denver school of nursing – adn & bsn programs no laboratory component for this class bio 206...
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Denver School of Nursing – ADN & BSN ProgramsNo Laboratory component for this class
BIO 206 & 308 – Ch 25 & 26 – Pulmonary Phys / Path
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What are the three most important structures of the Respiratory System???
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What are the three most important structures of the Respiratory System???
1. Lungs – WHY?
2. Muscles of Respiration – WHY?
3. Brain – WHY?
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Secondary =
Tertiary=
Primary =
Muy Importante!=
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The Respiratory System is divided into two general parts:
The Upper Respiratory Tract
The Lower Respiratory Tract
Where do you think the division starts?
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What is the respiratory mucosa?
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Proper Definition: From A&P Thibodeau: “Mucous membranes
are epithelial membranes that line body surfaces opening directly to the exterior (latin name, mucosa)... Their name is derived from the fact that they produce a film of mucus that coats and protects the underlying cells.”
In addition to protection, the mucus has other purposes, can you tell me what they are??
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Function of Mucosa: Protection – for underlying tissue Immune Support!
Mechanically capture debris Presence of “mucins” (proteoglycans) Bacterial interface
Lubricant – to allow food to move in digestive tract, and if aspiration occurs in respiratory tract the mucosa will also allow for the pleasantry of “regurg” / emesis.
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NosePharynxLarynxTracheaBronchiBronchiolesAlveoliLungsPleura
What is the purpose and function of each of these structures???
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Remember what these are REALLY called?
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Bronchioles
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What are the serious membranes in the body?
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Image from http://www.augustatech.edu/anatomy
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Image from http://www.augustatech.edu/anatomy
Where are the 3 primary serous membranes found in the human body?
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Serous membranes: Heart, lungs, GI
Image from http://www.augustatech.edu/anatomy
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Illustration of the mechanism of respiration
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Major and accessory muscles
Major muscles of inspiration▪ Diaphragm▪ External intercostals
Accessory muscles of inspiration▪ Sternocleidomastoid and scalene muscles
Accessory muscles of expiration▪ Abdominal and internal intercostal muscles
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Alveolar surface tension and ventilation Function of surfactant
Elastic properties of the lung and chest wall Elastic recoil Compliance
Airway resistance
Work of breathing
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Four steps Ventilation of the lungs Diffusion of oxygen from the alveoli into
the capillary blood Perfusion of systemic capillaries with
oxygenated blood Diffusion of oxygen from systemic
capillaries into the cells
Diffusion of CO2 occurs in reverse order
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IN the PONS (of the Brain Stem)1) Apneustic CenterStimulates neurons to promote Inspiration via External intercostals and the diaphragm2) Pneumotaxic CenterStimulated neurons to promote Expiration via the Internal intercostals and rectus abdominis
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Neurochemical controlRespiratory center
▪ Dorsal respiratory group▪ Ventral respiratory group▪ Pneumotaxic center▪ Apneustic center
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Chemoreceptors1) Central Chemoreceptors ~ located in the medulla2) Peripheral Chemoreceptors ~ located in the Aorta &
the carotid bodies
Both detect increased levels in Carbon Dioxide, and then stimulate Increase in RR
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Ventilate the alveoli
Diffuse gases into and out of the blood
Perfuse the lungs so the body receives oxygen
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Ventilation Mechanical movement of gas or air
into and out of the lungs
Minute volume▪ Ventilatory rate multiplied by the volume of air per
breath
Alveolar ventilation
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Lung Volume chart
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Image Source: http://www.anaesthetist.com
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Spirometry Diffusion capacity Residual volume Functional reserve capacity (FRC) Total lung capacity Arterial blood gas analysis Chest radiographs
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Conducting airways Upper airways
▪ Nasopharynx▪ Oropharynx
Larynx▪ Connects upper and lower airways
Lower airways▪ Trachea▪ Bronchi▪ Terminal bronchioles
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Gas-exchange airways Respiratory bronchioles Alveolar ducts Alveoli
▪ Epithelial cells▪ Type I alveolar cells
Alveolar structure Where diffusion of Respiratory gasses occurs
▪ Type II alveolar cells Surfactant production
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Pulmonary circulation has a lower pressure than the systemic circulation
One third of pulmonary vessels are filled with blood at any given time
Pulmonary artery divides and enters the lung at the hilus
Each bronchus and bronchiole has an accompanying artery or arteriole
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Alveolocapillary membrane Formed by the shared alveolar and capillary
walls
Gas exchange occurs across this membrane
Membrane formed by what cells?
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Barometric pressurePartial pressure
Partial pressure of water vapor
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Barometric pressure Partial
pressure Speaking of partial
pressure…
Have you ever wondered what the partial pressure of O2 is at sea level is?
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Distribution of ventilation and perfusion
Gravity and alveolar pressure
Ventilation-perfusion ratio(0.8)
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Oxygen transport Diffusion across the alveolocapillary
membrane Determinants of arterial oxygenation
▪ Hemoglobin binding, oxygen saturation Oxyhemoglobin association and
dissociation▪ Oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve▪ Bohr effect
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Carbon dioxide transport Dissolved in plasma
Bicarbonate(HCO3) Carbamino compounds (hemaglobin)
Haldane effect
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Dissolved in plasma-Pco2 Arterial -5% Venous-10%
Bicarbonate-HCO3 Arterial-90% Venous-60%
Carbamino compounds-Hb Arterial-5% Venous-30%
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Hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction
Caused by low alveolar PO2
Blood is shunted to other, well-ventilated portions of the lungs▪ Provides better ventilation and perfusion
matching▪ If hypoxia affects all segments of the lungs,
the vasoconstriction can result in pulmonary hypertension
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Acidemia also causes pulmonary artery constriction
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Image Source: http://www.gilmerfreepress.net
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Dyspnea Subjective sensation of uncomfortable
breathing Orthopnea
▪ Dyspnea when a person is lying down
Paroxysmal nocturnal dyspnea (PND)
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Dyspnea Subjective sensation of uncomfortable
breathing Orthopnea
▪ Dyspnea when a person is lying down
Paroxysmal nocturnal dyspnea (PND) Generally w LV Failure
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Abnormal breathing patterns Kussmaul respirations (hyperpnea)
Cheyne-Stokes respirations
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Hypoventilation Hypercapnia
Hyperventilation Hypocapnia
Cough Acute cough Chronic cough
Hemoptysis
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Cyanosis PainClubbing Abnormal sputum
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HypercapniaHypoxemia
Hypoxemia versus hypoxia Ventilation-perfusion abnormalities
▪ Shunting
Acute respiratory failurePulmonary edema
Excess water in the lungs
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What is missing from this cartoon?
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Aspiration Passage of fluid and solid particles into the lungs
Atelectasis Compression atelectasis Absorption atelectasis
Bronchiectasis Persistent abnormal dilation of the bronchi
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Squeeze
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Bronchiolitis Inflammatory obstruction of the small
airways Most common in children Occurs in adults with chronic bronchitis,
in association with a viral infection, or with inhalation of toxic gases
(50% of the time due to what virus??)
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Bronchiolitis obliterans Late-stage fibrotic disease of the airways Can occur with all causes of bronchiolitis
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Pneumothorax Open pneumothorax
Tension pneumothorax
Spontaneous pneumothorax
Secondary pneumothorax
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One way valve
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Pleural effusion Transudative effusion
Exudative effusion
Hemothorax
Empyema▪ Infected pleural effusion
Chylothorax
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Pleural space
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Blood
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Abscess formation and cavitation Abscess Consolidation Cavitation
Pulmonary fibrosis Excessive amount of fibrous or
connective tissue in the lung
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Chest wall restriction Compromised chest wall
▪ Deformation, immobilization, and/or obesity
Flail chest Instability of a portion of the chest wall
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Inhalation disorders Exposure to toxic gases Pneumoconiosis
▪ Silica▪ Asbestos▪ Coal
Allergic alveolitis▪ Extrinsic allergic alveolitis ▪ (hypersensitivity pneumonitis)
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Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) Fulminant form of respiratory failure
characterized by acute lung inflammation and diffuse alveolocapillary injury
Injury to the pulmonary capillary endothelium
Inflammation and platelet activation Surfactant inactivation Atelectasis
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Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) Manifestations
▪ Hyperventilation▪ Respiratory alkalosis▪ Dyspnea and hypoxemia▪ Metabolic acidosis▪ Hypoventilation▪ Respiratory acidosis▪ Further hypoxemia▪ Hypotension, decreased cardiac output, death
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Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) Evaluation and treatment
▪ Physical examination, blood gases, and radiologic examination
▪ Supportive therapy with oxygenation and ventilation and prevention of infection
▪ Surfactant to improve compliance
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Postoperative respiratory failure Atelectasis Pneumonia Pulmonary edema Pulmonary emboli Prevention
▪ Frequent turning, deep breathing, early ambulation, air humidification, and incentive spirometry
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Airway obstruction that is worse with expiration
Common signs and symptoms Dyspnea and wheezing
Common obstructive disorders Asthma Emphysema Chronic bronchitis
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“Chronic inflammatory disorder of the airways”
Inflammation results from hyperresponsiveness of the airways
Can lead to obstruction and status asthmaticus
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Symptoms include expiratory wheezing, dyspnea, and tachypnea
Peak flow meters, oral corticosteroids, inhaled beta-agonists, and anti-inflammatories used to treat
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Chronic bronchitis Hypersecretion of mucus and chronic
productive cough that lasts for at least 3 months of the year and for at least 2 consecutive years
Inspired irritants increase mucus
production and the size and number of mucous glands
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Chronic bronchitis The mucus is thicker than normal
Bronchodilators, expectorants, and chest physical therapy used to treat
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Emphysema Abnormal permanent enlargement of the
gas-exchange airways accompanied by destruction of alveolar walls without obvious fibrosis
Loss of elastic recoil Centriacinar emphysema Panacinar emphysema
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ULL
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Pneumonia Community-acquired pneumonia
▪ Streptococcus pneumoniae
Hospital-acquired (nosocomial) pneumonia Pneumococcal pneumonia Viral pneumonia
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Lobar
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Tuberculosis Mycobacterium tuberculosis Acid-fast bacillus Airborne transmission Tubercle formation Caseous necrosis Positive tuberculin skin test (PPD)
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Cavitary
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Acute bronchitis Acute infection or inflammation of the
airways or bronchi Commonly follows a viral illness Acute bronchitis causes similar
symptoms to pneumonia but does not demonstrate pulmonary consolidation and chest infiltrates
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Pulmonary embolism Occlusion of a portion of the pulmonary
vascular bed by a thrombus, embolus, tissue fragment, lipids, or an air bubble
Pulmonary emboli commonly arise from the deep veins in the thigh
Virchow triad▪ Venous stasis, hypercoagulability, and
injuries to the endothelial cells that line the vessels
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Pulmonary hypertension Mean pulmonary artery pressure 5 to 10
mm Hg above normal or above 20 mm Hg
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Pulmonary hypertension Classifications
▪ Pulmonary arterial hypertension
▪ Pulmonary venous hypertension-CHF
▪ Pulmonary hypertension due to a respiratory disease or hypoxemia-COPD
▪ Pulmonary hypertension due to thrombotic or embolic disease-PE
▪ Pulmonary hypertension due to diseases of the pulmonary vasculature
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Primary pulmonary hypertension Idiopathic
Diseases of the respiratory system and hypoxemia are more common causes of pulmonary hypertension
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Pulmonary heart disease Right ventricular enlargement Secondary to pulmonary hypertension Pulmonary hypertension creates chronic
pressure overload in the right ventricle
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Lip cancer Most common form
Exophytic Stages
Laryngeal cancer Forms
▪ Carcinoma of the true vocal cords (most common)
▪ Supraglottic▪ Subglottic
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Bronchogenic carcinomas
Most common cause is cigarette smoking Heavy smokers have a 20 times’ greater
chance of developing lung cancer than nonsmokers
Smoking is related to cancers of the larynx, oral cavity, esophagus, and urinary bladder
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Environmental or occupational risk factors are also associated with lung cancer
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of Pathopysiology!!
Remember to…
KEEP UP WITH YOUR:
1) Text READING2) Powerpoint Review3) Study Guide Prep