STRUCTURE

Data:

LD-2 LD-2 LD-3 LD-3

Boeing 767 Airbus A300

LD-3 LD-3 LD-3 LD-3

McDonell

Douglas DC-10

Boeing 747


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CROSS SECTION OF FUSELAGE

LD-3LD-3 LD-3 LD-3

Boeing 777 Boeing 747

FUSELAGE SHELL

LONGERONS


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RESULT:

Thus the layout of the typical fuselage structure has been drafted by using AUTOCAD

2004 software.


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Ex No: 10 LAYOUT OF CONTROL SYSTEM

Date:

AIM:

To draft and study the control system layout of specialized aircraft by using AUTOCAD

2004 software.

TYPICAL CONTROLSYSTEMFOR A LARGEAIRCRAFT-BOEING:

The primary flight controls are the aileron, elevators and rudders flight controls are

powered from the three airplane hydraulic systems. There is no manual backup system when

hydraulic power is lost.

Spoilers assist the ailerons in providing roll airfoil and operate as speed brakes. The variable

pitch horizontal stabilized assist the elevator is providing pitch control high lift for takeoff and

landing is provided by trailing edge flaps and leading edge slats.

RUDDER CONTROL SYSTEM YAW CONTROL:

Directional control about the yaw axis is provided by the rudder control system. The

rudder is hydraulically powered and control through displacement of either pilots rudder pedals.

Two yaws dampers operate through the rudder control systems to improve direction stability and

help to eliminate unwanted yawing of the aircraft.

Displacement of either nor of rudder pedals send a signal to the three rudder hydraulicactuators. The position of the rudder is shown on the EICAs {Engine Indicating and new

alerting system } status display

Rudder trim is available by rotating the rudder trim control to the desired direction. The

control provides signals to the electric motor that reposition the rudder neutral point. The rudder

trim indicator show the unit of rudder trim that are signaled.

The control systems from the rudder pedals and trim control to the rudder actuator are

modified by a rudder ratio changer. As airspeed increases the ratio reduces the rudder deflection

that results from the rudders input

The ratio changer receives air data computers airspeed input and provides control signals to an

actuator powered by the left hydraulic system. The actuator modifies the pilots control input


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RUDDER CONROL SYSTEMYAW CONTROL:

YAW

DAMPER

M

RUDDERL

R C


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AILERON CONROL SYSTEMROLL CONTROL:

M

LEFT RIGHT

TRIM SWITCHES

AILERONAILERO

NR

R

C

C


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ELEVATER CONTROL SYSTEM PITCH CONTROL:

The pitch control surfaces consists of two hydraulically powered elevators and a

hydraulically powered elevators and a hydraulically powered stabilizer to improve speed stability

Moving either control column sends a signal to the hydraulic actuators on the elevators.There are three actuators for each elevator. If one control column should i am applying sufficient

forward (or) after force to other causes two columns to disconnect pitch column is then available

using the free control system.

Elevator positions are shown on the EICAs status display. Separate pointers indicates the

left and right elevator deflection two elevator, feet system provide artificial feet forces to the

pilots control columns

AILERON CONTROL SYSTEM ROLL CONTROL:

The roll control surfaces consists of hydraulically powered ailerons and spoilers which

are connected so that it one control wheel jams, applying additional forces causes the control

wheels to disconnect roll control wheel.

The aileron is located on each wing, rotating either control wheel sends a signed to the

aileron hydraulically actuators.

Two actuators are used for each aileron. It positioned are shown on the switches operate an

electric motors that provides systems to reposition the ailerons hydraulic system is necessary to

accurately set the aileron trim an aileron trim indicator is located on both control columns and

indicates in unit of trim.

Command used:



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DRAFTING:

Ex No: 10 FLEXIBLE CONTROL SYSTEM LAYOUT

Date:


RESULT:

RUDDER

ELEVATOR

RIGHTAILERON

LEFTAILERON

CONTROL WHEEL

BALANCING CABLE

CHAIN & SPROCKET(AILERON)

CHAIN &

SPROCKET(ELEVATOR)

PUSH ROD

ELEVATOR

design & drafting lab manual

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