Democracy and Democracy and Development in AfricaDevelopment in Africa

ECON 3510 A.R.M. Ritter June 17, 2014

Source: Text Chapter 11

Outline:I. IntroductionII. Characteristics of a Well-Functioning

StateIII. Defining DemocracyIV. The Colonial Heritage in GovernanceV. Governance since IndependenceVI. Improving Governance

VII. Democracy and Development

I. Introduction:– Intense interest in African Governance

in recent years• reflecting governance problems,

–Examples: African Organizations

UN ECA; NEPAD

NGOs and INGOs, e.g. Transparency International

IFIs: World Bank; AfDB.

Donor Countries

II. Some Characteristics of a Well-Functioning State

–Maintenance of Peace, Law and Order;– Acceptance and Success re the

“Responsibility to Protect”–Maintenance and Enhancement of Individual

Rights and Liberties • Fundamental UN Universal Declaration type rights• Political and civil liberties

– Authentic Representative Government• Checks and Balances on Exercise of Arbitrary

power• Transparency and Accountability• A “legitimate political process”

–Effective Functioning of the State• Revenue generation• Provision of public goods (infrastructural, …….)• Redistributive equity• Effective public policy

–Effective Legal System and Independent Judiciary• Independent from Government• Impartial and fair• Dispute resolution;• Enforcement of contracts, rights, etc.

III. Defining Democracy:Multidimensional and complex phenomena• “Process” and “Principle” Democracy

“Process” Democracy: Are leaders selected in free and fair elections”

“ Principle” Democracy: Are individual and minority rights respected?

• “Majoritarian” and “Consensual” “Majoritarian”: does the majority rule?“Consensual”: do all groups have some say and are

their rights protected against the majority?

III. Defining Democracy, continued:

• Huntingdon’s definition: “…system is democratic to the extent that the most powerful collective decision-makers are selected ……

– through fair, honest and periodic elections – candidates freely compete for votes – all the adult population is eligible to vote.”

IV. The Colonial Heritage re Governance

Inadequate tutelage re Representative Government under Colonialism;

Variation among colonies– “Indirect Rule” in some areas– Inadequate education of personnel for the

operation of national states

e.g. Congo: Almost Zero self-rule tutelage and experience

But note: Ethiopia: no Colonial Occupation (except 1936-1941

with Mussolini)

Liberia: long history of Independence since 1847;

V. Evolution of Governance since Independence

At Independence, early 1960s to early 1970s:–Western-type political systems, but often by

“parachute” rather than evolutionary assimilation

– Plus strong nationalist or nation-building ideologies in many cases;

– For a while, quite successful re maintaining law and order, improving human development, economic growth and structural change• A “Golden Age” “Golden Age” for African countries ! ?

1970s to 1990s: Shift to Autocratic Military Rule and One-Party Authoritarian SystemsMilitary coups in 70s

(Congo-B., Benin, Togo, Burundi, Ghana, Nigeria, Upper Volta, Mali, Somalia, Ethiopia, Uganda)By 1990, about 50% of the continent was under

military authoritarian rule Plus Single-Party States and some Single Party

Dominant States

1975-1990: a period of worsening economic regression, weakening governance, and social reversals. HDI declined for some countries

What was cause and what was effect re economic regression and worsening governance?

Political Map of the World, 1972

Idi AminUganda

Some African Dictators

Omar Bongo, The Cameroon

Bokassa, Central African

Empire

Mobutu, Ziare

Desmond Tutu

Julius Nyerere

Nelson Mandela

Some African Statesmen

Ellen Johnson Sirleaf

1990s to 2000s:

Political Liberalization and the beginnings of Economic RecoveryPolitical change occurred in most

countries, due usually to popular pressures

By 2000, many African countries had held multi-party elections

Some economic rehabilitation and recovery underway in most countries

Current Regimes in Africa:– Democratic Pluralism: See Chart

– Structures of Government– Popular Participation

Question: Is our concern with Governance and a focus on Representative Democracy simply “Western Ethnocentricity?”

The Chinese alternative

Freedom House Map of the World http://www.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page=289

Government World Map 2013 by Saint-Tepes

The Mo Ibrahim Index of African

Governance, 2011

See http://www.moibrahimfoundation.org/en/section/the-ibrahim-index

THE IBRAHIM INDEX • Funded and led by

The Ibrahim Foundation• Africa's leading assessment

of governance• 86 indicators grouped into 14 sub-categories

and four dimensions re governance• Uses indicators from 23 data providers

Ibrahim Index includes: • Safety and the Rule of Law;

(4 dimensions & 19 measures) • Participation and Human Rights;

(3 and 21)• Sustainable Economic Opportunity;

(4 and 27)• Human Development

(3 and 18)

State Variation regarding Capabilities1.Failed States; Cases of Total Breakdown: – at this time, perhaps only Somalia

2.Violent Conflict or Civil War:– Protracted Civil Wars previously in some cases – At present: Mali at the Edge– Areas of concern; S. Sudan, Ethiopia and Eritrea,

Chad, Northern Nigeria

Note: In 1999:– 20% of Africa’s people lived in countries with war or

civil conflict; – 90% of casualties were civilians– 20 million land mines were laid, 9 million in Angola

alone

3. Decayed States facing near or severe crisis“worsening institutional capacities cause and

also caused by economic stagnation and retrogression”

Zimbabwe, Malawi?

4. States with Reasonable to Very Good Capabilities:

Some Highly Effective: Mauritius, R. South Africa, Botswana, Liberia??

Others reasonably effective: Ghana, Tanzania, Kenya, Nigeria

IV. Explaining Africa’s Difficulties re Governance

A number of possible factors:1. Pre-Colonial Legacy?

2. Colonial Legacy?

3. Ethnic Diversity? Weakness of National identities?

4. Inexperience of new regimes and people?

5. Quality of Leadership?

6. Weak economic performance

V. Improving Governance1. Strengthening the integrity and

legitimacy of the electoral process and acceptance of the rules of the game– Concept and practice of a “loyal

opposition”– Political parties and their financing– Access to the media– Credibility and transparency of the

electoral process– Electoral Commissions

2. Social inclusiveness: regional, ethnic, racial, religious and gender balance in

• Government or parliament • Civil service• Distribution of public goods and social

services

3. Strengthening “Public Voice” • “Freedom of Speech” & Independent

Media;– Free press and independent critical journalism

• Strengthening independence of civil organs of society.

4. Enhancing support for Human Rights and the Rule of Law

Ensure: Equal access to justice and the legal

system

Ender equality and women’s rights

Cultural and social rights e.g. for indigenous peoples.

VII. Democracy and DevelopmentQuestion: What is the relationship

between Democracy and Development? – Does democracy promote development? – Does development promote democracy?

Central conclusion: Strong correlation; circular causation or mutual reinforcement– Generally, the more democratic the country, the

better the policies and the better the economic performance in terms of growth and incomes

– But what is cause and what is effect?

The Impacts of Democracy on DevelopmentWhat is development? Growth, + equity + sustainabilityWhat is democracy? (again)

• “Process democracy”: are leaders elected in free and fair elections?

• “Principles democracy”: are individual rights respected?• “Majoritarian” does the majority rule?• “Consensual” do all groups have some say and are their

rights protected against the majority?

– Huntingdon: the most powerful decision-makers are selected through fair honest and periodic elections in which candidates compete for votes and all the adult population has a right to vote.

Does economic development promote democracy? How?

1. “Modernization Approach”:Yes! Development helps generate democracy.How? Higher GDPpc better education, more

urbanization, more organized with independent civil organs of society, better communications … stronger demands for political inclusion and eventually democracy

OR, as authoritarian regimes prosper, they produce the conditions for democratization (one hopes) (Is this happening in China?)

How does development affect democracy?2. “Neo-modernization Approach”:

Contrary view to “Modernization” Approach: as development occurs, older political systems may become unstable, so that political breakdown or emergence of authoritarian regimes may occur.

i.e. “Development” may lead to instability and authoritarianism.

Sometime afterwards, a stronger democracy may emerge, but with difficulty.

– Maintaining stability is vital.

“Neo-modernization Approach”, cont’d : Relationship between development and democracy is

more complex. Levels of development may not predict well the

type of regime that will emerge after the decay or collapse of an old regime.

3. Civil Society Approach:Countries where civil society is well established

may be better placed to be more democratic. What is civil society?

4. Structural explanation:Class analysis:

the stronger specific classes – capitalist or workers – the greater the role they will play;

development generates classes which then may promote democracy

Conclude:

Does Authentic Democracy Promote Development? How??

Note: Democracies are vital for their own sake.Note also: Democracy may be messy , risky and

ambiguous, But it is also fun- lots of the time!

1. Genuine Democracy may ensure that policies promote the common well being more so than authoritarianism;

2.Democracies are more accountable than authoritarian regimes;

3. Peaceful regime change is possible when governments mess-up, or when times and conditions change.

Policy adjustment , improvement and evolution can occur;

4. In democracies, individual economic rights are protected better than in authoritarian regimes where the rule of law is dubious;

5. But special interests may dominate and pervert policies towards their own interests

Established democracies seemed to perform better in terms of growth, savings levels, human development indicators, …

Newly established democracies also performed well, but with some higher inflation, lower savings, higher debt….

Main conclusion?

The evidence supports both these propositions:

Development Democracy, and

Democracy Development

The Future of Democracy in Africa

Grounds for Optimism: General economic improvement supports genuine

democracy; Human development plus communications promotes

democratization; Theorizing (Modernization; Civil Society & Structural) imply

a strengthening of democracy; International opinion & legitimacy are supportive

Down-side Risks: Example of China Chances of economic regression