Describing the Unobserved: Describing the Unobserved: Methodological Challenges in Empirical Methodological Challenges in Empirical

Studies on Human TraffickingStudies on Human Trafficking

Tyldum and Brunovskis, in Tyldum and Brunovskis, in Data and Research on Human Data and Research on Human

TraffickingTrafficking (2000) (2000)

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Empirical Research on Human Empirical Research on Human Trafficking (HT)Trafficking (HT)

As international awareness of problem of HT has As international awareness of problem of HT has risen, there have been increased efforts to risen, there have been increased efforts to describe problem, including estimates of scope, describe problem, including estimates of scope, description of trends and victim characteristicsdescription of trends and victim characteristicsUnsuitable methodologies have been employed, Unsuitable methodologies have been employed, e.g., making inferences on basis of limited datae.g., making inferences on basis of limited dataInadequate data collection has real-world Inadequate data collection has real-world consequences consequences policies and interventions will be ineffectivepolicies and interventions will be ineffective

-both overestimates and underestimates can -both overestimates and underestimates can have have negative consequences, e.g., misallocating negative consequences, e.g., misallocating

resourcesresources

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Relevant populations are hidden Relevant populations are hidden

Prostitutes/sex workers, traffickers, Prostitutes/sex workers, traffickers, undocumented immigrants, trafficking undocumented immigrants, trafficking victims/survivors are all “hard-to-reach”victims/survivors are all “hard-to-reach”

hidden populationhidden population is a group of individuals is a group of individuals whose size and boundaries are unknown, whose size and boundaries are unknown, for whom no sampling frame existsfor whom no sampling frame exists

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Relevant policy areas are highly Relevant policy areas are highly politicizedpoliticized

Prostitution, labor market protection, Prostitution, labor market protection, immigration laws are extremely politicizedimmigration laws are extremely politicized

Key actors with access to critical Key actors with access to critical information have their own policy agendasinformation have their own policy agendas

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Determining Who to CountDetermining Who to Count

Conceptual identification/Conceptual identification/conceptualizationconceptualization– based on UN Protocolbased on UN Protocol

Practical identification/Practical identification/operationalizationoperationalization– there are still ambiguities in the way the there are still ambiguities in the way the

definition is commonly operationalizeddefinition is commonly operationalized– demands clarification of the interpretation of demands clarification of the interpretation of

the UN Protocol, in particular on aspects such the UN Protocol, in particular on aspects such as exploitation of the prostitution of others, as exploitation of the prostitution of others, and exploitation of a position of vulnerabilityand exploitation of a position of vulnerability

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Trafficking in persons, as defined in Trafficking in persons, as defined in UN Protocol (2000)UN Protocol (2000)

[[activityactivity] Trafficking in persons shall mean the ] Trafficking in persons shall mean the recruitment, transportation, transfer, harboring or receipt recruitment, transportation, transfer, harboring or receipt of persons, of persons, [[meansmeans] by means of threat or use of force of other ] by means of threat or use of force of other forms of coercion, of abduction, of fraud, of deception, of forms of coercion, of abduction, of fraud, of deception, of the abuse of power or of a position of vulnerability or of the abuse of power or of a position of vulnerability or of the giving or receiving of payments or benefits to achieve the giving or receiving of payments or benefits to achieve the consent of a person having control over another the consent of a person having control over another person, person, [[intentintent] for the purpose of exploitation. Exploitation shall ] for the purpose of exploitation. Exploitation shall include, at a minimum, the exploitation of the prostitution include, at a minimum, the exploitation of the prostitution of others or other forms of sexual exploitation, forced of others or other forms of sexual exploitation, forced labor or services, slavery or practices similar to slavery, labor or services, slavery or practices similar to slavery, servitude or the removal of organs” (UN 2000)servitude or the removal of organs” (UN 2000)

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HowHow to count victims? to count victims?

It is difficult to distinguish traits simply It is difficult to distinguish traits simply through observation, e.g., through observation, e.g., – whether person has been manipulated or whether person has been manipulated or

luredlured– extent of exploitationextent of exploitation

Information necessary for classification is Information necessary for classification is most easily obtained through most easily obtained through survey datasurvey data

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Populations and subpopulationsPopulations and subpopulations

Victims of traffickingVictims of trafficking are subpopulations of are subpopulations of persons migratingpersons migrating and and persons exploitedpersons exploited

Victims known to NGOsVictims known to NGOs and and trafficking trafficking cases registered by law enforcement cases registered by law enforcement agenciesagencies (LEAs) are subpopulations of the (LEAs) are subpopulations of the overall population of victimsoverall population of victims

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Obstacles to valid inferences from Obstacles to valid inferences from subpopulations to populationssubpopulations to populations

Ratio of assisted victims to total victims is Ratio of assisted victims to total victims is unknownunknown

Biases in sample of assisted victims Biases in sample of assisted victims unknownunknown

Both (ratio & biases) are likely to vary Both (ratio & biases) are likely to vary between regions and over time, making between regions and over time, making inferences to whole population difficultinferences to whole population difficult

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Researchers often must rely on Researchers often must rely on intermediaries to access victims: intermediaries to access victims:

law enforcement agencies (LEAs)law enforcement agencies (LEAs)

nongovernmental organizations (NGOs)nongovernmental organizations (NGOs)– social/legal service agenciessocial/legal service agencies– community-based organizations (CBOs)community-based organizations (CBOs)– immigrant service providersimmigrant service providers– othersothers

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Institutional biases may distort victim counts Institutional biases may distort victim counts & victim profiles from LEAs/NGOs& victim profiles from LEAs/NGOs

Ability of LEAs & NGOs to recognize Ability of LEAs & NGOs to recognize traffickingtrafficking

Behavior of victims in contact with LEAs & Behavior of victims in contact with LEAs & NGOsNGOs

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Social factors influencing victim Social factors influencing victim counts & victim profiles from LEAscounts & victim profiles from LEAs

Ability of LEA to recognize traffickingAbility of LEA to recognize trafficking– functionality of law enforcement apparatus, resources, functionality of law enforcement apparatus, resources,

identification tools, etc.identification tools, etc.– focus of attention (e.g., national groups thought to be focus of attention (e.g., national groups thought to be

at high-risk or age groups that are more easily at high-risk or age groups that are more easily observed are more likely to be counted and over-observed are more likely to be counted and over-represented)represented)

Behavior of victims in contact with LEABehavior of victims in contact with LEA– groups vary in terms of personal resources (e.g., trust groups vary in terms of personal resources (e.g., trust

in police, language skills, access to information) in police, language skills, access to information) – those groups with “better” resources are more likely to those groups with “better” resources are more likely to

be counted and over-representedbe counted and over-represented

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Social factors influencing victim Social factors influencing victim counts & victim profiles from NGOscounts & victim profiles from NGOs

Ability of NGO to recognize traffickingAbility of NGO to recognize trafficking– resources, identification tools, etc.resources, identification tools, etc.– focus of attention may be on particular ethnic or focus of attention may be on particular ethnic or

religious groups or geographical areas based on religious groups or geographical areas based on organizational mandateorganizational mandate

Behavior of victims in contact with NGOBehavior of victims in contact with NGO– resources, e.g., awareness of assistance, resources, e.g., awareness of assistance,

accessibility of assistanceaccessibility of assistance– self-identification as victim “worthy” of assistanceself-identification as victim “worthy” of assistance