The Case for Using Drones for Targeted Climate Change Adaptation in Rural Senegal

Thérèse d’Auria RyleyTzviatko Chiderov

Democratization of Technology and Food Production Expertise in the Sahel

Working Paper No. 010

Working Paper Series for Development, Security and Climate Change in the Sahel: Exchange Program between UF, Sciences Po and UCAD

Democratization of Technology and Food Production Expertise in the Sahel The Case for Using Drones for Targeted Climate Change Adaptation in Rural Senegal

Thérèse d’Auria Ryley

Tziatko Chiderov

April 2016

The Sahel Research Group, of the University of Florida’s Center for African Studies, is a collaborative effort to

understand the political, social, economic, and cultural dynamics of the countries which comprise the West African

Sahel. It focuses primarily on the six Francophone countries of the region—Senegal, Mauritania, Mali, Burkina

Faso, Niger, and Chad—but also on in developments in neighboring countries, to the north and south, whose dy-

namics frequently intersect with those of the Sahel. The Sahel Research Group brings together faculty and gradu-

ate students from various disciplines at the University of Florida, in collaboration with colleagues from the region.

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Sahel Research Group Working Paper No. 010

Working Paper Series for Development, Security and Climate Change in the Sa-hel: Exchange Program between UF, Sciences Po and UCAD

The Sahel is an expansive region on the southern edge of the Saharan Desert characterized by intense environmental change, political and economic instability, and rapid popula-tion growth – all of which contribute to various security challenges in the region. Despite this FRPSOH[�FRQÁXHQFH�RI�LVVXHV��GHYHORSPHQW�LQLWLDWLYHV�KDYH�RIWHQ�IDLOHG�WR�HPSOR\�D�V\VWHPV�approach, which would be well suited to tackle interaction and feedback between sectors, scales, and states.

The aim of the project, which has involved faculty and graduate students from the University of Florida, Sciences Po (Paris) and Université Cheikh Anta Diop (Senegal), is to shed light on the interplay between these different challenges and to generate development-based in-terventions and solutions aimed at alleviating social, environmental, economic and political insecurity.

Project participants met three times during the 2014-15 academic year, once in each loca-tion (UF, Sciences Po, and UCAD). Periodic virtual conferences were scheduled throughout the year to facilitate long-distance collaboration. The culmination of the project was the organization of a panel at the third International Conference on Sustainable Development Practice, held at Columbia University, New York (September 23-24, 2015), where the results from the project were presented. Some of this output has been reviewed for this Working Paper Series.

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Abstract:

This project explores the application of innovative technological solutions to improved agro-pastoralist

livelihood security in Senegal. Technological solutions are used by researchers and government programs to

both create and scale up effective solutions to local programs. This project however explores the potential for

application of technologies by food producers themselves, in order to facilitate self-management and mitigation

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nological solutions can engage expertise outside of Western constructs. Ultimately, we argue for the diffusion

and democratization of innovative technologies as viable solutions for climate change adaptation.

Climate change puts particular strain on food production in the Sahel. Arid and semi-arid climate zones

are experiencing the pervasive effects of climate change in terms of higher temperatures, more erratic rains,

and extreme weather events. Climate change research has extensively studied the impacts of climate change

on food production in the region, looking for potential solutions to aid in providing adequate access to water

and feed for the production of cattle and small ruminants. Livestock production is important to the diet of the

6HQHJDOHVH�SRSXODWLRQ��DV�ZHOO�DV�DQ�HVVHQWLDO�DVVHW�IRU�WKULYLQJ�UHJLRQDO�WUDGH�ZLWKLQ�:HVW�$IULFD��2QH�VSHFL¿F�case study we are exploring is the use of drones to aid in agro-pastoralist activities in rural Senegal. Mobile

SDVWRUDOLVWV�KDYH�KLVWRULFDOO\�UHOLHG�RQ�VFRXWLQJ�YLD�YHKLFOH�DQG�KRUVH�WR�¿QG�JUD]LQJ�DQG�ZDWHU�DFFHVV�DV�WKH\�move throughout the region. While historical means of scouting are effective, we argue that incorporating drone

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Civilian application of drones is becoming more popular. Drones are now increasingly used for disaster

response, conservation, agriculture monitoring, construction, real estate, entertainment and more. An impor-

tant application of drone technology in addressing the challenges of agro-pastoral communities in Senegal will

involve using drones as a complementary tool for better and more effective scouting of grazing lands and water

sources. Drones will provide aerial images of landscape for up to 5 sq km. These high-resolution images will

VKRZ�ODQGVFDSH�IHDWXUHV�VXFK�DV�ÀRUD�GHQVLW\��VHDVRQDO�ZDWHUKROHV��DQG�PDQ�PDGH�ERUHKROHV��6XFK�LPDJHV�ZLOO�be helpful in decision-making concerning which migration corridors to use, while reducing the need for mul-

tiple scouts, vehicles, and horses. Simple civilian drones equipped with digital cameras are user-friendly. They

provide image-based data, which allows for analysis by anyone, including those who are illiterate or literate in

non-Roman scripts. Reducing the need for “expert” intermediaries allows for a rapid response to data. Finally,

the cost of implementing and using the technology will be minimal compared to expensive solutions proposed

by NGOs and government organizations, and potential collaborations between agro-pastoralist communities and

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� 606�QRWL¿FDWLRQV�IRU�ZHDWKHU�LQIRUPDWLRQ��PRELOH�EDQNLQJ�DQG�RWKHU�LQQRYDWLYH�XVHV�RI�WHFKQRORJ\�have already had transformational effects on livelihoods throughout the continent. The dissemination of drone

technology infographics can be integrated into the unique technology network of agro-pastoralists, helping them

better mitigate the challenges of climate change.

Key Terms: food security, food production, climate change, innovative technology, modernity, drones, irriga-

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Introduction:+!Senegal,!like!many!of!its!Sahelian!neighbors,!has!been!greatly!impacted!by!climate!

change.1!Unpredictable!and!erratic!rainfall!and!deforestation!have!made!a!challenging!environment!even!more!difficult!to!operate!in.!At!the!same!time,!Senegal!is!uniquely!positioned!as!a!regional!economic,!political!and!cultural!leader.!The!presence!of!a!large!number!of!international!organizations,!UN!agencies!and!NGOs!offers!an!opportunity!for!introducing!and!supporting!innovative!solutions!to!complex!climate!and!social!issues.!The!fact!that!Senegal!is!more!economically!stable!than!its!neighbors2,!and!its!high!concentration!and!usage!of!mobile!phones3,!and!smartphones!in!particular,!also!make!it!a!good!market!for!testing!mobile!tech!solutions.!! Climate!change!converges!with!urbanization!in!Senegal,!putting!great!pressure!on!rural!food!producers!to!maintain!yields!that!will!support!the!national!population.!Fulani!livestock!producers!are!in!a!particularly!critical!position:!drought!and!reduced!rainfall!have!resulted!in!sparse!grazing!lands!and!further!limited!access!to!water.4!The!increase!in!urban!population!creates!greater!demand!for!animal!protein.!Supporting!Senegal’s!livestock!producers!in!the!face!of!climate!change!is!key!to!ensuring!nutritional!standards!are!met!nationally!in!the!coming!years.!!

This!paper!explores!the!democratization!of!innovative!technological!solutions!for!climate!change!adaptation.!We!will!specifically!outline!the!case!study!of!using!unmanned!aerial!vehicles,!or!drones,!in!scouting!for!grazing!and!watering!areas!amongst!Senegal’s!Fulani!mobile!livestock!producers.!Livestock!production!is!a!livelihood!that!already!entails!great!expertise!of!animal!husbandry!and!climate!behavior.!We!propose!the!use!of!drones!as!a!complementary!tool!which!livestock!producers!themselves!will!manage!and!directly!apply!to!best!fit!their!needs.!We!argue!that!drones!are!userNfriendly!and!can!be!a!viable!option!for!livestock!producers!who!are!interested!in!reducing!energy!expenditure!on!scouting.!We!apply!social!theory!and!anthropological!scholarship!to!inform!the!conceptual!design!of!a!social!enterprise!for!drone!use.!Mavhunga!states!that!“what!has!been!lacking!in!the!development!discussion!regarding!Africa!is!a!view!that!recasts!Africa!as!a!variegated!site!of!innovation!(not!humanitarian!desperation).”5!!This!design!does!just!that.!We!argue!that!creating!a!social!enterprise!and!allowing!pastoralists!to!adopt!technology!on!their!own!terms!as!consumers!rather!than!as!research!subjects!or!beneficiaries!of!aid!and!developmentNsector!programs!will!allow!for!pastoralistNconsumers!to!maintain!power!in! 1!M.!Mortimore,!“Adapting!to!drought!in!the!Sahel:!lessons!for!climate!change”!Wiley&International&Reviews&1&Climate&Change.1(1)!(2010)!2!“Senegal!N!Economy,!Overview”!(ISS!Africa)!3!Aker!and!Mbiti,!“Mobile!Phones!and!Economic!Development!in!Africa”!(Working!paper!211,!Center&for&Global&Development,!2010)!4!H.!Adriensen,!“Understanding!Pastoral!mobility:!the!case!of!Senegalese!Fulani,”!The&!Geographical&Journal!174(3)!(2008):!208!5!C.!Mavhunga,!“Inertia!and!Development!Approaches!to!Africa:!Towards!African!!Mobilities,”!Thresholds&(39)!(2011),!81

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decisionNmaking!with!regards!to!use!and!application.!Furthermore,!this!design!will!enable!quicker!troubleshooting!between!consumer!and!provider!and!consumerNdriven!engineering,!because!consumers!can!address!issues!directly!with!the!provider!rather!than!conduct!timeNconsuming!monitoring!research!projects.!

!Technologies,+Modernities+&+Postcolonialities!“But&while&it&is&appropriate&to&maintain&a&certain&skepticism&for&discourses&of&African&lack&and&

failure,& it&would&be&a&mistake& to&dismiss&or& to&deny& the&bleakness&of& the&continental&picture&

that& emerges& from& recent& studies& of& “Africa”& or& to& suppose& wishfully& that& the& ugliness& and&

horror&depicted& in&the&empirical&studies&are&simply&the&projection&of&a&Western&fantasy.&The&

gloomy&assessments…tell&an&important&truth&about&Africa’s&contemporary&place1in1the1world.&

They&cannot&be&dismissed&as&an&“Afro1pessimism”&that&could,&by&an&act&of&will,&be&discarded&in&

favor&of&a&sunny&“Afro1optimism”.&6!!

The!21st!century!is!marked!by!many!things.!It!is!marked!by!climate!change,!by!intensified!globalization,!by!significant!changes!to!the!human!experience.!And!it!is!significantly!marked!by!the!technology!boom.!Advancements!in!technologies!have!resulted!in!improved!medical!treatments,!entertainment,!military!technologies.!Technological!advancements!have!made!it!possible!for!people!to!communicate!from!vast!distances,!and!for!the!dissemination!of!information!in!ways!that!were!before!unfathomable.!

Media!and!scholarship!center!on!the!Global!North!with!regards!to!covering!the!technology!boom,!suggesting!that!innovative!technology!is!a!thing!of!the!United!States,!Europe,!Japan.!And!in!many!ways!it!very!much!is.!Bill!Gates!and!Steve!Jobs!developed!their!contributions!to!the!birth!of!the!techNage!in!the!United!States.!But!there!is!another!story!to!be!told!about!technologies,!which!encapsulates!areas!of!the!world!dismissed!from!common!techNdiscourse,!particularly!with!regards!to!Africa.!!!

Harding!explores!the!ways!in!which!postcolonial!places,!and!women!are!excluded!from!participation!in!the!development!of!and!discourses!surrounding!scientific!advancement.7!Of!particular!exclusion!is!the!African!continent.!Leach!and!Scoones!explain!that!science!and!technology!scholarship!focuses!predominantly!on!Northern!contexts,!while!development!studies!pertain!mainly!to!the!geographic!boundaries!of!the!global!South.8!Scholars!grapple!with!the!seeming!naturalness!of!the!African!continent,!not!sure!how!to!reconcile!the!manNmadeNmodernity!perceived!to!be!of!Global!North,!with!what!is!perceived!as!traditional!livelihoods!of!rural!African!food!producers.!Thinking!in!terms!of!

6!J.!Ferguson,!“Global!Shadows:!Africa!in!the!Neoliberal!World!Order”!(Durham,!Duke!University!Press,!2006):!10!7!Harding.!Sciences&from&Below:&Feminimism,&Postcolonialities&and&Modernities!!8!M.!Leach!&!I.!Scoones.!Science&and&citizenship&in&a&global&context.&Science&and&Citizens:&Globalization&&&the&Challenge&of&Engagement&(New&York,&Zed!Books,!2005),!15

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alternative!modernities!might!account!for!confusing!differences!in!development.9!However,!the!term!‘alternative!modernities’!also!permits!an!exclusion!of!the!African!continent!from!the!technology!roundtable.!The!suggestion!that!there!are!alternative!modernities!ignores!the!fact!that!access!to!technologies!occurs!along!power!differentials.!Not!because!the!version!of!modernity!one!may!experience!in!Abidjan!is!the!result!of!a!collective!effort!on!the!part!of!Ivoirien!citizens!to!bring!to!fruition!the!lack!of!technological!advancements!a!Western!researcher,!used!to!certain!comforts!of!home,!would!poignantly!notice.!!Ferguson,!although!not!speaking!specifically!about!access!to!innovative!technologies,!articulates!the!misconstrued!notion!of!alternative!modernities:!

For!cultural!practices!are!not!just!a!matter!of!flow!and!diffusion!of!consumer!choices!made!by!individuals.!Instead,!they!index!membership!in!different!and!unequal!social!groups,!globally!as!well!as!locally.!In!the!sense,!yearnings!for!cultural!convergence!with!an!imagined!global!standard…!can!mark!not!simply!mental!colonization!or!capitulation!to!cultural!imperialism,!but!an!aspiration!to!overcome!categorical!subordination.!The!persistence!of!cultural!difference,!meanwhile,!can!come!to!appear!as!the!token!not!of!brave!cultural!resistance,!but!of!social!and!economic!subjection.10!

It!is!important!to!address!the!powerNdifferentials!at!play!that!prevent!access!to!certain!technologies,!while!simultaneously!recognizing!that!some!of!those!technologies!are!designed!for!various!contexts!in!Africa!without!their!developers!even!knowing!it.!

An!example!of!the!toNdate!conundrum!of!Africa!as!a!techless!continent!is!the!popular!photographic!motif!of!a!Maasai!man!in!maasai!clothing!using!a!cell!phone.!These!photographs!have!featured!in!The&Economist&(2013),!National&Geographic&and!other!popular!sources.!The!cell!phone!just!does!not!belong.!A!maasai!man,!in!traditional!clothing,!against!a!backdrop!of!open!sky!and!natural!environment.!The!cellphone!is!a!foreign!object!in!the!scene!and!creates!provocative!conflict!for!the!viewer,!which!is!perhaps!why!this!photograph!and!others!strikingly!similar!to!it!are!still!widely!circulated,!long!after!the!fact.!!

Little!do!we!discuss!the!ways!in!which!this!is!all!but!conflicting!and!provocative,!the!ways!in!which!the!use!of!cell!phones!by!mobile!pastoralists!is!really!a!perfect!integration!of!the!technology.!Westerners!are!quite!sedentary.!They!spend!a!lot!of!time!in!their!homes,!and!their!homes!do!not!change!frequently.!They!also!spend!a!lot!of!time!in!offices!and!schools,!and!those!spaces!do!not!move!frequently!either.!They!travel!back!and!forth!between!home!and!work!travelling!short!distances.!There!is!little!need!for!Westerners!who!live!in!one!home!and!work!in!one!office!to!have!to!have!a!cell!phone!with!them!at!all!times!in!order!to!be!easily!reached,!because!they!are!also!in!close!proximity!to!land!lines!most!of!the!time!as!well.!!

9!D.!Goanker,!On&Alternative&Modernities.&In&Alternative&Modernities:&A&Public&Culture&Book&(Durham,&Duke!University!Press,!2001)!10!Ferguson,!“Global!Shadows:!Africa!in!the!Neoliberal!World!Order,”!20

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However!mobile!pastoralists!are!mobile.!They!are!constantly!moving,!constantly!changing!the!location!of!their!homes,!and!their!work!requires!sometimes!daily!travel!to!new!places!where!their!animals!have!not!yet!grazed.!Their!livelihood!requires!them!to!split!apart!from!larger!groups!for!extended!periods!of!time,!but!still!need!to!relay!information!back!to!those!groups.!Mobile!phones!are!designed!to!be!highly!mobile.!Westerners!are!not!highly!mobile,!but!many!Maasai!are.!There!is!no!irony!in!the!photograph!of!a!Maasai!man!using!a!cellphone.!The!irony!is!in!sedentary&individuals!surprised!by!the!use!of!mobile!phones!by!those!whose!livelihoods!are!in!fact!mobile.!

This!example!illustrates!the!value!of!exploring!human!behavior!and!searching!for!technology!to!enhance!human!livelihood,!rather!than!examining!the!technology!first!and!figuring!out!how!to!apply!it.!Furthermore,!it!articulates!the!false!notions!hidden!in!Western!culturallyNbased!perceptions!of!new!technological!advancements!as!they!are!developed!and!adopted!by!different!cultures!and!communities.!!Environment(ality):+Climate+and+Environmental+Change+in+Senegal!

We!turn!to!Agrawal’s11!concept!of!environmentality,&in!which!he!argues!that!environmental!subjects!are!made!in!likeness!to!Foucault’s!concept!of!governmentality.!Environmental!subjects!lay!stake!in!the!environment!along!economic,!social,!and!political!lines,!as!well!as!in!different!knowledges!of!the!environment!and!how!it!is!integral!to!their!lives.!This!applies!equally!to!the!urbanites!of!Dakar!living!in!highNrise!apartment!buildings!as!well!as!to!mobile!Fulani!pastoralists!in!the!Fulbe.!Rural!and!urban!spheres!are!interdependent!and!interconnected!in!ways!that!cannot!be!wholly!disentangled,!yet!the!urban!sphere!and!the!rural!sphere!are!spoken!of!as!two!separate!entities.!!

Climate!change!has!greatly!impacted!Senegal.!But!it!is!not!the!only!environmental!change!that!has!done!so.!We!explore!both!the!impacts!of!climate!change,!as!well!as!additional!environmental!changes!to!the!geographic!expanses!of!the!country,!and!the!various!changing!engagements!citizens!and!state!have!with!the!Senegalese!landscape!and!coastline.!Climate!change!impacts!regions!that!have!political!and!economic!histories,!and!those!histories!inform!how!various!societies!can!and!will!respond!to!and!attempt!to!mitigate!the!negative!effects!of!climate!change.!Rather!than!limit!explanations!of!climate!change!to!resemble!a!passive!Senegalese!population!to&whom&climate&change&happens,!we!want!to!articulate!the!ways!in!which!the!Senegalese!population,!with!various!sectors!acting!in!different!ways,!dynamically&interact&with&the&environment&along&social,&political,&and&economic&lines.!Understanding!that!Senegalese!citizens!are!actively!engaging!with!the!changing!environment!is!essential!to!understanding!how!the!incorporation!of!innovative!technologies!with!environmental!management!is!not!at!all!a!novel!idea.!!!! !

11!A.!Agrawal,!“Environmentality:!Technologies!of!Government!and!the!Making!of!Subjects”!(Durham,&Duke!University!Press,!2005)!

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Diffusion,+Democratization+and+Accessibility+of+Technology!“…questions&about&the&circumstances&in&which&the&activity&of&‘regulating&human&behavior&in&a&

state&framework&and&with&state&instruments’&has&recently&fallen&from&the&hands&of&those&

supposed&to&be&exercising&it,&paving&the&way&not&for&some&sort&of&revolution&but&for&a&situation&

of&extreme&material&scarcity,&uncertainty,&and&inertia”.12!Innovative!technologies!have!in!recent!years!played!a!profound!role!in!the!African!

context,!despite!the!popular!beliefs!that!Africa!is!a!techless!land.!Innovative!technologies!are!and!have!been!physically!present!in!SubNSaharan!Africa,!although!ownership!and!accessibility!do!not!parallel!that!of!their!Global!North!counterparts.!It!is!a!misnomer!to!say!that!Africa!is!techless.!Rather,!the!same!technological!materials!exist!in!Africa,!though!restricted!to!certain!spaces.!Furthermore!there!is!no!need!to!reconcile!the!manNmadeNmodernities!of!the!Global!North!and!the!manNnatureNalternativeNmodernity!of!subNSaharan!Africa,!because!this!is!simply!not!the!reality!of!what!we!see.!Innovative!technologies!are!quite!compatible!with!livelihoods,!values,!and!objectives!of!SubNSaharan!African!communities.!The!issue!lies!with!access!to!technologies!rather!than!applicability!of!technologies.!As!access!to!and!diffusion!of!technologies!continue!to!grow!and!spread!throughout!subNSaharan!Africa,!we!expect!to!see!new!applications!of!existing!technologies,!and!development!of!new!technologies!for!contexts!not!familiar!to!places!where!innovative!technological!tools!are!already!widely!accessed.!

Technologies!have!grown!more!and!more!userNfriendly.!This!means!that!very!little!training,!if!any,!is!needed!to!teach!users!how!to!use!various!computer!and!mobile!applications,!and!users!are!often!times!able!to!develop!new!uses!for!those!applications!beyond!their!original!intent.!The!userNtechnology!interface!has!led!to!an!even!greater!advancement!and!contribution!to!the!tech!boom,!as!users!are!able!to!guide,!inspire,!and!sometimes!create!new!technologyNbased!solutions!to!needs.!

Creating!more!access!across!socioeconomic!lines!in!SubNsaharan!Africa!will!lead!to!new!applications!of!existing!technologies!used!for!problemNsolving!specific!to!socioNpolitical,!environmental,!and!economic!realities13.!

!Technology+and+the+Development+Sector!

Technology!is!increasingly!used!to!help!tackle!important!global!development!issues!and!Africa!is!not!new!to!it.!The!Senegalese!government!has!issued!the!Plan!Senegal!Emergent!calling!for!new!strategies!in!combating!issues!in!livestock!production!and!agricultural!production14,!which!calls!for!an!increase!in!the!presence!and!access!to!innovative!technologies!for!various!sectors.!SMS!is!a!clear!example!of!even!frugal!technology,!such!as!feature!phones,!empowering!a!great!number!of!people!with! 12!A.!Mbembe,!“On!the!Postcolony”!(Los!Angeles,!University!of!California!Press,!2001),!18!13!M.!Leach!&!I.!Scoones.!“Science!and!citizenship!in!a!global!context,”!In!Science!and!Citizens:!Globalization!&!the!Challenge!of!Engagement.!(Zed!Books,!New!York,!2005)!14!Plan!Sénégal!Emergent,!Gouvernement!du!Senegal!(2014)

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information!needed!to!make!better!decisions!N!about!healthcare,!farming,!market!behaviour!and!more.!!

Mobile!banking!has!been!transformative!in!economies!throughout!the!African!continent.!It!has!allowed!people!with!no!access!to!a!bank!or!other!financial!services!to!send!and!receive!money!directly!on!their!mobile!phones,!through!simple!SMS!commands.!The!best!example!of!the!success!of!mobile!banking!is!in!Kenya!through!the!MNPesa!money!transfer!system.!The!service!has!grown!so!much!in!recent!years!that!it!is!now!used!by!more!than!two!thirds!of!Kenya’s!adult!population!to!transfer!the!equivalent!of!a!quarter!of!the!country’s!GDP15.!

Mobile!applications!are!also!used!at!a!growing!rate!in!the!healthcare,!education!and!other!sectors!throughout!the!continent.!Because!of!this!technology,!community!health!workers!are!able!to!quickly!and!accurately!report!on!their!community!visits,!get!immediate!feedback!on!the!results!they!input,!and!diagnose!and!refer!patients!to!clinics!and!hospitals!more!quickly,!accurately,!and!efficiently.!In!addition,!the!realNtime!data!produced!by!the!use!of!apps!by!community!healthcare!workers!is!contributing!to!the!formation!of!country!or!regionNwide!health!analysis!systems.!These!systems!in!turn!can!identify!trends!and!even!predict!disease!outbreaks,!so!response!can!be!quicker!and!more!effective16.!Similarly,!technology!has!been!used!in!education!to!provide!easy!access!to!virtually!unlimited!amounts!of!information!to!be!used!in!classrooms!throughout!the!continent,!helping!achieve!ever!growing!literacy!and!educational!improvement!rates17.!!Unmanned+Aerial+Vehicles+(Drones)!

Unmanned!Aerial!Vehicles!(UAVs),!also!referred!to!as!drones,!are!small,!remoteNcontrolled!or!autonomous!aircraft.!Traditionally!drones!have!been!exclusively!thought!of!as!military!tools.!This!is!because!the!military,!and!more!specifically!the!United!States!military,!has!developed!drones!into!combat!machines,!which!have!been!used!at!an!increasing!rate,!especially!during!the!past!decade.!Military!drones!provide!the!ability!to!use!lethal!force!in!places!suspected!of!harboring!terrorists,!and!where!normal!military!engagement!N!like!the!use!of!soldiers!N!would!be!too!dangerous!or!even!illegal18.!This!controversial!use!of!drones!has!contributed!to!the!negative!perception!of!the!technology!by!many!people!around!the!world.!

With!the!recent!reduction!in!the!cost!of!drones,!we!have!observed!a!significant!increase!in!the!civilian!application!of!the!technology.!Drones!are!now!used!in!agriculture,! 15!“The!Economist!explains:!Why!does!Kenya!lead!the!world!in!mobile!money?!(The!Economist.!May!27,!2013.!Accessed!May!25,!2015)!16!Seth!Berkley.!“How!Cell!Phones!Are!Transforming!Health!Care!in!Africa,”!(MIT!Technology!Review.!September!12,!2013)!17!Steven!Vosloo.!“The!Future!of!Education!in!Africa!Is!Mobile,”!(BBC!Future,!November!18,!2014)!18!A.!Ogunfolu!&!O.!Fagbemi.!“I!have!a!Drone:!The!Implications!of!American!Drone!Policy!for!Africa!and!International!Humanitarian!Law,”!(African!Journal!of!International!and!Comparative!Law.!23(1)!2015),!106N128

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surveying,!wildlife!monitoring!and!conservation,!real!estate!assessments,!construction,!and!many!other!nonNmilitary!domains.!Drones!are!also!used!when!responding!to!humanitarian!disasters!as!an!effective!way!to!help!with!data!collection,!mapping,!monitoring,!search!and!rescue,!small!delivery!of!medicine,!and!more19.!The!potential!civilian!market!for!drones!is!much!larger!than!the!military!one,!and!it!is!still!mostly!untapped.!It!is!estimated!that!by!2024!the!market!will!be!worth!up!to!US!$89!billion20.!!!Application+of+the+technology+in+Senegal’s+agroHpastoralist+communities!

Drones!are!becoming!increasingly!accessible!and!available!for!anyone!to!purchase!and!use.!The!costs!vary!from!fifty!to!thousands!of!US!dollars!depending!on!the!quality!and!size!of!the!hardware!and!its!intended!use.!Drones!can!be!easily!purchased!online!and!delivered!just!about!anywhere!in!the!world.!

As!discussed!earlier,!mobile!communities!in!Senegal,!such!as!agroNpastoralists,!are!ideal!market!for!technology!meant!to!assist!people!who!are!in!constant!movement.!Drones!could!provide!significant!benefit!to!agroNpastoralist!lifestyles!by!increasing!the!efficiency!and!effectiveness!of!scouting!efforts,!and!reducing!the!costs!and!environmental!impact!caused!by!those!activities.!Traditionally,!agroNpastoralists!have!used!vehicles!and!horses!to!find!grazing!lands!and!water!sources!as!they!move!throughout!the!region.!While!these!methods!are!somewhat!effective,!they!are!becoming!much!more!time!and!effort!consuming,!especially!due!to!the!increased!challenges!posed!by!climate!change,!forcing!scouts!to!go!further!and!search!for!longer!periods!of!time,!using!more!of!their!limited!resources21,22,23.!Simple!and!easy!to!use!drones,!equipped!with!video!cameras,!can!be!a!valuable!complementary!tool!for!agroNpastoralist!scouts!to!reduce!the!time,!efforts!and!resources!they!spend!every!day.!Drones!can!provide!a!360!degrees!bird’sNeye!view!of!a!landscape,!greatly!expanding!the!visual!area.!Drones!can!be!wirelessly!connected!to!a!scout’s!smartphone,!which!would!allow!for!remote!control!of!the!device!and!the!ability!to!immediately!see!what’s!being!recorded!with!the!onNboard!camera24.!!

The!specific!drone!we!are!proposing!to!be!used!for!the!initial!stages!of!our!project!is!the!Parrot!Bebop.!At!less!than!US!$500,25!it!is!fairly!affordable,!and!costNeffective!when!

19!“Unmanned!Aerial!Vehicles!in!Humanitarian!Response.”!(OCHA!Policy!and!Studies!Series,!June!2014)!20!Liran!Antebi,!“Changing!Trends!in!Unmanned!Aerial!Vehicles:!New!Challenges!for!States,!Armies!and!Security!Industries,”!(Military!and!Strategic!Affairs!6(2),!2014):!21N36!21!H.!Adriansen!&!T.!Nielsen.!“The!geography!of!pastoral!mobility:!a!spatioNtemporal!analysis!of!GPS!data!from!Sahelian!Senegal,”!(GeoJournal!64.3,!2005),!177N188.!22!Adriansen,!Hanne.!“Understanding!Pastoral!mobility:!the!case!of!Senegalese!Fulani,”!(The!Geographical!Journal!174(3),!2008),!207N222.!23!JC.!Clanet!&!A.!Ogilvie.!“FarmerNherder!conflicts!and!water!governance!in!a!semiNarid!region!of!Africa,”!(Water!International,!34(1),!2009),!30N46.!24!Parrot.!“Bebop!Drone.”!Parrot.com!25!Parrot.!“Bebop!Drone”

8

considering!the!longNterm!cost!savings!in!time,!efforts,!and!resources,!which!are!expected!to!result!from!its!use.!The!Bebop!is!equipped!with!a!14!megapixel!Full!HD!1080p!camera!and!innovative!3Naxes!image!stabilization.!What!this!means!is!that!the!images!transmitted!are!of!great!quality!and!even!in!windy!conditions!the!camera!would!produce!a!smooth!image,!making!it!easier!to!interpret!and!analyze.!The!drone!is!controlled!via!a!free!smartphone!or!tablet!application!available!for!iOS,!Android!and!Windows!devices!from!up!to!300!meters!away26.!Due!to!the!increased!diffusion!of!technology!throughout!SubNSaharan!Africa,!it!is!likely!that!agroNpastoralist!communities!already!own!this!technology!and!if!they!don’t,!it!will!be!easy!and!inexpensive!to!obtain27.!!Approach+to+the+solution!

We!are!proposing!the!creation!of!a!social!enterprise,!focused!on!diffusion!of!technology!with!the!goal!of!making!it!available!to!communities!that!stand!to!benefit!from!it!the!most.!The!company!will!be!SenegaleseNowned!and!it!will!work!on!innovative!approaches!to!empowering!people!who!have!little!or!no!access!to!useful!technological!solutions!that!can!improve!their!everyday!lives.!The!agroNpastoralist!drones!project!will!be!the!social!enterprise’s!first!initiative.!

Initial!funding!could!be!provided!by!startNup!grants!and!social!impact!investors.!The!company!would!work!independent!of!special!interests!and!with!no!outside!influence!from!large!businesses!or!the!government.!This!will!ensure!community!buyNin!and!trust!in!the!solutions!provided.!More!importantly,!it!will!strengthen!the!mission!of!providing!technology!that!is!solely!focused!on!helping!communities!prosper!by!improving!their!access!to!innovative!technological!solutions.!

For!the!drone!project,!agroNpastoralist!communities!will!be!expected!to!pay!for!the!hardware!over!time,!with!the!ability!to!test!the!technology!for!the!first!three!months!free!of!charge.!Initial!training!on!use!and!repair!would!be!provided!free!of!charge!as!well.!Additional!services!such!as!complex!repairs,!new!batteries!and!other!replacements!could!be!available!at!a!fee,!which!can!also!be!spread!over!time.!Alternatively,!the!service!may!be!offered!as!a!subscription!model,!where!agroNpastoralist!communities!pay!a!fixed!monthly!fee!to!rent!the!drones.!Additional!repairs!and!services!could!be!provided!at!an!extra!fee.!Both!models!should!be!tested!in!similar!markets!to!analyze!the!benefits!of!each!and!they!should!be!adjusted!over!time.!

Additionally,!high!quality!imagery!collected!with!the!drones!along!with!GPS!information,!can!be!provided!to!national!and!international!organizations!for!a!fee.!This!would!allow!organizations!working!on!analyzing!the!impact!of!climate!change,!changes!in!landscape,!or!mapping!certain,!hard!to!reach!areas!of!the!country,!to!obtain!good!quality!

26!Parrot.!“Bebop!Drone”!27!"The!next!frontier;!Information!technology!in!Africa."!(The!Economist,!16!Feb.!2013:!64(US)!Academic!OneFile).

9

images!to!help!their!work.!It!will!also!provide!agroNpastoralist!with!extra!income!to!cover!their!drone!usage!fees.!!Challenges+and+ways+to+address+them!

The!perception!of!drones!as!military!combat!and!surveillance!technology!is!still!a!major!issue!when!it!comes!to!civilian!application.!People!familiar!with!the!combat!use!of!drones!may!perceive!civilian!drones!as!dangerous,!causing!potential!social!discomfort!with!the!technology28.!With!the!increasing!civilian!use!of!drones!globally,!this!is!slowly!changing,!yet!concerns!of!misperceptions!remain.!Privacy!issues!are!another!major!roadblock!to!widespread!civilian!use.!Some!technology!could!allow!for!capturing!images!of!private!property,!recording!sound,!and!identifying!people29.!One!proposed!solution!is!a!marketing!and!awareness!campaign!to!encourage!support!and!explain!the!benefits!of!using!drones.!Another!action!to!ensure!proper!understanding!and!identification!of!the!drones!for!public!use!is!painting!civilian!drones!in!bright!colors!in!an!effort!to!differentiate!them!from!their!military!counterparts!and!ensure!increased!level!of!comfort!by!the!community.!Finally,!the!application!of!drone!technology!in!remote!areas!and!agroNpastoralist!communities!eliminates!much!of!the!social!concern!and!risks!associated!with!perception!and!community!impact!which!would!be!much!more!prevalent!in!busy!urban!areas.!

Drone!regulation!is!being!implemented!in!most!OECD!countries,!but!it!is!still!nonNexistent!throughout!Africa,!including!in!Senegal.!Operating!in!an!unregulated!industry!can!raise!several!questions30.!The!technology!is!new!and!widely!untested!in!the!African!market,!so!there!aren’t!currently!good!comparative!examples!of!appropriate!regulation.!Additionally,!the!political!process!of!creating!regulation!that!defines!the!proper!use!of!civilian!drones!can!be!long!and!complicated.!Key!considerations!must!include!safety!and!privacy,!but!the!rules!and!legislation!must!not!create!significant!roadblocks!to!advancing!and!improving!this!technology!and!transparency!must!be!a!major!part!of!this!process31.!Finally,!the!nature!of!the!initial!project!we!are!proposing!is!a!nonNintrusive!use!in!mostly!remote!rural!areas,!which!may!not!necessarily!require!stringent!regulation.!

The!cost!of!drone!technology!has!greatly!declined!in!recent!years.!Even!so,!implementing!a!drone!initiative!in!Senegal’s!agroNpastoralist!communities!will!require!significant!investment32.!Additional!costs!will!include!regular!maintenance!and!repair!of!the!drones.!There!is!need!to!implement!an!appropriate!funding!and!operating!model.!The!initial!investment!for!hardware,!training,!marketing!and!awareness!campaigns!would!be!later!recouped!over!time!through!monthly!usage!fees.!!! 28!Caleb!Garling,!“Drone,!Drone!on!the!Range,”!2013.!29!“Unmanned!Aerial!Vehicles!in!Humanitarian!Response”!!30!“Unmanned!Aerial!Vehicles!in!Humanitarian!Response”!31!“Unmanned!Aerial!Vehicles!in!Humanitarian!Response”!32!C.!Anderson,!"Agricultural!Drones."!(MIT!Technology!Review,!Web.!11,!Jan.!2015).

10

!!Conclusion!

We!argue!that!through!increased!access!to!existing!technological!solutions,!such!as!drones,!agroNpastoralist!communities!in!the!Sahel,!and!particularly!in!Senegal,!would!be!better!positioned!to!more!effectively!adapt!to!the!changing!climate!and!the!growing!challenges!it!presents!to!their!daily!lives.!Furthermore,!through!this!initiative,!we!anticipate!showcasing!the!benefits!of!democratizing!access!to!technology!for!Sahelian!communities.!We!argue!that!effectively!using!innovative!technological!solutions!to!solve!complex!issues!is!only!really!possible!when!the!communities!impacted!are!intimately!involved!in!adapting!and!adjusting!the!tools!to!better!fit!their!needs.!We!should!not!see!rural!Africans!as!exempt!from!the!tech!revolution,!but!as!drivers!of!new!adaptations!and!developments!in!the!field!of!technological!engineering.!!

But!this!begs!the!question,!is!this!simply!offering!a!“Western!technological!solution!to!an!African!problem”?33!While!the!features!of!drone!technology!seemingly!complement!the!livelihoods!and!expertise!of!highly!mobile!livestock!producers,!are!there!other!tools!that!would!more!effectively!provide!strategies!to!overcome!climate!change!impact!in!these!communities?!While!drone!technology!may!be!a!Western!solution,!the!design!of!its!application!is!such!that!it!creates!a!situation!for!further!innovation.!Key!to!the!success!of!this!application!is!ensuring!that!livestock!producersNconsumers!maintain!directive!power!in!the!use!and!application!of!the!technology.!!!Acknowledgements:+The!development!of!this!paper!would!not!have!been!possible!without!the!support!and!guidance!of!certain!institutions!and!individuals.!We!would!like!to!thank!Renata!Serra,!PhD.,!Sarah!L.!McKune,!PhD.,!Aly!Mbaye,!PhD.,!Mandiaye!Ndao,!PhD,!MBA,!The!UF!FrenchNFlorida!Research!Institute,!University!of!Florida!International!Center,!Université!Cheikh!Anta!Diop!MDP!Program,!Sciences!Po!Paris!MDP!Program.!!!!!!!!!!!

33!C.!Mavhunga,!“Inertia!and!Development!Approaches!to!Africa:!Towards!African!Mobilities”!Thresholds&(39)!(2011):!79!

11

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analysis!of!GPS!data!from!Sahelian!Senegal,”!GeoJournal!64.3!(2005):!177N188.!Adriansen,!Hanne.!“Understanding!Pastoral!mobility:!the!case!of!Senegalese!Fulani,”!The&!

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Subjects.&Duke!University!Press,!Durham,!2005!Aker,!Jenny!C.!and!Mbiti,!Isaac!M.!“Mobile!Phones!and!Economic!Development!in!!

Africa”!(Working!paper!211,!Center&for&Global&Development,!2010).!Accessed!May!25,!2015!

Anderson,!C.!"Agricultural!Drones."!MIT&Technology&Review.!Web.!11!Jan.!2015.!Antebi,!Liran.!“Changing!Trends!in!Unmanned!Aerial!Vehicles:!New!Challenges!for!!

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Berkley,!Seth.!“How!Cell!Phones!Are!Transforming!Health!Care!in!Africa,”!MIT&Technology&!Review.!September!12,!2013.!Accessed!May!25,!2015.!http://www.technologyreview.com/view/519041/howNcellNphonesNareNtransformingNhealthNcareNinNafrica/!

Clanet,!JC,!&!A.!Ogilvie!2009.!“FarmerNherder!conflicts!and!water!governance!in!a!semiNarid!!region!of!Africa,”!Water&International,!34(1)!(2009):!!30N46!!

Donini,!A.!&!D.!Maxwell.!“From!faceNtoNface!to!faceNtoNscreen:!remote!management,!!effectiveness!and!accountability!of!humanitarian!action!in!insecure!environments,”!International&Review&of&the&Red&Cross!95(890)!(2013):!383N413!

Ferguson,!James.!Global&Shadows:&Africa&in&the&Neoliberal&World&Order.!Duke!University!!Press,!Durham,!2006!

Garling,!Caleb.!“Drone,!Drone!on!the!Range,”!2013.!!http://modernfarmer.com/2013/07/dronesNdronesNonNtheNrange/!

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Harding,!Sandra.&Sciences&from&Below:&Feminisms,&Postcolonialities,&and&Modernities.!Duke!!University!Press,!Durham,!2008!

Latour,!Bruno.!An&Inquiry&into&Modes&of&Existence:&An&Anthropology&of&the&Moderns.!!!!!Harvard!University!Press,!Cambridge!MA,!2013!

Leach,!M.!&!I.!Scoones.!“Science!and!citizenship!in!a!global!context,”!In!Science&and&!Citizens:&Globalization&&&the&Challenge&of&Engagement.!edited!by:!editors!B.!Wynne,!!M.!Leach,!I!Scoones,!Zed!Books,!New!York,!2005!

LowenbergNDeBoer,!J.!&!B.!Erickson.!“The!Search!for!the!Killer!App:!Precision!Farming!!in!Africa,”!Science&and&Technology!(2010):!107N116.!

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Manoli,!C.;!V.!Ancey;!C.!Corniaux;!A.!Ickowicz;!et!al.!March!2014.!“How!do!pastoralist!!families!combine!livestock!herds!with!other!livelihood!security!means!to!survive?!The!case!of!the!Ferlo!in!Senegal,”!Pastoralism!4(3)!(2014)!

Mavhunga,!Clapperton.!“Inertia!and!Development!Approaches!to!Africa:!Towards!African!!Mobilities,”!Thresholds&(39)!(2011):!79N82!

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International&Reviews&1&Climate&Change.1(1)!(2010):!134N143!"The!next!frontier;!Information!technology!in!Africa."!The&Economist!16!Feb.!2013:!64(US).!!

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!!!!!

13

Supplement:

Figure 1

The Parrot Bebop is a high quality, durable drone equipped with a high resolution camera and image stabilization technology allowing it to produce smooth video even in windy conditions. Source: http://parrot.com

Figure 2

The Parrot Bebop is easily controlled via a smartphone Source: http://parrot.com

14

Figure 3

The device used to control the drone displays a fullscreen real-time view of what is seen through the high resolution camera on board the drone. The device screen also has control features allowing the user to easily control the direction of the drone and the camera. Source: http://parrot.com

Figure 4

The drone is controlled from the ground using a smartphone or a tablet using WiFi technology. The range of control is 300 meters. An optional attachment (which costs around $300) expands the range to 2 kilometers. Source: http://parrot.com