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Delhi: Delhi: An elephant learning to danceAn elephant learning to dance

Delhi study visit January 2007

OverviewOverview

• A sense of orientation…• Indian urban context…• Perspective on urban Delhi…

– Build environment– Institutional context– Planning responses

• Urban reform• Follow-up for ODA

A sense of orientationA sense of orientation……

A sense of orientationA sense of orientation……

Connaught Place

Park Hotel

GeneralGeneral-- PopulationPopulation• Pop pyramid- more men than women• Female foeticide/ infanticide:

UNICEF: 933 Indian women for every l,000 men, resulting in 40 million ‘missing’ women.

– Reason: Dowry system requires the family to pay the family to whom female child is married- esp poor families affected.

• Widows no longer committing Sati (ritual suicide), but cannot own property – thus extremely marginalised

– Extreme gender inequality exist alongside modernisation

Indian urban contextIndian urban context

Delhi Growth rate @ 3.87% between 91-01

2001: 13.8 million2021: 23 million

Delhi NCTD

Growth rate:1940’s:3.5%1970’2: 3.8%81-91: 3.1%91-01: 2.7%

Urbanisation•1991: 26.1%•2001: 27.78%•2020:40%

India Urban Population

United Nations1,291billionIndia Population(2020)

2001 Census1,027billion (2001)India PopulationCommentNumberIndicator

Source: India Vision 2020: 2004Urban Studies: 2006Delhi Master Plan 2021

Indian urban contextIndian urban context• Declining rate of urbanisation – both in terms of fertility and

rural-urban migration• In absolute numbers urban population adds 7-8m people

per annum (a new Gauteng every year)• Concentration of growth:

– Large cities getting larger – 35 metros account for 37.8% of urban population

– Delhi NCT has outgrown all other urban centers since 1951 –above 50% per decade!

– Delhi NCT growth 56% for decade 91-01 (122% since ’81)• Rural parts of Delhi urban conglomeration raced between 122%-146% for

same decade

Indian urban contextIndian urban context• Urban growth rate decreased after 1991 econ reforms.• Reasons:

– Migration has become highly selective. Previously manuf econ required higher numbers of lower skilled workers. Rise of service ind requires higher skilled professionals

– Slowing growth of slums– Increased mobility- people stay in hinterland and commute to the city– Urban peripheries are experiencing high growth but definition of urban edge

does not include them in urban area– Strict definition of “urban”:

• More than 5000 residents• Min density of 400/sqkm• 75% of working pop must be non agric

Perspective on urban Delhi: Built Perspective on urban Delhi: Built environmentenvironment

• High growth puts extreme pressure on service infrastructure– Master Plan actually underestimated growth with 900k by 2001

(that is nearly two sub-city populations)

– Major shortfalls in land development• Leading to large scale informality response

– DDA overwhelmed re land availability– Approval process stimulated unauthorised land development - colonies– Explosion of land grabs on DDA land (jdjuggi jhompari or JJ settlements)

• Massive increase in automobiles


• Typologies: Jhuggi JhompariIllegal informal

Perspective on urban Delhi: Built Perspective on urban Delhi: Built environmentenvironment• Typlogies: ColoniesOften illegal but formal

Perspective on urban Delhi: Built Perspective on urban Delhi: Built environmentenvironment• Typlogies: Old City

Haus Khaz(gentrifying old city)

Shajahanabad(medieval market city in long-term decay)

Perspective on urban Delhi: Built Perspective on urban Delhi: Built environmentenvironment• Typlogies: Luyten’s New Delhi


Commercial Centre(Connaught Place)

Administrative Centre(Rashtrapati Bhawan) Cultural Centre

(India Gate)


Indian Clerks

European Clerks

Military

Indian elites (Rajas)

Perspective on urban Delhi: Built Perspective on urban Delhi: Built environmentenvironment• Typlogies: Luyten’s New Delhi: Living area

Perspective on urban Delhi: Built Perspective on urban Delhi: Built environmentenvironment• Typlogies: Luyten’s New Delhi: Connaught Place

Parliament India Gate

Herbert Baker’s Admin BlockGovernment Ave – Looking east to India Gate

•Typlogies: Luyten’s New Delhi: Government Avenue

Perspective on urban Delhi: Built environmentPerspective on urban Delhi: Built environment


• Typologies: Sub-cities– 1982 (2001 & 2007 amendments) Master Plan provided for 3 sub-city planned

mega project urban extensions [socialist planning]• Rohini –nearing saturation• Dwarka – advanced stage of development• Narela – most recent project

– Planned as integrated decentralized neighborhoods for 1m+ people – new towns

• Linked to decentralised economic activities (freight complex, whole sale etc)• Connected to metro line extensions• Multiple housing modalities• Social infrastructure• Green spaces


• Typologies: Sub-cities (Dwarka)

DDA apartments in Dwarka


• Typologies: Modernizing Delhi

Modern shopping centers Integrated private town house developments


• Typologies: Modernizing Delhi

Decentralised office & retail concentrations Walled and gated suburbs


• Ancient Delhi:- City of Djinns (ghosts)

Qutab Minar

Cast iron pillar installed in 1020 by Rajput ruler


• City of Djinns (ghosts)

Haus Khaz


• City of the gods

Bai-a



Sikh



Islam



Hindu



$ Mamon

Perspective on Historical DelhiPerspective on Historical Delhi

• Understanding modern Delhi impossible without appreciating its history

• 3000 years of continuous urban settlement – Delhi as a holy place (suggesting it may actually be older)– Mahabharata (Indian epic 4 times as long as Bible describing

actual historical events prior to 900bc)– Hindu temple on Yanuma (Jumna) marking site of

ancient legend (one of 7 holy rivers)• History of occupation – interspersed with genocides

and large scale displacement

““City of many gates to enter City of many gates to enter ––but none to departbut none to depart””

Time lines marked by invasion and massacres

Two Rajput dynasties –dating from 8th century

Followed by Persians, Turks, Mughals, British

1st City of Delhi founded 400 years later by 2nd Rajput dynasty

Followed by 6 more cities - These are all medieval walled cities

“Old Delhi” is actually the 7th City of Delhi – Shajahanabad

“New Delhi” a new colonial city build by the British

Socialist new towns

Time lines marked by invasion and massacres

Two Rajput dynasties –dating from 8th century

Followed by Persians, Turks, Mughals, British

1st City of Delhi founded 400 years later by 2nd Rajput dynasty

Followed by 6 more cities - These are all medieval walled cities

“Old Delhi” is actually the 7th City of Delhi – Shajahanabad

“New Delhi” a new colonial city build by the British

Socialist new towns

• A city of cursed governments: -All the builders of Delhi ended up loosing the City

Perspective on Historical DelhiPerspective on Historical Delhi• Impact of Partition on Delhi

– Partition (1947) between Pakistan and India finally destroyed Mughal high culture clinging on in Delhi

– Massive deportation of people and displacement

– Trainloads of refugees systematically murdered

– Muslim enclaves in Delhi (such as Shajahanabad) defended like medieval walled cities with heavy machine guns and mortars –cities within the city

– Depopulated large parts of city– Very few people in Delhi trace

back before ’47

Perspective on Historical DelhiPerspective on Historical Delhi

• Post Independence politics– Indira Ghandi: “my father was a saint, I am not”

• Government notoriously corrupt, inefficient, socialist etc.• Repression through state of emergencies – attempts to buy popular

support – profound negative impact on Indian cities– Murdered by Sikh body guards

• Unleashed mob murders of Sikhs throughout Delhi– Hindu nationalists giving way to coalition governments– India modernizing since 1991 – spectacular process of social

change on the back of free market economic reform

Digression Digression

““a single tear suspended on the a single tear suspended on the cheek of timecheek of time””

• Taj Mahal: A tomb of enduring love or an expression of ultimate power by a tyrant– 20 000 men in 22 years created a masterpiece of Mughal-Islamic

architecture costing 400m rupees & 500kg of gold– Build as a tomb for Mumtaz Mahal (after dying in childbirth of 14th child)– Coincided with Renaissance in Europe - completed in 1640’s– Marked an unhappy ending of a golden era in Indian arts and

culture:• Coup d’etat by Aurangzep – civil war, murdered all male heirs, jailed his

father for 8 years until his death• Led a major destruction and exodus of Delhi – tens of thousands died• Plunged region into civil war and decline• Root of religious intolerance enduring since

TajTaj MahalMahal• Shaj Jahan’s view of his

masterpiece – near but untouchable

TajTaj MahalMahal

TajTaj MahalMahal• Salient features of master design• Symmetric design shaping nature –

in contrast to indigenous Hindu culture• Four rivers of paradise (garden of

paradise)• A-centric location (unique to Taj)• Build on raised platform• Mosque a requirement• Folly “guesthouse” to balance the

design• Location of Black Taj rumored to

have been planned

TajTaj MahalMahal

Failing DelhiFailing Delhi• Although urban growth

rates have declined, actual number of people joining cities is staggering

• Despite this, urban povthas decreased since opening of market in 1991

• Slums have limited access to basic services: water, sanitation or streetlights

Failing DelhiFailing Delhi• Infrastructure failure is crippling

econ growth• Investment in urban

infrastructure is stagnating.

Reasons: 1. Inability of municipality to raise

funds– Main source of income: property

tax- system old and obsolete– Sharing same amount of funds

amongst increasing pop– Only 15-20% service charge

collection

Failing DelhiFailing Delhi2. Legislative constraints:

• Rent control (in ConnaughtCircus ($2/ month) -> delapidation

• Property stamp duties: very high so people keep their properties undervalued

Failing DelhiFailing DelhiUrban Land Sealing and Regulation Act

1976:

Properties larger than 500 sqm need to forfeit excess to state for poor dev: massive nationalisation of property.

• Implications of Act:– excess identified around the edges

of properties- not usable– Slow movement of dev authorities to

acquire land– Slow development of land tracts

-> high distortion of land mkt-> destruction of land mkt: land not

released leading to resulting slumification

RecoveringRecovering

• Urban problems are not only due to state weakness but due to legislative impact, fiscal system, institutional setup– Despite good intention legislation has not helped the

poor

Major challenges Major challenges Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB)Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB)

• Responsible for water, air, noise and waste management-

• Air pollution:– Coal Based Powerstations- bad

quality coal & high ash contents -> “fly ash”

– Public transport one of main polluters: Pollution levels improved since CNG conversions on busses and three-wheelers

– Delhi has highest number of clean fuel vehicles in world: 80 000 vehicles

CNG Transport

CPCB cont. CPCB cont. • Water pollution:

– 33% of rivers in India moderately- severely polluted

– Yamuna river: • dammed in 4 sections• 22 km of river along Delhi• Majority of Delhi raw sewerage

dumped in Yamuna: 7 day settling and oxidation and raw water channeled to Agra for irrigation of crops that feed Delhi…..

• Sewerage collection problematic: Some areas no sanitation access at all

CPCB cont.CPCB cont.

• Water consumption:– Water very cheap & water resources overexploited– Water provision dependent on Monsoon– Traditionally high household water consumption- need

for water wise education– Climatic changes -> increased urbanisation due to

migration from rural areas where livelihoods are threatened


• Solid Waste:– Traditionally: “Dump and forget”– Collection efficiency 40-70%– Waste management not charged as a service– Informal waste management: “Rag pickers” but not

regulated– Recycling efforts underway- waste separation and waste

processing facilities


• Challenges: lack of control & enforcement due to uncontrolled pop growth, residential developments and resulting pollution

• Efforts to curb pollution undermined by rapid pop growth and infrastructure backlog

Major challengesMajor challengesState complexityState complexity

• Organs of state increasingly out of sync with outcome of economic reform project – highly entrenched and contradictory– Marxist state serving the

needs of entrenched elite Delhi is a local body

Municipality

Delhi is an extension of the central state

Lieutenant Governor

Delhi is a state (province)

State Commissioner

National initiative to address National initiative to address challenge of the Cities challenge of the Cities

• Realization that India’s competitiveness and future growth turns on addressing the state of cities

Urban Reform Urban Reform MissionMission

Managerialist Reform

Fiscal ReformInfrastructure Investment

National initiative to address National initiative to address challenge of the Cities challenge of the Cities

• Realization that India’s competitiveness and future growth turns on addressing the state of cities

Urban Reform Urban Reform MissionMission

Managerialist Reform

Fiscal ReformInfrastructure Investment

Aggressive privatization& PPP ledinvestment

FIRE ProjectLocal tax reform

JN Urban Mission fund

Legislative reformIntervention

63 cities -$12bn Planning reform - CDP

National Urban Renewal MissionNational Urban Renewal Mission

• Primary objective of URM:– Dev of infr services– Ensuring linkage between

asset creation and maintenance

– Accelerate investment flow into urban infrastructure

– Ensure planned development of urban areas

– Inner city renewal– Universal urban services to

ensure access by poor

National Urban Renewal MissionNational Urban Renewal Mission

• Objectives to be achieved through– CDPs: development agenda for the city– Detailed project reports: setting out projects for the city– Timeline for implementation

• Critique: – CDPs written by consultants as desk top exercises– Lack of ownership amongst local authorities– Weak substance of plans- only 25-30% of projects are new & good– Poorer cities will not be able to implement (LG to provide 30% of funds,

JNURM 50% and State 20%)– “Fix it” rather than developmental and creative thinking- absence of innovative

projects

Committee on Committee on InfrInfr PlanningPlanning• Infrastructure implementation under PPPs• Planning commission: sets down model concession agreements for

municipalities to take over planning functions for infr.• Newly established PPP process:

– PPP Approval Committee: provide approval for concession agreements within 3 weeks

– Bureaucratically streamlined– Ministries highly involved in setting up conditions for PPPs.

• Govt depts take ownership and drive the process (in SA projects and transactions are consultant driven)

• Urban Renewal Mission: laid down framework for infrastructure plans and city dev.

ODA FollowODA Follow--upup

• CDPs for 63 lead cities require independent review• Logic build on South African reform and intervention

experience

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