del lama et al 2014
TRANSCRIPT
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Urban Geotourism and the Old Centre of São Paulo City, Brazil
Eliane Aparecida Del Lama & Denise de La Corte Bacci &Lucelene Martins & Maria da Glória Motta Garcia &
Lauro Kazumi Dehira
Received: 23 December 2013 /Accepted: 15 May 2014# The European Association for Conservation of the Geological Heritage 2014
Abstract The use of geotouristic trails will be an efficientmeans of publicising geosciences. The proposal here is a trailin the old centre of São Paulo City, Brazil, describing the maintypes of stones that have ornamented buildings since thenineteenth century when São Paulo ceased to be a city oftaipa (rammed earth) buildings and became the masonry cityof the republic. Itaquera Granite is one of the most importantstones in the ornamentation of the floors and facades in thisnew phase of construction in the city of São Paulo. Later, othertypes of stones were used, such as theMauá, Ubatuba, Itupevaand Piracaia granites, as well as imported stones, such astravertine and lioz limestone. There is also a discussion ofthe influence of geomorphology in the establishment of theformer urban core, with the location of the so-called HistoricTriangle at higher topographic levels. This paper discusses thehistory and evolution of São Paulo City and its relation to thelocal geology.
Keywords Urban geotourism . Geotouristic trail . Dimensionstone . São Paulo
Introduction
Geology seems to be an unknown science to a large part of thepopulation (Durant et al. 1989; Eerola 1994; Hartz andChappell 1997; Augustine 1998; Brilha 2004; King 2008;Walsby 2008; Stewart and Nield 2013). Despite its historyof secular development and contribution of knowledge to thescientific and technological development of modern society, itstill attracts little attention from people who fail to perceive thespace–time dimension of slow geological processes and thetransformations they cause on the planet (Clarke 1991;Boulton 2001; Mansur and Nascimento 2007; Mondéjar2008). Even in the case of catastrophic events of shorterdurations, such as volcanic eruptions, landslides, earthquakesand tsunamis, the direct relationship of these events to geologyis little explored (Stewart and Nield 2013). There is still apredominant view that it is a science that seeks mineral wealthto meet the growth needs of countries, mainly related to thesearch for oil and minerals. Most people’s attitude towardsscience is formed at school, but unfortunately, not all countrieshave a geological curriculum in formal schooling.
With little or no formal education background in geosci-ence beyond school geography lessons, most laypersons areunprepared for the interconnected world of the “EarthSystem” and for hi-tech wizardry used to investigate it(Stewart and Nield 2013).
In Brazil, the popularisation of geosciences is still verylimited and hindered by many factors. One of the most im-portant factors is the limited spending power of a large pro-portion of the population and relatively small investments ineducation, culture and technology. Other factors that contrib-ute to the limited diffusion of geological concepts in Brazil arethe lack of collaboration between the media and geoscientists,generally poor awareness of journalists regarding this areaand, principally, the little interest shown by the geologicalcommunity in popularising information (Eerola 1994). A
E. A. Del Lama (*) :D. de La Corte Bacci : L. Martins :M. da Glória Motta GarciaGeoHereditas, IGc-USP, Rua do Lago n.562, 05508-080 São Paulo,SP, Brazile-mail: [email protected]
D. de La Corte Baccie-mail: [email protected]
L. Martinse-mail: [email protected]
M. da Glória Motta Garciae-mail: [email protected]
L. K. DehiraInstituto de Pesquisas Tecnológicas (IPT), São Paulo, Brazile-mail: [email protected]
GeoheritageDOI 10.1007/s12371-014-0119-7
few examples of works done in this direction started from aconcern with geoconservation (Mansur 2009). Therefore, asgeology does not exist as a discipline in formal education, thepopulation knows little about this subject (Compiani 1996;Carneiro et al. 2004; Toledo et al. 2005; Piranha and Carneiro2009).
But it only requires a slightly closer look to realise howgeological matters are present in people’s lives, whether in theplanning and occupation of cities, in construction or in leisure.
According toMenegat (2009), geology is a science that canread a place and its dynamics and then should produce anunderstanding of that place.
In Europe, the dissemination and institutionalisation ofgeology, mainly mineralogy, was aided by the proliferationof museums of natural history in the eighteenth century. InVictorian era Britain, geology was considered the most excit-ing and popular science (Bennett and Doyle 1996), as in manyother European countries. In 1854, “geological illustrations”were constructed in the Crystal Palace Park in London, thefirst geological theme park exhibiting reconstructions of ex-tinct vertebrates and geological relationships (Doyle andRobinson 1993; Doyle 2008). At that time, Brazil receivedmany expeditions of naturalists to collect minerals, rocks andores among other materials.
In current times, urban geotourism can be considered oneof the ways to acquaint people with geology, promoting anunderstanding, for example, of how to read the landscape, theoccupation of urban space and the constraints imposed by thephysical environment, including the settlement of the city inthe geological terrain and the use of geological materials in itsconstruction (Robinson 1984, 1985). In fact, Eric Robinsonwas the first British urban geology enthusiast, and he pub-lished many geological walks in London (Robinson andBishop 1980; Robinson 1987, 1988, 1993, 1997).
The use of geotouristic trails in built heritage is a well-established practice in Europe and North America (Pickett2006; Gall 2009; Herrero and Salamanca 2011; Ambroseet al. 2011) and is a growing segment in Brazil. The firstBrazilian geotouristic trail was proposed by Stern et al.(2006). Later, other Brazilian examples can be found inReys et al. (2007), Liccardo et al. (2008), Del Lama et al.(2009), Philipp et al. (2009), Carvalho (2010) and Augustoand Del Lama (2011).
Touristic trails in the traditional sense are currently com-mon place in the old centre of São Paulo, being promoted byvarious specialist agencies. It is possible to follow these trailsunaccompanied by using audio guides, such as the thematictours of Sao Paulo tourism, e.g. the trail of the architecture ofthe historic centre, available on the official tourism website ofthe city of São Paulo (http://www.cidadedesaopaulo.com/sp/br/o-que-visitar/roteiros/roteiros-tematicos).
The proposal of the present paper is not to reinvent trails,but to take a fresh look at them and to add geological
information on the rich built heritage of the old centre ofSão Paulo in order to arouse people’s interest in this matterand at the same time promote the dissemination ofgeosciences. After all, as Charsley (1996) pointed out, everycity has a story to tell that is probably related to geology.
Geotourism
In general terms, this is a sector of tourism aimed at theidentification, conservation and promotion of natural abioticheritage, having geology and geomorphology as its mainelements (Nascimento et al. 2007), in association with knowl-edge of the environment as a whole, including flora, fauna andenvironmental education, as well as aspects related to theinclusion of local communities regarding their socio-economic development and in the preservation of thisheritage.
The first to mention the term geotourism was Hose (1995),describing a type of tourism based on both geological andgeomorphological features, such as rock formations, geolog-ical structures and landscapes. This initial conceptualisationwas characterised mainly by the physical aspects of theseattractions, as well as by the need to provide both touristicand interpretive facilities in order to encourage visitors,redefined later by the same author (Hose 2000) to includethe social benefit and the conservation of the sites. Newsomeand Dowling (2006) supported the “geo” part of the term asrelated to the physical aspects and emphasised the role of theprocesses that create such features. In a review paper, Hose(2008) tells the history of geotourism and points out that in1850s in Australia, even without the formal use of the term,geological-based tourism had become thoroughly established.The author also emphasises that, being a relatively new term,it is continuously redefined and refined and, as mentioned byNewsome and Dowling (2010), the term ought to be clarified.These authors present a survey of the best-known definitionsand mention a broader concept disseminated since the early2000s (Stueve et al. 2002; in Newsome and Dowling op. cit.)by National Geographic, which includes geographical, socio-economical, historical, and cultural aspects. Besides Britishand American definitions, others came from Germany, Braziland Australia (Hose 2012 and references therein), which,according to the author, differ essentially based on thepersonal/academic background of the researcher.
Although not mutually exclusive, the different visions ofthe term “geotourism” have been the subject of intense dis-cussion, as emphasised by Moreira (2010) when highlightingthe controversy between the meaning given by NationalGeographic (2009) and other authors who criticise the exclu-sion of previous work that has focused on the same aspects(Hose 2008). In these newer approaches, activities related togeotourism should have as a natural complement the
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dissemination of the knowledge acquired in the light of inte-gration with other aspects of the heritage of the region. In thissense, mention should be made of the Arouca Declaration,drafted at the International Congress of Geotourism in the cityof Arouca, Portugal, in November 2011, which encompassesand refines the National Geographic definition, although thereis no complete consensus among the geoheritage community.
Brazil is globally recognised for tourism, mainly providedby its natural heritage, such as its beaches, the Amazon forest,the Pantanal and Iguaçu falls, which are included in the 19Brazilian United Nations Educational, Scientific and CulturalOrganisation (UNESCO) World Heritage Sites. However,initiatives related to geotourism are still in their early stages.Unlike other countries, little tourist information based on thephysical aspects of environments is available, such as stonetypes, geomorphological evolution of the landscape and theirrelationship with the history of the local communities. Mainreasons for this include the lack of a systematic program forcreating an inventory of national geological heritage, which isessential for selecting geosites of scientific and/or touristicsignificance, and the (almost) total ignorance of the publicregarding geology. This makes it difficult to implementprogrammes related to the preservation of natural landscapes,which are often relegated to a low priority. In this context,the projects Caminhos Geológicos (Geological Walks) ofRio de Janeiro (Department of Mineral Resources/Rio deJaneiro State) and Monumentos Geológicos (GeologicalMonuments) of Paraná (Mineropar-Department for MineralResources of Paraná State) stand out as pioneers in publicisingand protecting potential geotouristic geosites in their respec-tive states.
One proven effective strategy, under the aegis ofUNESCO, is the creation of geoparks, which are areas inwhich the values of geological landscapes add to the socio-economic-cultural aspects of a given region. Araripe geopark,located in the state of Ceará, is the only example in Brazil sofar, but several proposals for geoparks have been presentedwith the aim of protecting and promoting geological andpaleontological sites in Brazil. Examples of these include theQuadrilátero Ferrífero (Iron Quadrangle) in Minas GeraisState, the Ciclo do Ouro (Gold Cycle) in São Paulo state andthe Campos Gerais (General Meadows) in Paraná State.
Geotourism also should include aspects of built heritage orurban geotourism, since many historical monuments andbuildings consist of many types of different stones, just asthere are many relevant outcrops of rocks inside the cities.Several papers discuss this topic (Robinson 1982; Withington1998; Rodrigues et al. 2011; Liccardo et al. 2012; Perez-Monserrat et al. 2013; Sidall and Clements 2013; Borghiet al. 2013; Robinson n.d.).
The UNESCO Convention Concerning the Protection ofthe World Cultural and Natural Heritage (World HeritageConvention) of 1972 states that it is not possible to separate
natural heritage from built heritage. In this context, urbangeotourism is already beginning to diversify into branchesthat can be classified as ecclesiastical geology, which is thestudy and characterisation of geological materials used inchurches and monasteries (Potter 2005; Caetano and Verdial2007; Caetano et al. 2010; Sidall 2012; Machado and DelLama 2013), and cemeterial geology, which refers to thecharacterisation and identification of stone materials used intombs (Doyle and Robinson 1995; Cook 2009; Kuzmickasand Del Lama 2011), which have historically been used for along time.
Initial Occupation of the Old Centre of São Pauloand Relations with the Landscape and GeologicalMaterials
The settlement of the city of São Paulo has been related toaspects of the physical environment since its inception. Theplateau, rivers and their extensive floodplains were importantgeographical features for the establishment of the first Europeanpopulations that knew how to read the landscape around themand also took into consideration the knowledge of the indige-nous people living there so as to better adapt to the environment.
Seated atop a small and low hill, São Paulo de Piratininga(the former name of São Paulo City, situated on the Piratiningaplateau) was surrounded by numerous watercourses, typifiedby the basin of the Tietê river and its main tributaries on theleft bank. The foot of the hill was bathed by the Tamanduateíriver and the Anhangabaú creek, with the Tietê river runningfarther to the west. Since its foundation, in the sixteenthcentury, the outskirts of São Paulo suffered regular floodingduring the rainy season. At that time, these floods had a verypositive aspect as they turned the hill into a true peninsula,ensuring the safety of the settlement during the summermonths (PMSP/SMC/DPH 2006).
The subbasin of the Tamanduateí river had a historicalimportance in the settlement of the São Paulo region, evenbefore European colonisation. The indigenous populationthere fed on fish stranded in flooded areas during the floodperiod. The availability of food and access influenced thesettlement of the indigenous population on the terracesbordering the Tamanduateí river and also the developmentof the village of São Paulo de Piratininga in the hills by theEuropeans (Gouveia 2010).
In addition to providing food, the Tamanduateí river was animportant route connecting the newly established settlementwith the interior of the state of São Paulo and a navigable routethat provided for the establishment of trade relations forproducts coming from distant farms or even from the coast.Small boats provided the transport and unloaded at what wasthen called the Porto Geral (General Port), which stood at theend of a slope, now called Ladeira Porto Geral.
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According to Zagni (2004; in Gouveia 2010), the river hadstrategic importance for the arrival of the Jesuits on thePiratininga plateau. Considering the conflicting relationshipsbetween the religious community and hostile indigenoustribes at that time, the decision to establish the Jesuit missionat a higher topographical level made it possible to observe themovements of these tribes before a possible attack could beconstituted, causing the mission to organise its defence, whichwas aided by a fortified wall. In this sense, the courses ofTamanduateí and Anhangabaú rivers presented a difficultobstacle to overcome and natural protection due to theirmeandering paths and constant flooding.
It is in this topographically higher area that the HistoricTriangle was located, with vertices at the former convents ofCarmo, St. Benedict and St. Francis and bounded by SãoBento Street, Direita Street and Quinze de Novembro Street.
In the early period of the occupation of São Paulo, therivers were also used for recreation and leisure and as meetingpoints in the floodplains of Tamanduateí and Tietê rivers.People went to these points to socialise, have fun and playgames, as well as use them as locations for bathing.
However, at the same time, the population’s garbage andsewage were also being dumped in the rivers, which led to thedegradation of watercourses that is still seen today.
According to Gouveia (2010), the occupation of São Paulofrom the sixteenth century until the late eighteenth centurywas confined to the land between the Anhangabaú andTamanduateí rivers, and only in the nineteenth century did itbegin to extend to the hillside on the left bank of theAnhangabaú, which was still a typically rural area.
Until the mid-nineteenth century, there was a great contrastbetween the buildings of the coast and the plateau, since theformer used stone-and-lime masonry, which was more dura-ble, while São Paulo was dominated by taipa (rammed earth)constructions (Telles 2008).
São Paulo only became an important economic centre at theend of the nineteenth century as a result of the coffee boom.The opulence of the coffee boomwas reflected in the buildingsof the city, which until thenweremade of taipa (rammed earth)but then started to use other materials, such as stone, acquiringthe look of the current buildings of the old centre.
The buildings and the initial development of the cities arerelated to the locally available types of geological materials,since transportation over long distances was impractical at thetime. As stated by Menegat (2009), cities adjust to the geo-logical landscape: “Not only are technology, culture, myths,knowledge and intelligence related to landscape, but also tothe villages and our cities”.
This paper aims to present the main types of stones used inthe construction of the old centre of São Paulo as a complementto various tourist trails available and in use in the old centre ofSão Paulo, and thus to raise the awareness of the population tothe ornamental stone diversity present in this area.
Stones to Be Seen on the Proposed Route
It is possible to see examples of the three major rockgroups by following the trail proposed here: igneous,sedimentary and metamorphic rocks. They came mainlyfrom São Paulo state and also from other states andcountries.
Stones from São Paulo State
The crystalline basement in the São Paulo state is made up ofmetamorphic and granitoid rocks of the central RibeiraBelt (Coutinho 1972), which corresponds to a crustalsegment subparallel to the coastline of south-eastern Brazil.The central Ribeira Belt is the collisional Brasiliano/Pan-African Orogeny, related to the Gondwana formation in theNeoproterozoic Era (Faleiros et al. 2011). Neoproterozoicgranitoids, batholiths and stocks are common throughout thestate of São Paulo (Alves et al. 2013 and the references citedtherein). These granitoids and related plutonic rocks representevents of collisional and extensional tectonism. A summary ofthe granites from the state of São Paulo registered morethan two hundred bodies of all sizes and types (Janasiand Ulbrich 1992). Granites and granitoid rocks areused as ornamental stones in monuments and buildingsof the old centre of São Paulo (Del Lama et al. 2009). Thecentral-western portion of the state of São Paulo consists ofthe Paraná Basin, developed during the Paleozoic andMesozoic Eras, made up of sedimentary and volcanic rocks,which were also used as ornaments in the old centre of SãoPaulo (Fig. 1).
In this geological walk, igneous rocks are represented inthe buildings by granite, monzonite and basalt. Granites arepreferred in construction, as they predominate in the crystal-line basement of the state of São Paulo according to theinventory of Janasi and Ulbrich (1992).
Itaquera, Grey Mauá, Green Ubatuba, Pink Itupeva, Salto,Bragança and Capão Bonito granites are examples of granitesin the strict sense.
Itaquera Granite (Fig. 2) is classified as a biotitemonzogranite and has a slightly oriented structure. It consistsof plagioclase, alkali feldspar, quartz, biotite, titanite, epidoteand traces of zircon, apatite, opaque minerals, chlorite, sericiteand carbonate (Janasi and Ulbrich 1992; Del Lama et al.2009).Micaceous enclaves (fragments of other rocks) of smalldimensions are common.
Grey Mauá Granite (Fig. 3) is a biotite monzogranitewith features of magmatic flow foliation, provided by a“swarm” of K-feldspar phenocrysts, which give thegranite a very peculiar feature. The texture is porphyrit-ic with centimeter-scale megacrystals of alkali feldsparand consists of plagioclase, alkali feldspar, quartz, biotiteand minor amounts of allanite, zircon, apatite, titanite, opaque
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minerals, chlorite, epidote, muscovite, sericite and carbonate.The presence of enclaves of various sizes, rock types andcolours is striking in this granite (Alves 2009; DelLama et al. 2009).
The granites described above belong to the Embu Domain(Janasi et al. 2003).
Black Piracaia Granite (Fig. 4) is not petrographically agranite due to its small amount of quartz. It is classified as ahornblende–biotite–quartz monzonite and consists of plagio-clase, biotite, alkali feldspar, quartz, hornblende, epidote,titanite, apatite, opaque minerals, zircon, carbonates andsericite (IPT 1990).
Pink Itupeva Granite (Fig. 5) is classified as amonzogranite and consists of alkali feldspar, quartz, plagio-clase, biotite, opaque minerals, zircon, sericite, chlorite, car-bonate and clay minerals (IPT 2000).
Salto Granite (Fig. 6a) is a biotite syenogranite and consistsof alkali feldspar, quartz, plagioclase, biotite, hornblende,titanite, opaque minerals, zircon, apatite, epidote, chlorite,sericite and carbonates (IPT 1990).
Red Bragança Granite (Fig. 6b) is a porphyritic bio-tite monzogranite with megacrystals of alkali feldspar,consisting of alkali feldspar, plagioclase, quartz, biotite,opaque minerals, zircon, apatite, epidote and sericite(IPT 1990).
Red Capão Bonito Granite (Fig. 6c) is classified as a biotitemonzogranite. It consists of alkali feldspar, quartz, plagio-clase, biotite, zircon, apatite, opaque minerals, epidote, car-bonates and sericite (IPT 1990).
Itupeva, Salto, Capão Bonito and Piracaia granites belongto the Itu Granite Province (Janasi et al. 2009).
Green Ubatuba Granite (Fig. 6d) is a charnockite (granitewith orthopyroxene) and is classified as an orthopyroxene–hornblende monzogranite (hornblende charnockite). In min-eralogical terms, it consists of alkali feldspar, plagioclase,quartz, hornblende, orthopyroxene, biotite, opaque min-erals, zircon, titanite, apatite, epidote and clay minerals(IPT 1990). Azevedo Sobrinho et al. (2011) associate thisrock to the last granite genesis in the eastern part of the state ofSão Paulo.
Fig. 1 Geological map of the granitoid rocks and the locations of the quarries of sedimentary rocks used as ornamental stones in São Paulo State
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Sedimentary rocks are represented by sandstones from theParaná Basin, specifically Itararé (Carboniferous) andBotucatu (Juro-Triassic) sandstones.
Itararé Sandstone (Fig. 6e), a deltaic sandstone, is feld-spathic, friable and porous. It consists of quartz, plagioclase,alkali feldspar, lithic fragments, tourmaline, zircon,
Fig. 2 Itaquera Granite and some buildings constructed with it. aFaulted micaceous enclave. b Slightly oriented structure. c Mega-crystal of alkali feldspar. d Buildings of historical interest onRoberto Simonsen Street: Casa No. 1, Beco do Pinto and Solarda Marquesa. e SPTrans building. f Bovespa building. g Building
on XV de Novembro Street. h Casa das Boias. i Obelisk of theMemory. j Municipal Theater, only the basement is of granite, thefrontal facade is of Itararé Sandstone. k Shopping Center Light. lSanto Antonio church. m University of São Paulo Faculty of Law.n Guinle building. o Sé Cathedral
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muscovite, amphibole, opaque minerals, rutile, apatite, biotiteand smectite (Del Lama et al. 2008).
Botucatu Sandstone (Fig. 6f), typically eolic, is essentiallyquartzose, poor in feldspar, and has ferruginous-clay cuticles,smectite, quartz and feldspar cement and, locally, opal, chal-cedony and calcite cement (Gesicki 2007).
Metamorphic rocks are represented by São Roque Phyllite(Fig. 7). It is a rock formed in low-grade metamorphism andconsists mainly of quartz, sericite and chlorite. Besides theseminerals, São Roque Phyllite may also contain biotite, tour-
maline, zircon, leucoxene, magnetite, titanomagnetite, graph-ite and pyrite (Juliani 1993).
Stones Outside São Paulo State
Stones from other Brazilian states, such as Espírito Santo,Bahia and Minas Gerais, can also be observed in this walk.
Igneous rocks are represented by granite and syenite.Carlos Chagas Granite (Fig. 8a) is a garnet biotite granite
with oriented features that still has a record of the metamor-
Fig. 3 Mauá Granite. a K-feldspar phenocrysts. b Thepresence of enclaves is verycommon for this granite. c ThePateo do Colégio’s floor consistsof Mauá Granite and basalt. dStatue of Camões and facade ofMário de Andrade Library aremade of Mauá Granite
Fig. 4 Piracaia Granite and somebuildings constructed with it. aFeature of this granite. b FormelyBanco de São Paulo. c SampaioMoreira building, the basement isPiracaia Granite, and the walls isItupeva Granite. d Caixa Culturalbuilding
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phic rock that underwent almost total fusion to give riseto it (diatexite). Due to alteration processes, it has ayellowish hue that is commercially valued, and it comesfrom the state of Espírito Santo. It consists of alkalifeldspar, plagioclase, quartz, biotite, garnet, sillimanite andaccessories of opaque minerals, apatite, monazite and zircon(Pinto et al. 2001).
Blue Bahia Granite (Fig. 8b), from the state of the samename, is a sodalite syenite. It consists of alkali feldspar,sodalite, cancrinite, plagioclase, pyroxene, opaque mineralsand biotite (CBPM 2002).
Sedimentary rocks are represented by limestone andconglomerate.
The limestone from Sete Lagoas (Fig. 8c) is a calcilutitewith arrays of calcite crystals, which are interpreted aspseudomorphs after aragonite (Vieira et al. 2007). Itcomes from the Sambra quarry in Inhaúma City, in thestate of Minas Gerais, and due to the rarity of aragoniticlayers in the Precambrian Era, this quarry is classifiedas a site of geological–paleo environmental interest(Hoppe et al. 2002).
The conglomerate (Fig. 8d) is very colourful and probablycomes from Bahia state.
Metamorphic rocks are represented by migmatite (Fig. 8e),of which there is no reference regarding its origin, and bymeta-limestone with stromatolite (Fig. 8f).
The meta-limestone found in the old centre contains stro-matolites. Stromatolites are laminated structures formed bycomplex communities of microorganisms registered in therock billions of years ago. This rock belongs to the MinasSupergroup and is 2.1–2.4 billion years old, consisting ofthe oldest fossils of Latin America (Sallun Filho andFairchild 2005). The occurrence of these stromatolites wasdiscovered in 1974 at the Cumbi e LapaMine in Cachoeiro doCampo, Minas Gerais State, which has been commercialisingdimension stones since 1935 (Dardenne and CamposNeto 1975).
Foreign stones of carbonate composition can be found inthe walk (Fig. 9). Sedimentary rocks are represented by lime-stones—travertine and fossiliferous (Lioz)—and metamor-phic rocks by marble.
Travertine is a limestone of terrestrial origin that is formedby the action of hot springs depositing calcium carbonate. Thetwo main countries producing this rock are Italy and Turkey,and in the case of the stone found in the monuments of the oldcentre the origin is Italy.
Fig. 5 Itupeva Granite and somebuildings constructed with it. aFeature of this granite. b SãoPaulo State Department of Justice(left), Monument to the ImmortalGlory of the Founders of SãoPaulo (middle) and first CivilAppeals Court (right), only thelatter consists of Itupeva Granite.c Banco do Brasil CulturalCentre. e São Bento Monasterywhich mixes Itaquera and Itupevagranites in its external facade. fMunicipal Market or Mercadão. gPalace of Justice
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Lioz is a fossil-containing limestone of Portuguese origin.It has a varied colouration, but in the old centre, the mostcommon shades are light pink to dark pink. Silva (2008) hasdiscussed the use of this stone in the churches of Salvador inthe state of Bahia.
Different marbles were used in the buildings of the oldcentre, mainly inside the buildings, and few examples can beseen outside. Marbles with colours like white, greenish grayand light pink can be seen, but the white colour predominates.There is no information about their provenances, except forthe Carrara Marble from Italy, which was used as details in thebuilding facades.
Geotouristic Route in the Old Centre
When strolling through the old centre of São Paulo, it ispossible to see how the space has been transformed over time,because the material records still testify to other geographicaland historical moments. Furthermore, it is possible toascertain the origins of the materials used in civil con-struction that reflect the history of exploitation of min-eral resources in the city of São Paulo, taking intoconsideration the local availability and the materials thatwere later imported and that are part of the diversitythat we find today in various buildings and in theconstruction of the city itself.
Fig. 6 Other stones from SãoPaulo State. a Salto Granite. bBragança Granite. c CapãoBonito Granite. d UbatubaGranite. e Itararé Sandstone. fBotucatu Sandstone
Fig. 7 Ionic capital made with São Roque Phyllite
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The geotouristic trail proposed is approximately6.5 km (4 miles) in length and can be completed within4 h, depending on the amount of time and interest in
the suggested stops. This trail has been taken by grad-uate and postgraduate students of the Institute ofGeosciences (University of São Paulo) since 2005. In this
Fig. 8 Stones outside São PauloState. a Carlos Chagas Granite. bBahia Granite. c Sete LagoasLimestone. d Conglomerate. eMigmatite. fMeta-limestone withstromatolite
Fig. 9 Stones of carbonatecomposition. a Travertine fromItaly. b City Hall made withtravertine. c Lioz, a fossil-containing limestone fromPortugal. d Carrara Marble fromItaly
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case, it can take more than 6 h due to the detailed explanationgiven in each stop.
The starting and finishing points of the trail are very closetogether and close to Sé subway intersection, making it easy toget around the region. On the map of Fig. 10, one can see thelocation of the suggested stops. Some of the points describedwere already addressed by Stern et al. (2006) and Augusto andDel Lama (2011) but have been included here with newinformation.
Stop 1
The Pateo do Colégio is the location of the reconstructedchurch and school, the state Department of Justice, the first
Civil Appeals Court, the Monument to the Immortal Glory ofthe Founders of São Paulo and the Peace Landmark. RobertoSimonsen Street, to the side of the Pateo do Colégio, is thelocation of the house called Casa No. 1, the Beco do Pinto andthe Solar da Marquesa.
The Pateo (Fig. 3c) was chosen as the start of the trailbecause it was the site of the founding of the city on January25, 1554. The current building (1954–1979) is a replica of theformer college of colonial architecture that was built in 1653and destroyed in the eighteenth century. A preserved piece of ataipa (rammed earth) wall from this period is on display in theinterior of the building. After the expulsion of the Jesuits in1759, it housed the provincial government, and a palace wasbuilt with a neoclassical facade. It is possible to see three Ionic
Fig. 10 Location of the suggested stops on the geotouristic trail in the Old Centre
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capitals of the remainings of this building, consisting ofphyllite, probably from São Roque Group (Fig. 7).
The Pateo floor consists of Grey Mauá Granite and basalt.Ferruginous concretions, materials with varied reddish-yellowcolourations, form part of the facing and are present in thefoundation of the whole complex. Note the lampposts for gaslighting inside the Pateo, replicas from times with no electric-ity supply.
The base of the Peace Landmark (2000) consists of GreenUbatuba Granite.
The Monument to the Immortal Glory of the Founders ofSão Paulo (Fig. 5b), by Amadeo Zani, was installed in 1925. Itconsists of grey granite, a syenite column with significantstaining and a bronze sculptural element.
The first Civil Appeals Court is in an art-deco style withornaments inspired byMayan architecture and Doric columns.It was designed by Ramos de Azevedo, Severo and Villaresoffice, and inaugurated in 1930 (Fig. 5b). It consists of PinkItupeva Granite. The entrance hall has a mosaic made up ofmarble and Lioz.
The São Paulo State Department of Justice occupies twobuildings in the neoclassical style (the architectural style thatdominated São Paulo in the late nineteenth and early twentiethcenturies), designed by Ramos de Azevedo. Building number184 in the square (Fig. 5b) was built from 1881 to 1891, beingthe first work of this architect in the city of São Paulo. Thebase consists of deformed granite or gneiss cut by pegmatoidveins and inclusions. The presence of muscovite is quitestriking, with biotite, tourmaline and garnet; the last two onlyto be seen locally. The bases of the lampposts on both sidesconsist of Itaquera Granite. Building number 148 was inau-gurated in 1896, and its base consists of Itaquera Granite.Rectilinear leucocratic veins are observed, as well as apegmatoid vein and a faulted enclave. It is possible to seethe difference between the colour of the floor in the staircaseand the foundation. In the latter, the rock is more yellowed byuse and features bubbles due to changes that may have result-ed from crystallisation of soluble salts from an excretory fluidsuch as urine.
Very close to the Pateo, in Roberto Simonsen Street, thereare three places of historical interest that are now municipalmuseums (Fig. 2d). The house called Casa No. 1 (House no.1) has a foundation of Itaquera Granite, in which original andrecently replaced blocks can be seen, showing a difference inalteration between them. The Beco do Pinto (Pinto Alley) wasa small passage that connected the former Carmo Street to thebank of the Tamanduateí stream, with an earliest referencedate of 1802. It is also possible to see ferruginous concretionsin the bases of the walls here. The Solar daMarquesa (Solar ofMarquise) has its foundation of Itaquera Granite. It is a con-struction from the second half of the eighteenth century,originally in a colonial style, but after several changes, itnow has a neoclassical facade.
The intersection of XV de Novembro and Tesouro Streetsis occupied by a branch of the Banco do Brasil (Bank ofBrazil), the headquarters of the former Caixa Econômica doEstado de São Paulo (Savings Bank of São Paulo State) andstone-clad commercial buildings.
At 20, Manoel da Nóbrega Square, Black Piracaia Graniteveined with granite fragment can be seen.
The commercial building in this intersection has avarnished travertine facing covered with resin. The doorframeis faced with Salto Granite with some textural features ofpetrogenetic interest, such as quartz crystals coated with bio-tite and overgrown alkali feldspar.
The Banco do Brasil branch is completely faced withmigmatite, showing deformation in the plastic state. In manyplaces, the stone is stained due to the sticking of posters.
Stop 2
The Banco do Brasil Cultural Center (CCBB) is located at thejunction of Álvares Penteado and Quitanda Streets (Fig. 5c). Itwas built between 1923 and 1927 by Hipólito Gustavo PujolJúnior in an eclectic mixture of neoclassical and art-nouveaustyles, and was the former bank’s headquarters in São Paulo.Its facing is of red granite, resembling Pink Itupeva Granite,polished at the bottom and just sawn at the top. More pro-nounced hues can be seen in the polished stone.
The building at 101 Quitanda Street has a facing of BlueBahia Granite that is not actually a granite, rather a sodalitesyenite, as the rock contains no quartz. This is a rock with highadded value, found in the state of Bahia.
Black Piracaia Granite can also be seen in the facing of thebuilding at No. 96, with a more homogeneous texture.
Taking Álvares Penteado Street from the CCBB to theLargo do Café (Coffe Square) the following rocks can be seen:
– No. 160: Itaquera Granite– No. 164: Black Piracaia Granite with fibrous feldspars– No. 195: Ramos de Azevedo building, faced with Pink
Itupeva Granite– No. 203: Green Ubatuba Granite– No. 231: Sete Lagoas Limestone. Note the cuts across and
along the veins. This rock is from the Sambra Mine inSete Lagoas, Minas Gerais State, and is one of thegeosites of the in-course proposed Iron QuadrangleGeopark. The floor consists of Bragança Granite.
Stop 3
XV de Novembro Street also features a variety of stone typesdecorating the facades of buildings, detailed as follows:
– No. 233: Green Ubatuba Granite– No. 251: Red granite with blue quartz
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– No. 268: Itaquera Granite, SPTrans building (Fig. 2e),where it is possible to see the difference in weatheringbetween more sheltered and more exposed parts thatsignificantly softens the ornamentation of the columns
– No. 275: Itaquera Granite (polished and unpolished),Bovespa (Stock Exchange of São Paulo) building(Fig. 2f), built in the 1940s. The building occupies theentire block, stretching as far as the Largo do Café; builtusing polished granite at the bottom and sawn granite atthe top. Dispersed potassium feldspar xenocrysts with abiotite reaction edge and micaceous enclaves with metal-lic minerals are observed
– Nos. 336, 330, 324: Itaquera Granite and red granite, builtby Ramos de Azevedo (Fig. 2g). There are two types ofred granite: a redder one to the left side (the larger part),which could be Itupeva Granite, and a browner one to theright side with veins of feldspar filling fractures, whichcould be Salto.
– No. 347: Black Piracaia Granite provides the facing forthe building that houses the Department of Sport, Leisureand Youth, previously occupied by the Banco de SãoPaulo (Fig. 4b). It was built in 1938 by Álvaro Botelhoin art-deco style.
Stop 4
Antonio Prado Square lies between São Bento and XV deNovembro Streets and houses the buildings of the formerBanespa (previously the State Bank of São Paulo and nowthe Santander Bank), headquarters of the Banco do Brasil, theMartinelli Building and the De Nichile clock installed over acolumn in the middle of the square.
Although not clad in stone, the Altino Arantes building,former offices of Banespa, is worth a mention as it is alandmark of São Paulo. It was inaugurated in 1947 andinspired by the Empire State Building in New York. Theviewing deck with its 360° view of the city is worth a visit.
The De Nichile clock, built in 1935, has a dark-colouredgranitoid facing with blue interstitial quartz, with no identifiedorigin in the records.
The Martinelli building at 504 Libero Badaró Street wasinaugurated in 1929 and has a facing of Capão Bonito Granite.It was the tallest building in the city for 7 years.
The Banco do Brasil building (465 São Bento Street),headquarter in São Paulo City, has a facing of GreenUbatuba Granite, both polished and unpolished.
Stop 5
The entry of São Bento subway station and Café Girondinohave facings of Gray Mauá Granite, which displays a profu-sion of K-feldspar megacrystals and several enclaves.
The São Bento (Saint Benedict) Monastery (Fig. 5d),which is one of the vertices of the Historic Triangle of theancient old centre, has been rebuilt five times, and theBenedictine order has been on the site since 1600. Its currentconfiguration dates from 1922 and has a style close to Germaneclecticism. Its external facing is in Itaquera and Pink Itupevagranites. Its alteration forms are very clear: scales, concretionsand biological colonisation and formation of stalactites fromthe mortar can be seen in the arch of the entrance of thechurch.
In Largo São Bento (Saint Benedict Square), in front of thechurch, there is a rounded mosaic floor with 60 pieces of whitemarble.
Stop 6
The building Casa das Boias (House of the Buoys), located at123 Florêncio de Abreu Street (Fig. 2h), was built in 1909 inart-nouveau style. The bottom part consists of ItaqueraGranite, where a yellowing of the granite in an advanced stateof alteration can be seen. It was recently restored by theowners of the property, retaining the original characteristicsof the building.
Stop 7
Despite the heavy footfall on 25 de Março Street, the famouspopular shopping street, it is worth noting the conglomeratethat forms the facing of the building at No. 837.
Stop 8
The Municipal Market or Mercadão, as it is better known(Fig. 5e), was designed in 1926 by Ramos de Azevedo andopened seven years later. Its base consists of Pink ItupevaGranite. The stained glass in the upper windows, which can beappreciated from inside, were made by Casa Conrado (aformer Brazilian workshop specialised in the manufacture ofstained glass).
Stop 9
The centre of the Paissandú Square is occupied by the NossaSenhora dos Homens Pretos (Our Lady of Black Men) churchand at its side is the Mãe Preta (Black Mother) statue, aprotected heritage monument. The statue is made of bronzeand has a Granite base that is no longer visible, having beenpainted. There is a notable degradation of the lower part of thestone caused by heat, since people tend to light candles forreligious reasons.
The Olido Gallery has a facing in the same type ofmigmatite as Stop 1 and features a planter made of CarlosChagas Granite, the same rock that covers the courtyard of the
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Institute of Geosciences of the University of São Paulo. Thefloor consists of meta-limestone with stromatolites, which arethe oldest fossils in South America, and also containsstylolites, jagged limestone dissolution structures.
Stop 10
The specific feature of Marconi Street is buildings that havetravertine facing with two cutting directions relative to thelayering. The more frequently seen is cut across the layers andthe stratification positioned in horizontal, as can be seen in thebuilding at No. 53. At Nos. 34, 40 and 48, the travertine is alsoseen in profile cutting but the stratification positioned invertical. At Nos. 23 and 107, the cut is according to thelayering, which shows no structural direction defined to thestone.
The buildings at Nos. 94, 125 and 138 are faced with afossiliferous limestone, where the stone is quite degraded inthe last building.
Other points of interest on this street are the buildings atNo. 131, faced in a brecciated marble, as well as No. 23,which has a sill in meta-limestone with stromatolite.
Stop 11
Dom José Gaspar Square should be named “Literary andMusical Nations Square”, as there are many statues, installedbetween 1942 and 1955, honouring the Portuguese, Spanish,Polish, Italian and German immigrant communities. Thesemonuments are mostly in bronze with stone pedestals. Thepedestal for the statue of Camões is made of Grey MauáGranite (Fig. 3d), the pedestals of Cervantes and Chopinconsist of Pink Itupeva Granite, that of Dante Alighieri con-sists of travertine and Goethe’s pedestal is made of greenish-gray coloured marble with a front plate in Bragança Granite.
The Mário de Andrade Municipal Library (Fig. 3d) wasfounded in 1926 at another address, being later transferred tothe current address in 1941, and only later named Mário deAndrade, one of the greatest Brazilian writers and poets in1960. It is completely clad with slabs of Grey Mauá Granite.The stains on the edges of the slabs are probably due to anexcess of water in the mortar. The statue of Mário de Andradethat was previously in the square now stands within thelibrary.
Stop 12
Ladeira da Memória (Memory Hill) is the site of the oldestmonument in the city: the Obelisk of the Memory (Fig. 2i).This is the Pyramid of Piques, as it was formerly known, and itwas designed by Daniel Peter Müller in 1814. In 1919, VictorDubugras redesigned the Largo in neocolonial style, includinga new fountain. Portuguese-style tiles depict scenes from old
times and the stairs were given art-nouveau features. Theobelisk consists of Itaquera Granite and the staircase of GreyMauá Granite.
Stop 13
Ramos de Azevedo Square is the site of the São PauloMunicipal Theater, with the statue of Carlos Gomes facingtowards the Anhangabaú valley and the building of the formerheadquarters of the CBA (a Brazilian aluminum company),which was the Hotel Esplanada before that.
The construction of the theatre, inaugurated in 1911, wassupervised by architectural engineer Ramos de Azevedo.Externally, it has a renaissance style and was inspired by theOpéra Garnier in Paris (Fig. 2j). The base of the theatre ismade of Itaquera Granite. The front part consists of ItararéSandstone with columns of red syenite. The slabs of thissandstone show different cuts relative to the stratification:along the strata, horizontal cross cut and vertical cross cut.The last of these facilitates the degradation of the rock whichcan be seen in the facade. The sides and back of the theatre aremade of masonry.
Behind the theatre is the building occupied by a departmentof the municipal government, having been the headquarters ofthe Brazilian Aluminum Company (CBA) for many years andoriginally home to the Hotel Esplanada, built in 1923. Itconsists of brown granite, and the difference in polishing isnoticeable, as is the presence of stains on the polished granite.
The Carlos Gomes monument consists of marble statuesand a pink granite base. This rock is very discoloured,maybe due to use of inappropriate cleaning method, bear-ing in mind that the monument is constantly exposed tourine, being used as a toilet for the homeless in the oldcentre of the city.
Inaugurated in 1929, the Shopping Center Light is a rareexample of eclectic North-American architecture with a strongneoclassical inspiration, implemented by the Ramos deAzevedo Technical Office. It was designed to be the head-quarters of the São Paulo Tramway, Light and PowerCompany and has been home to the Shopping Center Lightsince 1999 (Fig. 2k). This building consists of ItaqueraGranite and Pink Itupeva Granite. The portal is made offossiliferous limestone.
Continuing over the Viaduto do Chá (Tea Viaduct) towardsthe Patriarca Square (Patriarch Square), one can see the pavingof silicified sandstone, similar to the silicified sandstones ofthe Botucatu Formation, separated by red granite.
Stop 14
The Matarazzo building has been the seat of City Hall(Fig. 9b) since 2004. The building, designed by Italian archi-tect Marcello Piacentini, is an example of the influence of
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fascism in architecture, having been inaugurated in 1939. Thewhole façade is covered with Italian travertine. In front of it isthe Guanabara monument, depicting an Indian woman, madeof Gray Mauá Granite.
The Sampaio Moreira building, located at 346 LiberoBadaró Street, was inaugurated in 1924 (Fig. 4c) designedby Cristiano Stockler das Neves in a Louis XVI style. It wasthe tallest building in the city until the inauguration of theMartinelli building. The ground floor is home to the traditionaldelicatessen Casa Godinho (Godinho Shop) listed as intangi-ble heritage in January of 2013, being the first kind of thisheritage to be listed by Conpresp (municipal council forheritage preservation). It consists of Pink Itupeva and BlackPiracaia granites.
At Patriarch Square, Santo Antonio church (Fig. 2l) is theoldest in the centre, with the earliest references in 1592. Thecurrent facade is from 1899–1919. The base is in ItaqueraGranite, and its staircase is in Grey Mauá Granite.
The bronze statue of José Bonifácio, Patriarch ofIndependence, is the work of Alfredo Ceschiatti and wasinaugurated in 1972. The pedestal is made of Green UbatubaGranite and suffers constant acts of vandalism with scratchesand inscriptions, as do many of the monuments and buildingsin the old centre.
Stop 15
Saint Francis Square is the location of the São Franciscode Assis church, the University of São Paulo Faculty ofLaw, with the statue of Álvares de Azevedo opposite itand the Álvares Penteado Foundation Technical School ofCommerce.
The São Francisco de Assis church, the third vertex of thehistorical triangle, has parts of Itaquera Granite and on theinside there are real taipa (rammed earth) walls.
The Faculty of Law was set up in this location in 1828, atfirst occupying the colonial Franciscan convent that wasdemolished in 1932. The current building (Fig. 2m), in aneoclassical style, is by architect Ricardo Severo, successorto Ramos de Azevedo. It consists of Itaquera Granite.
The statue of Álvares de Azevedo is in bronze, and its baseis in Itaquera Granite.
The Álvares Penteado Foundation was built in 1907–1908by architect Carlos Ekman. It consists of Itaquera Granite andred granite.
Stop 16
Guinle building is located at 49 Direita Street. It has an art-nouveau style and was the first skyscraper in São Paulo, builtbetween 1913 and 1916 by architects Hipólito Gustavo PujolJúnior and Augusto de Toledo (Fig. 2n). The base consists ofItaquera Granite.
Stop 17
The Caixa Cultural (Federal Saving Bank Cultural Center)building was designed by Albuquerque and Longo and inau-gurated in 1939. Since 1989, it has been home to the CaixaCultural (Fig. 4d). It is covered by Black Piracaia Granite. Theextensive degradation of this stone can be seen, mainly in thepresence of extensive stains. The floor consists of ItaqueraGranite.
Stop 18
The Palace of Justice (Fig. 5f), in an eclectic style with a neo-renaissance influence, is a work by the Ramos de AzevedoTechnical Office, designed in 1911 but only inaugurated in1933. It was inspired by the Palace of Justice in Rome. Itconsists of Pink Itupeva Granite. Enclaves and bands withconcentrations of pink feldspar can be seen. Several restora-tions made with an orange-tinted mortar stand out in thefacade, demonstrating an inappropriate type of interventionfor stone facades.
Stop 19
Sé Square marks the official centre of the city of São Paulo,where the official central point of the city is situated. It is alsothe location of Sé Cathedral and statues of St. Paul and José deAnchieta.
The pedestal of José de Anchieta is made of the samemigmatite as at Stop 1. Concretion and staining can be seenin the stone.
Grey Mauá Granite can be seen in the base of the statue ofSaint Paul and in the mosaic in the ground around the markerof the official centre, as well as monzodiorite and grey granitewith a flow texture.
The marker of the centre, made of marble, was sculpted in1934 by French artist Jean Gabriel Villin.
Sé Cathedral (Fig. 2o) was designed by German architectMaximilian Hehl in a neo-Gothic style in 1912 and inaugu-rated in 1954. It is built with grey granite and has statues inItaquera Granite.
Final Considerations
Walking through the old centre of São Paulo, it is possible tosee a close relationship between urban development and ge-ology, not only in the settlement of the urban core, but also inthe use of stone in many historical buildings.
Despite the use of imported stones, mainly from Italy andPortugal, in the construction of buildings and monuments,most of the stones used in the facades and monuments of the
Geoheritage
old city centre of São Paulo are Brazilian, particularly fromthe state of São Paulo. Notable examples are ItaqueraGranite, Grey Mauá Granite, Black Piracaia Granite,Pink Itupeva Granite and Green Ubatuba Granite. Thetrade names of the different types of granites are related totheir places of origin, even though they do not represent thatactual type of stone.
The main stone used in buildings is Itaquera Granite, whichis no longer commercially exploited as a dimension stone. Thelarge quarry that was at 5889 Itaquera Avenue, in the easternpart of the city, is today surrounded by urban area and nolonger active. It has been completely backfilled and is due tothe site of a residential development. It is located next to thenew Corinthians soccer stadium (the Itaquerão), where the2014 Soccer World Cup will be launched. There is still ex-traction of this granite in its neighbourhood for use as crushedstone in construction. Its first use as monumental stone datesfrom 1814, seen in the Obelisk of the Memory. In addition tothe points mentioned here, Itaquera granite is also found in thebases of the monuments Aretuza, Nostalgia, The Indian andthe Huntsman, The Girl and Calf, After the Bath, and theportal of Consolação Cemetery, Pacaembu Stadium, Ramosde AzevedoMonument and the monument in honour of theSão Paulo City Athletics Club, all of them situated outside theold centre of São Paulo.
Itaquera and Itupeva granites seem to have been the dimen-sion stone of choice for the Ramos de Azevedo architecturalfirm for the construction of several public buildings inaugu-rated between the late nineteenth century and 1930, includingthe first Civil Appeals Court, the Palace of Justice, theMunicipal Market and the current Shopping Center Light.These granites also adorn other historical buildings in theold centre, such as the São Bento Monastery, which wasrestored in the same period.
Gray Mauá Granite, from the towns of Mauá and RibeirãoPires, situated in the metropolitan area of São Paulo City, isstill widely in use in the city of São Paulo, its use becomingmore frequent from the 1940s. It is found in much of thepaving of the old centre and in many subway stations.Besides the monuments and buildings already mentionedhere, it was used in Duque de Caxias, Fauno and Bandeirasmonuments, all designed by Victor Brecheret, also outside theold centre area. It seems to have been his favourite stone asraw material.
Although commercially known as Black Piracaia Granitefrom Piracaia in the state of São Paulo, in reality, this rock isclassified as a monzodiorite/monzonite. Besides all the build-ings indicated above, it is also widely found in the facades ofseveral buildings on Conselheiro Crispiniano Street, as well asthe Regency building at 210 Xavier de Toledo Street, bothplaces in the old centre. The oldest building with BlackPiracaia facade dates from 1924 (Sampaio Moreira building,346, Libero Badaró Street).
Green Ubatuba Granite, from Ubatuba in the state of SãoPaulo, is also no longer commercially exploited. Nowadays, avery similar charnockite from the state of Espírito Santo isused in the cladding and facades of buildings.
People tend to preserve what they know, so thisgeotouristic trail aims to publicise geosciences through infor-mation about different types of rocks used in the constructionof the metropolis, particularly the buildings in the old centre.Additionally, it assists greatly in teaching about heritage edu-cation and involving the community in the preservation ofmonuments, contributing to the preservation of the historicalheritage of São Paulo City.
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