deiva oswin stanley and jeremy s. broadhead, 2011. integrated mangrove management plan for wunbaik...

7/29/2019 Deiva Oswin Stanley and Jeremy S. Broadhead, 2011. Integrated Mangrove Management Plan for Wunbaik Reser

1/44

TECHNICAL COOPERATION PROGRAMME (TCP)

Sustainable Community Based Mangrove Management in Wunbaik Forest Reserve

TCP/MYA/3204

BILINGUAL

Integrated Mangrove Management Plan (IMMP)

Wunbaik Reserved Mangrove Forest, Rakhine State

DECEMBER 2011

For The Government of MyanmarBy

FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS

MYANMAR


2/44

Integrated Mangrove Management Plan for

Wunbaik Reserved Forest

Forest Department, Myanmar assisted by FAO project on Sustainable

Community-based Mangrove Management in Wunbaik Forest Reserve

(TCP/MYA/3204)

Dr. Oswin Stanley,1

and Dr. Jeremy Broadhead.2

Yangon, December 2011

1

FAO lead consultant for project TCP/MYA/3204 ([email protected]; [email protected]).2 Forestry Officer, FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok, Thailand ([email protected];

[email protected]).
mailto:[email protected]:[email protected]:[email protected]:[email protected]:[email protected]:[email protected]:[email protected]:[email protected]:[email protected]:[email protected]:[email protected]


3/44

i

Foreword

In recent years the value of mangroves has become more fully realised following many

decades during which the global rate of mangrove clearance far exceeded that in terrestrial

forests. The high productivity of mangroves and their contribution to local livelihoods,coastal protection, biodiversity conservation, climate change mitigation and marine fisheries

all suggest that conservation and sustainable management efforts will be richly rewarded.

In particular, improved management can offer significant benefits to villagers living in and

around mangroves, and allocation of rights and responsibilities to local levels can also

support sustainable mangrove management.

WunbaikReservedForest is almost unique in Myanmar in terms of the size and health of its

mangrove resources. Indeed, in the whole of Southeast Asia there are few mangrove areas

of such magnificence. Despite years of degradation, WunbaikReservedForest remains in a

condition from which restoration and rehabilitation is still feasible without the need for

extensive remedial activity. Technical and institutional support can bring about changesthat will benefit both current and future generations while with the advent of climate

change financing, mangrove restoration can also potentially bring in funding for village

development and sustainable natural resource management.

This publication brings together the results of two years of experience from the FAO

supported project on Sustainable Community-based Mangrove Management in Wunbaik

Forest Reserve (TCP/MYA/3204). Through discussions, consultations, surveys and studies, a

set of guidelines are provided to support development of future interventions to improve

the management of the natural resources in the Wunbaik area. Information on background

and management issues is also provided to familiarise the reader the status of the

WunbaikReservedForest.

FAO has been honoured to work at the behest of the Government of the Republic of the

Union of Myanmar on this Integrated Mangrove Management Plan and will continue to

provide support in natural resource management as required, including in relation to

implementation of this plan and plans for other mangrove areas elsewhere in Myanmar.

Aye Myint Maung

Director General

Forest Department

Bui Thi Lan

FAO Representative

Myanmar


4/44


5/44

iii

Contents

Foreword ..................................................................................................................................... iAcknowledgements ................................................................................................................... ivSummary .................................................................................................................................... v1 Background ......................................................................................................................... 1

1.1 Mangrove forests in Myanmar .................................................................................. 11.2 The Wunbaik Reserved Forest ................................................................................... 11.3 Flora and fauna in the Wunbaik area ........................................................................ 41.4 Socio-economic situation of communities in the Wunbaik area............................... 51.5 Policy, legislative and management framework for reserved forests ....................... 8

1.5.1 Policy and legislative framework ........................................................................... 81.5.2 Management framework ..................................................................................... 12

1.6 Objective of the Integrated Mangrove Management Plan ..................................... 121.7 Management plan consultation process ................................................................. 12

2 Management issues .......................................................................................................... 152.1 Wood extraction ...................................................................................................... 152.2 Bark peeling ............................................................................................................. 162.3 Agriculture encroachment ....................................................................................... 172.4 Aquaculture encroachment ..................................................................................... 182.5 Non-wood forest products ...................................................................................... 18

2.5.1 Fisheries resources............................................................................................... 182.5.2 Crab fisheries ....................................................................................................... 19

2.6 Loss of biodiversity .................................................................................................. 193 Guidelines for the management of Wunbaik Reserved Forest ........................................ 21

3.1 Agree on a policy for future management of Wunbaik Reserved Forest ................ 213.2 Address legislative contradictions ........................................................................... 253.3 Develop a Wunbaik User Register ........................................................................... 253.4 Support sustainable production of woodfuel and bark ........................................... 253.5 Management of encroached areas .......................................................................... 263.6 Fisheries resource management .............................................................................. 273.7 Crab trapping and management .............................................................................. 293.8 Biodiversity conservation......................................................................................... 303.9 Livelihood support ................................................................................................... 30

3.9.1 Production of energy efficient stoves .................................................................. 313.9.2 Establishment of private/community forest plantations .................................... 313.9.3 Bamboo plantation establishment and manufacture of bamboo products ....... 313.9.4 Nursery establishment ......................................................................................... 323.9.5 Tree grafting ......................................................................................................... 323.9.6 Production of Nypa thatch ................................................................................... 323.9.7 Double rack gardening ......................................................................................... 323.9.8 Cage culture of crabs ........................................................................................... 333.9.9 Honey production ................................................................................................ 33

Annex 1. Townships and village tracts within 10 kilometers of Wunbaik Reserved Forest .... 35Annex 2. Feedback from participants of the Workshop on the Integrated MangroveManagement Plan, Yambye, 9

th December 2011. .................................................................. 36


6/44

iv

Acknowledgements

Our sincere appreciation and gratitude isexpressed to the Western Commander, Brigadier

General U Soe Thein for permission to work in the WunbaikReservedForest, RakhineState.

We also express our heartfelt thanks to U Win Tun, Union Minister, Ministry of EnvironmentConservation and Forestry and U Hla Maung Tin, State Chief Minister, Government of

Rakhine State.

We would like to express our great appreciation to U Aye Myint Maung, Director General,

Forest Department; U Sann Lwin, Director General, Planning and Statistics Department; Dr.

Nyi Nyi Kyaw, Deputy Director General, Forest Department; U Zaw Win, Director, Planning

and Statistics Division; U Kyaw Soe Khine, Director, Forest Department, Rakhine State; U

Win Myint, Assistant Director, Forest Department, KyaukPhyu District; and other senior

officers for cooperation and suggestions during project implementation. We would also like

to thank the National Project Coordinators assigned to the project by the Forest

Department, including U Hla Maung Thein, Director, Environment Division, Planning andStatistics Department; U Aung Khin, Director, Dry Zone Greening Department; and U Myo

Htun, Director, Watershed Management Division, FD.

We express our special thanks to officers from line departments and agencies including

Myanmar Agriculture Service, Department of Fisheries, and Settlement and Land Record

Department. We would like to thank officers from the Peace and Development Councils in

Rakhine State and Kyauk Phyu and Thandwe Districts, and in Kyauk Phyu, Yambye and

Thandwe Townships.

For solid support during different stages of project implementation, our thanks are due to

Dr Shin Imai, ex-FAO Representative in Myanmar and Ms. Bui Thi Lan, FAO Representative inMyanmar. Thanks are also due to Dr. Maung Maung Than, consultant for the Mangrove and

Environmental Rehabilitation Network (MERN), Dr. Martin Tsamenyi, Professor of Law and

Director, Wollongong University, Australia for reviewing the management plan manuscript

and to Dr. San Tha Tun, Assistant Professor at Pathein University, for translating the

document into Burmese.


7/44

v

Summary

This Integrated Mangrove Management Plan was prepared with support from the FAO

project Sustainable Community-based Mangrove Management in Wunbaik Forest Reserve

(TCP/MYA/3204). The plan covers the Wunbaik Reserved Forest in Yambye Township,Kyauk Phyu District, Rakhine State and is aimed at supporting the sustainable management

of the forest and fisheries resources of the Reserved Forest for the benefit of local

communities and future generations.

The reserved forest covers 22 928 hectares and was established in 1930 for the production

of fuelwood to supply salt factories and inland steam vessels. The reserve contains

magnificent waterways, tall mangroves and a huge variety of flora and fauna that have

provided subsistence benefits to local villagers for generations. The mangroves are

extraordinarily productive and are valuable not only for the forest products they produce

but also for the benefits they provide in terms of fisheries production and in protecting local

populations from storms and cyclones. Mangroves also sequester and store large amountsof carbon and are therefore of great value in climate change mitigation.

The project aimed to provide technical inputs to support the sustainable management of

the Wunbaik Reserved Forest, such as training, demonstrations, village support activities,

and publications on technical issues. With support from the Forest and Fisheries

Departments, the project undertook baseline surveys of forest and fisheries resources and

an appraisal of the socio-economic situation in villages surrounding the Wunbaik Reserved

Forest. Training was provided in home gardening techniques, nursery establishment,

mangrove awareness, production of energy efficient stoves and many other areas.

Publications on the vegetation and fisheries resources of the reserve were completed along

with The Atlas and guidelines for mangrove management in Wunbaik reserved mangrove

forest.

With respect to the status of the Wunbaik Reserved Forest, over the past 20 years forest

cover in the reserve has fallen to 71% as a result of encroachment for agriculture and

aquaculture. Much of the remaining area is degraded as a result of wood cutting and bark

collection. Surrounding areas and towns across Rakhine and further afield are heavily

dependent on fuelwood and charcoal from Wunbaik owing to lack of alternative energy

sources. If cutting continues at present rates, Wunbaik Reserved Mangrove forest will follow

the fate of many other reserved forests in Myanmar and it is likely that within a decade the

whole area will be cleared. This is particularly likely given the new oil and gas developments

in the area. The projects demonstration of Ecological Mangrove Restoration did, however,

show extremely encouraging results within a short space of time and as such there is an

excellent chance than mangrove resources in Wunbaik can recover if given the chance.

Fisheries resources in the area have also declined as a result of overfishing and reduction in

the extent of waterways within the mangrove forest. Fishing at river mouths on both tides,

use of small fishing net mesh sizes and lack of observance of an off-season during the

breeding period have had the most severe effects. Crab fisheries are also becoming

depleted as a result of the capture of small crabs and brooders, primarily to supply

commercial demand from China.

Although agriculture and aquaculture developments in Wunbaik and current cutting andfishing activities provide income and subsistence needs for local people, businessmen and


8/44

vi

other agents, the area is not being sustainably or productively managed. Due to the nature

of mangrove soils, the productivity of agriculture and aquaculture in encroached areas in

Wunbaik also falls after a few years and ends in abandonment of land and the need to move

to new areas.

Villagers in the area are well aware of natural resource degradation in and around thereserve and an institutional lead is necessary to improve management and productivity. In

particular, rights and responsibilities need to be allocated to responsive local interests with

a firm commitment to the sustainable management of the resources. Support from line

departments in terms of oversight, awareness raising and capacity building is also necessary.

For this to take place, jurisdictional uncertainties need first to be addressed particularly in

relation to the relative roles of forest and fisheries departments.

Aside from institutional issues, a range of technical measures are necessary to improve

resource management in the area. In particular, demand for forest and fisheries resources

should be brought into line with regenerative capacity of the Wunbaik ecosystems.

Adjustments need to be made to current use patterns to capitalise on the naturalproductive capacity of the forest and fisheries resources. Such measures include banning

encroachment, implementing a rotational wood cutting system, and prohibiting fishing

during the breeding season and catching of small crabs. At present, forest and fisheries

resources have been degraded to below optimum production levels and improved

management will support both sustainability andincreased production.

While measures are necessary to improve the institutional and technical efficiency of

management, support should is also necessary for alternative livelihood activities for

villagers in the surrounding areas. Improvement in local incomes will function to reduce

pressure on the mangrove and fisheries resources and improve production of ecosystem

services from the reserve including storm protection, carbon sequestration and biodiversityconservation.

To finance implementation of the management plan, a range of options exist. Given recent

interest in REDD+3 in Myanmar and the considerable potential of mangroves to absorb and

store carbon, related financing may prove the most relevant if mangrove restoration is

expanded in Wunbaik beyond the pilot scale implemented by the project. Otherwise, the

reserve also provides significant support for food security and local livelihoods and

associated funding sources could be accessed. Revenues from close-by oil and gas drilling

activities could also be diverted to conserve mangrove resources and offset emissions, if

only in a small way.

Wunbaik remains one of the most productive and healthy mangrove areas in Myanmar and

in Southeast Asia as a whole and the Government of Myanmar has shown foresight in

supporting the development of this plan to sustainably manage the Reserved Forest for the

benefit of current and future generations. Continued support will ensure that this unique

area remains productive in economic, social and environmental terms to current and future

generations.

3REDD+ (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation "plus" conservation, sustainablemanagement of forests and enhancement of forest carbon stocks.)


9/44

1

1 Background1.1 Mangrove forests in MyanmarForests in Myanmar cover 31 773 000 hectares and occupy 48 percent of the total land area.

Between 1990 and 2010 the forest area was reduced by 19 percent or 7 445 000 hectares,

equivalent to a rate of 372 250 hectaresor 1 percent per annum. Myanmar is endowed with

1930 kilometres of coastline along the Bay of Bengal. Mangrove forests in Myanmar cover

438 000 hectares. Mangroves are located primarily in three regions of Myanmar:

Ayeyarwady Delta, Rakhine State and Tanintharyi Division.

Ayeyarwady Delta once contained the largest mangrove formation of Myanmar but now

only a small area of degraded mangroves, of approximately 13 700 hectares in size, remains

in Meinmahla Kyun Wildlife Sanctuary. The main causes of mangrove loss include land

conversion for agriculture and aquaculture development, tree cutting for timber and

fuelwood and wood extraction for commercial charcoal manufacture. Residential

developments have also reduced the area of mangrove forests. In Rakhine State, bordering

the Andaman Sea, some large areas of mangrove remain although the Wunbaik Reserved

Forest is the only mangrove forest within the permanent forest estate and the final area in

which mangroves might be conserved. Tanintharyi mangroves situated in the southern

region of Myanmar have been less affected than those in Ayeyarwady and Rakhine State

and are considered to have larger and less degraded mangrove formations.

Mangroves are one of the most productive ecosystems in Southeast Asia and provide vital

support for rural livelihoods in Myanmar. Mangroves occur at the land sea interface and

possess special adaptations enabling them to endure the physical and chemical conditions

associated with the marine environment. Mangroves protect coastlines against storms andcyclones, provide wood and non-wood forest products, support coastal fisheries and

sequester and store large amounts of carbon. Mangrove ecosystems provide important

breeding, feeding and sheltering grounds for a large range of marine species including

commercially important fisheries resources. Despite their importance in these many areas,

successive government land conversion programs and associated agriculture and

aquaculture policies have resulted in a massive destruction of mangroves in Myanmar.

Given the considerable value of mangroves and the growing international support for

mangrove conservation, efforts by the Government of Myanmar to protect these areas,

both through project TCP/MYA/3204 and other means, are both timely and appropriate.

1.2 The Wunbaik Reserved ForestWunbaik Reserved Forest lies between 19

o08 10 and 19

o23 40 North and 93

o5435-

94o 0210 East in Yambye Township, Kyauk Phyu District, Rakhine State. A total of 22 928

hectares (56 633 acres) were declared as Reserved Forest on December 15, 1930 by the

British colonial administration. The original objective of the Reserved Forest was to supply

fuelwood to salt factories and inland steam vessels. An adjacent area of 4 081 acres was

declared as Mingyaung Public Protected Forest by the Ministry of Forestry on 16 June, 2009.

The topography of Wunbaik Reserved Forest is almost flat except on the western adjacent

island of Kathaung Taung Kyun where a small hill rises. In the same area coral reefs are

found within the reserved forest boundary. Inland from Wunbaik the land is hilly and

undulating with many water bodies.


10/44

2

Broadly the climate in the area can be divided into summer, monsoon and winter seasons.

The area experiences torrential rains and humidity levels of up to 94% during the monsoon

season from May until October. Average annual rainfall recorded for 2011 amounted to 5

362 mm and a maximum temperature of 34.5C was recorded. Following the monsoon

season, colder weather comes between November and February. In 2011, January and

February were the coldest months with minimum temperatures of around 15-16C.

Wunbaik Reserved Forest is a major source of timber, fuelwood and wood for charcoal.

Fuelwood is predominantly used for household use and brick baking while charcoal is

produced commercially for sale to urban centres in Rakhine State and further afield. Bark is

also collected in Wunbaik for use in the dying industry in Myanmar. Wunbaik Mangroves

form a natural coastal bio-shield, sheltering Yambye and protecting inland areas from

cyclones and storms generated in the Bay of Bengal. As the mangrove shield has been

removed, inland areas and habitation have become more susceptible to storm damage and

flooding.

The Wunbaik Mangrove Reserved Forest is endowed with many deep and shallow creeks,large rivers, mudflats and sandy, muddy and rocky bottoms. The fertile river mouths open

into the Bay of Bengal and provide paths for seasonal migration of both anadromous and

catadromous transient fish populations.

Over the past two decades, the natural resources in Wunbaik Reserved Forest have been

severely degraded as wood collection and land conversion has taken place. Analysis of

satellite imagery shows that the total area encroached for paddy and shrimp farming in

1990 was 2.7 percent (see Table 1.1). This increased to 15 percent in 2000, 20 percent in

2009 and 25 percent in 2011. Similarly the area of degraded forest has risen to 17 percent in

2011, leaving only 54 percent of the total area with relatively intact mangrove forest as

shown inFigure 1.1. Even within the intact forest areas, the average diameter size of treeshas been considerably reduced and the majority of mangroves present are considered

secondary vegetation. These areas remain in a vulnerable state and open to further

encroachment and degradation.

Table 1.1 Land use change in Wunbaik Reserved Forest

Area by land use, 1990-2011 (acres) Land use change

1990 2000 2009 2011 1990-2000 2000-2009 2009-2011 1990-2011

Water 3 010 3 796 3 518 2105 786 -277 -1 413 -905

Mangroves 43 628 35 250 31 326 30 670 -8 379 -3 923 -657 -12 958

Degradedmangroves

8 487 8 778 10 533 9 673 291 1 755 -860 1 186

Agriculture 858 7 196 8 190 12 314 6 337 995 4 124 11 456

Scrub jungle 0 81 0 0 81 -81 0 0

Road 0 219 135 238 219 -84 103 238

Swamp 0 174 24 0 174 -150 -24 0

Aquaculture 650 1 141 2 907 1 633 491 1 765 -1 274 983

TOTAL 56 633 56 633 56 633 56 633


11/44

3

Figure 1.1. Forest cover in Wunbaik Reserved Forest in 2011.


12/44

4

The Forest Department has yet to develop infrastructure facilities, a patrolling system or

effective law enforcement to discourage excess extraction of wood and encroachment into

the reserve for paddy and shrimp farming. Besides deforestation for land conversion, most

mangrove degradation in the reserve is the result of commercial cutting perpetrated by

actors from outside the area utilizing cheap labour provided by the local communities.

Activity is not routinely recorded and formal monitoring is absent.

Population densities of fisheries resources in coastal areas are related to the health and

extent of mangrove waters available for fish populations to feed, breed and shelter. Due to

construction of bunds in the Wunbaik reserve, the total area covered by water has been

reduced by 30 percent since 1990 (see Table 1.1). As a consequence, fisheries productivity

has been lost both within the waters of the reserved forest and in the estuarine and neretic

waters outside the reserve boundary. The practice of fishing at river mouths in Wunbaik on

both tides, use of fishing nets with small mesh sizes, sieving of small crabs, and unrestrained

year round mud crab harvesting has increased pressure on the fishery resources. A

considerable decline in fish and crab sizes and the sizes of their population, both within and

outside the reserved area, has been recorded. The universally small size of the fish recorded

during the study, demonstrates clearly the extent of degradation of the fishery resources

and the threat to survival of fish populations.

It is the policy of the Government to conserve mangrove forests for coastal protection,

preservation of fisheries resources and for long-term livelihood support of populations

within and outside the area. Government efforts to conserve dwindling mangrove forests

are necessary both within Rakhine state and throughout the rest of the country. In

particular, alternative energy resources need to be provided to alleviate pressure on

mangroves resulting from the cutting of fuelwood and of wood for charcoal manufacture.

Law enforcement efforts also need to be strengthened to prevent further landencroachment.

Improvements in the management and protection are particularly important in view of the

new infrastructure developments taking place in the Wunbaik area. The government has

constructed a new 20 mile long east-west geo-textile road running from Kyauk Phyu to

Ma-e. The road connects with the Kyauk Phyu-Yangon highway and occupies 0.35 percent

(81 ha) of the total mangrove areas in Wunbaik. Bridges across Wunbaik water ways and

creeks within the mangroves are well designed and do not disrupt the tidal flows

appreciable. Concerns that completion of the Kyauk Phyu-Ma-e road in 2006 would lead to

massive encroachment have been a major impetus behind renewed efforts to conserve the

Wunbaik Reserved Forest.

1.3 Flora and fauna in the Wunbaik areaThe Wunbaik Reserved Forest is endowed with a high level of biodiversity. Seventy

flowering plants species have been identified inside the reserved forest boundary including

thirty four mangrove species and thirty six salt tolerant mangrove associates. Sixty two

species of fin fish, five species of crustacean and five species of mollusc have been recorded.

Including both migrants and residents, 104 bird species were recorded in Wunbaik during

the project period. Thirty-seven shore birds were recorded and parakeets and doves are

abundant in the reserved forest, especially around the paddy fields. Destruction ofmangroves and hunting of arboreal and shore birds continues, however, at a high rate. Bird


13/44

5

shooting during the hunting season also disrupts roosting, and many birds that are shot are

not collected by hunters.

The population of amphibians and reptiles in the Wunbaik area is considerable. Snakes are

common and prominent species include Naja naja (Cobra), Naja hannah, (King Cobra),

Elaphe radiata (copperhead rat snake), Bungarus fasciatus (banded krait) and Boaconstrictor(boa snake). Threats to snake populations include hunting and sale of meat in

local markets and increasing local consumption. Other amphibians and reptiles include

Varanus spp (monitor lizard), which is common in open mangrove areas and there are also

many species of geckos, skinks, crested lizards, toads and frogs. In recent years, Batagur

baska (river terrapin) has become a rare species and Crocodylus porosus (Crocodile) are

extinct in the reserved area and in Rakhine state as a result of hunting for skin and meat and

associated trade.

Mammals including Otters (Lutra lutra and Lutra spp) are common around the River Kadet

and crab-eating macaque (Macaca fascicularis) were observed near Nganapyagyi River and

the mouth of River Dipataik. The Indian flying fox (Pteropus giganteus), short-nosed orcommon fruit bat (Cynopterus brachyotis) and bamboo bats (Tylonycteris pachypus and

Tylonycteris robustula) occur in a range of habitats from terrestrial primary and secondary

forests to mangroves and cultivated areas. Wild dog (Cuon apinus), sambar (Cervus

unicolor), hog deer (Cervus porcinus), mouse deer (Tragulus javanicus), barking deer

(Muntiacus muntjak), buck deer (Cervinae capreolinae), wild boar (Sus scrofa), fishing cat

(Prionailurus viverrinus), jungle cat (Felis chaus) and wild cat (Felis silvestris) are now rare in

the reserve. Elephants (Elephas maximus), tiger (Panthera tigris) and leopard (Panthera

pardus) were once common in the mangroves of Rakhine State but are now extinct.

1.4 Socio-economic situation of communities in the Wunbaik areaThe total population of Kyauk Phyu District, in which Wunbaik Reserved Forest is situation,

is 500 142 as shown in Table 1.2. Four townships are located within Kyauk Phyu District:

Kyauk Phyu, Yambye, Manaung and Ann.

Neighbouring Wunbaik mangroves are 30 712 households in Kyauk Phyu Township with a

total population of 195 420, and 21 256 households in Yambye Township with a population

of 100 769 (Table 1.2). The population of Kyauk Phyu Township grew from 185 550 in 2005;

whereas, the population of Yambye township declined from 139 850 in 2005. The overall

population of Kyauk Phyu District has declined in recent years due to migration from

Rakhine State to Yangon and other areas. The developments in the new capital city, Nay Pyi

Taw, have also attracted a considerable number of migrants. The overall rural population in

Kyauk Phyu District exceeds the rural population.

Table 1.2 Population of Kyauk Phyu District in 2010-11.

Township Number of households Total population % female % urban

Kyauk Phyu 30 712 195 420 52 16

Yambye 21 256 100 769 53 10

Manaung 14 015 99 230 52 7

Ann 22 056 104 723 50 6

District Total 88 039 500 142 52 11Source: District Peace and Development Council, Kyauk Phyu.


14/44

6

Townships and village tracts within 10 kilometres of Wunbaik Reserved Forest are listed in

Annex 1. The total population of 21 936 resident in the 32 villages within 10 kilometres of

Wunbaik constitute the main users of Wunbaik Reserved Forest. Table 1.3 provides

information on Wunbaik Reserved Forest resource users in Yambye Township, Kyauk Phyu

District.

Elders in the villages are well respected and generally guide decision making at the village

level. The villages are also connected to a well defined institutional framework which

includes village, village tract, township, district and division level authorities of Forest and

Fisheries Departments and Peace and Development Councils. Local branches of ministerial

departments are also present in the area.

Around 35 to 40 percent of villagers are poor with daily household income around 1 000

Kyats (US$ 1.3). A middle income group earn from 2 000 to 3 000 Kyats (US$ 2.6 to US$ 3.9).

Middlemen are based in the villages trading timber, charcoal wood, fishery products and

others. Based on the Participatory Rural Appraisal carried out in villages around Wunbaik,

the main livelihood in the area is paddy cultivation. Others livelihood activities include:

cutting and trading wood for timber, fuelwood and wood for charcoal; Manufacture and trading of charcoal; collection of mangrove bark; fishing and crabbing; local plantation establishment and cultivation of home gardens; small-scale trading of goods such as cloth, tools, etc. running telephone communication centres, video shows, tea and food shops, trishaw &

motorcycle taxis, boats for rent, etc.

Although agricultural land surrounds villages in the area, paddy cultivation is largely

practiced in converted mangrove areas as shifting or kari cultivation. Villagers in 15 to 20

family groups jointly develop karis by building embankments to block tidal flows. Each is

named and at times villages join together to create new karis. Karis are usually 200 - 300

acres in size and groups share out the land based on efforts in developing the area. In most

villages in the Wunbaik area, including Arawcheing, Yantheshe, Yanthigyi, Letpan, and

Chipyutaung, between 70 to 100 percent of farmers work on kari land. Many villagers also

work as casual labourers for supplementary income outside the farming season.

The project focused attention on two villages adjacent to Wunbaik reserved forest, Letpan

and Yantheshe in Yambye Township, and Hlaing Kaung settlement within the Mingyaung

Protected Forest. Hlaing Kaung settlement was formed following construction of the road

across the Wunbaik Reserved Forest in 1994. The residents were all originally from Sitpyar

Village, Yambye Township.


15/44

7

Table 1.3 Wunbaik Reserved Forest resource users in Yambye Township, Kyauk Phyu District.

Village

tract

Village

sub-

division

Population Households Household

with Kari

in WBRF

Kari

Area

(acres)

Farmers

working

kari

People

depending

WBRF

Shrimp

pond

area

(acres)

Farmers

working

shrimp

pond

River

Mouth

Fishing

Crab

Trapping

(HH)

Bark

Peeling

(HH)

Charcoal

burning

(HH)

Shrimp

catching

( HH )

LetpanLetpan

Awa220 63 923.26 63 1000 156 30

Letpan

Anyar995 201 75 1618 75 380 50 1 30 30

AwaTaung

240 48 48 48

Chaungnal 280 57 57 57

Yantheshe Yantheshe 2511 365 175 5125 175 1800 1800 1750 1150 1300

Phetkyat 1700 285 150 2100 150 1700 1 950 850 5

Yanthitgyi 2676 415 15 150 64 50 1000 20

Sitpyar 309 15

Pyinwun 1598 335 27 217.35 27 151 48 30

Marutshein 1479 350 20 200 20 1000 250 30

TOTAL 10959 2480 525 10334 525 6615 1900 1752 3689 2315 5 20 165


16/44

8

1.5 Policy, legislative and management framework for reserved forests1.5.1 Policy and legislative frameworkThe early Myanmar Kings recognized the value of forest resources and managed them in a

traditional way for sustainability. It is remarkable that King Alaungpaya (1752-60) declared

teak as a royal tree. The countrys systematic management of its teak bearing forests began

in 1856 with the establishment of the Myanmar Forest Department. Since that time, various

pieces of policy and legislation has been issued to regulate the management of Myanmars

forest resources as shown in Table 1.4.

Table 1.4 Policy and legislation concerning management and conservation of natural resources in

Myanmar

Law/Act Year

Burma Forest Act 1902

Burma Wildlife Protection Act 1927, 1936

Forest Law 1992

Protection of Wildlife and Wild Plant and Conservation of Natural Areas Law 1994, 2002

Forest Rules 1994

Forest Policy 1995

Community Forestry Rules 1995

With respect to forest law and laws that affect forestry, there has been a long history of

development in Myanmar. The first forest law in Myanmar was the 1902 Burma Forest Act,

which was enacted during the British colonial administration. This law was subsequentlyamended in 1906, 1912, 1926, 1938 and 1941. The 1902 Forest Act was supplemented by

the 1936 Burma Wildlife Protection Act (amended in 1954), which made provision for the

establishment of wildlife sanctuaries on any government-owned land or on private land with

the consent of the land owners. The 1936 Burma Wildlife Protection Act prohibited all

hunting, fishing and wilful disturbance to any animal in wildlife sanctuaries. The Act also

required licenses for similar activities in reserved forests. The major short-comings of these

earlier forest and wildlife conservation laws were that they did not have nation-wide

application and they did not specifically include measures for habitat protection.

The current forest law in Myanmar is the Forest Law 1992 which was enacted on 3 rd

November 1992. This law explicitly repealed the Forest Act 1902 (as amended). The 1992

Forest Law articulates a balanced approach of sustainable forestry through the utilization of

forest resources to develop the economy by contributing towards the food, clothing and

shelter needs of the public as well as the fuel requirement of the country, whilst

emphasizing environmental conservation. Under the Forest Law 1992, conservation of

forests is to be carried out simultaneously with the establishment of forest plantation and in

accordance with international agreements.

Recognizing the rapid socio-economic changes occurring in Myanmar, a review of the Forest

Law 1992 has been undertaken and a revised law was considered in the October 2011

second session of parliament. It is expected that the new forest law will be enacted in thethird session of parliament in 2012.


17/44

9

The broad objectives of the Forest Law 1992 as stated in Section 3 of the Law as are follows:

to implement the forestry policy of the Government; to implement the environmental conservation policy of the Government; to promote public co-operation in implementing the forestry policy and the

environmental conservation policy of the Government; to develop the economy of the State, to contribute towards the food, clothing and

shelter needs of the public and to sustain the perpetual enjoyment of benefits

through conservation and protection of forests;

to work in accordance with international agreements relating to conservation offorests and the environment;

to prevent the dangers of destruction of forest and biodiversity, outbreak of fires,infestation of insects and occurrence of plant disease;

to carry out simultaneously conservation of natural forests and establishment offorest plantations;

to contribute towards the fuel requirements of the country.To achieve its objectives, Section 4 of the Forest Law allows the Minister responsible for

forestry, with the approval of the Government, to declare different categories of reserved

forest, including watershed or catchment protection reserved forest. Outside reserve

forests, Section 5 of the Forest Law empowers the Minister, with the approval of the

Government, to declare any forest land as protected public forest, for a number of purposes

including protection of water and soil; conservation of mangrove forests; conservation of

the environment and bio-diversity; and conservation for sustainable production.

The Forest Law 1992 classifies forests in Myanmar under three categories:

(i) reserved forests;(ii) protected public forest; and(iii)un-classed forests.

All the three categories of forests belong to the State. The only forest areas not under State

ownership are community forests leased to local people through long-term permits

provided by the Government.

Reserved forests are classified under five categories under the Forest Law 1992 as follows:

(i) commercial reserved forest;(ii) local supply reserved forest;(iii)watershed or catchment protection reserved forest;(iv)environment and bio-diversity conservation reserved forest; and(v) other categories of reserved forest.

Under the Forest Law, the Minister may, with the approval of the Government, declare as

protected public forest areas outside reserved forests for the purpose of conserving

mangrove forests.

Forestry areas which are not reserved are available for exploitation of forestry products forcommercial purposes, subject to the grant of permit. Under the Forest Law, the Minister


18/44

10

may, with the approval of the Government, declare different categories of reserved forest,

including watershed or catchment protection reserved forest, environment and bio-diversity

conservation reserved forest; and other categories of reserved forest.

Under the Forest Law, mangrove forests are protected public forests, pursuant to Section 5

of the Law. Protected public forests are situated outside reserved forests where theMinister may specify limits on land. Beyond this, the distinction between reserved forest

and protected public forest is not clear in the Forest Law.

Section 40 of the Forest Lawlists a number of offences including:

(i) trespassing and encroaching in a reserved forest;(ii) causing damage to a water-course, poisoning the water, using chemicals or

explosives in the water in a reserved forest; and

(iii)catching animals, hunting or fishing in a reserved forest, felling, cutting, girdling,marking, lopping, tapping, or injuring by fire or otherwise any tree in a reserved

forest.

The penalty for these offences are, on conviction, a maximum fine of kyats 5000 (in present

day value) or imprisonment for a maximum term of 6 months or both a fine and

imprisonment.

It is the responsibility of the Forest Department to implement the Forest Law. This is done

through the forestry policy and the plans of the Government relating to conservation of

water, soil, biodiversity and environment. The Director-General of the Forest Department is

tasked to develop the necessary policies and draw up plans relating to the forest sector and

plans relating to forest administration to carry out the forest and conservation work of the

Department. The Forest Policy (1995) outlines the basic policy framework to support themanagement and conservation of forests and their biodiversity. The policy was formulated

in line with the Forestry Principles adopted at the United Nations Conference on

Environment and Development (UNCED). The policy places emphasis on:

protection of soil, water, wildlife and biodiversity; sustainability of forest resources to ensure perpetual supply of both tangible and

intangible benefits;

supply of basic needs of the people for fuel, shelter, food and recreation; harnessing the full economic potential of forest resources in a socially and

environmentally friendly manner;

participation of stakeholders in the conservation and utilization of forest resources; increasing public awareness of the vital role of forests in the well-being and social

economic development of the nation.

The Forest Rules (1994) provide a framework to protect biodiversity whilst the Community

Forest Rules (1995) are aimed at promoting public participation of forest conservation.

The Forest Law1992 is supplemented by the Protection of Wildlife and Conservation of

Natural Areas Law1994. The objectives of this law include:

to implement the Government policy for wildlife protection; to implement the Government policy for natural area conservation;


19/44

11

to carry out in accordance with the International Conventions acceded by the Statein respect of the protection and conservation of wildlife, ecosystems and migratory

birds;

to protect endangered species of wildlife and their natural habitats.Section 2 of the Wildlife and Conservation of Natural Areas Law defines wildlife as thewild animals and wild plants in their natural habitats. Wild animal is defined to mean

naturally bred animals, birds, insects, aquatic animals and their spawns, larvae, frys and

seeds in their natural habitats; and wild plant is defined to mean trees, shrubs, climbers,

bamboos, canes, orchids, fungus, aquatic plants and their seeds growing in their natural

habitats.

Under the Wildlife and Conservation of Natural Areas Law, protection is afforded to wildlife

through the declaration of several categories of natural areas, including: scientific reserve;

national park; marine national park; nature reserve; wildlife sanctuary; geo-physically

significant reserve; and other nature reserve determined by the Minister. To achieve these

objectives the Wildlife and Conservation of Natural Areas Law established a multi-agencycommittee, comprising the Minister responsible for forestry as Chairman, representatives

from the relevant Government Departments and Government organizations, and relevant

luminaries and experts as necessary.

Although the Forest Law contains adequate prohibitions against illegal activities, the

effectiveness of the law has been challenged and illegal felling and encroachments continue

to occur as a result of reasons including increase in poverty, lack of law enforcement, and

increased economic activities in the reserve forests.

Another issue affecting the implementation and enforcement of the Forest law is the

contradictions between it and the Freshwater Fisheries Law. A considerably amount offorest area in Myanmar is mangrove forest reserved under the Forestry Law. However,

these areas are also defined as freshwater fishing areas under the Freshwater Fisheries Law.

Significantly, the Freshwater Fisheries Law applies to freshwater fisheries areas defined in

Section 2(e) to include all water bodies, whether permanent or seasonal, water in all areas

belonging to any Government department, including brackish water and river mouths and

creek mouths contiguous to the sea.

The Freshwater Fisheries Law defines fish as all aquatic organisms living the whole or

part of their life cycles in the water, their spawns, larvae, frys and seeds. Fish also includes

aquatic plants, their seedlings and seeds (Section 2(f)). Under the Forest Law, forest

produce is defined in Section 2(e) to includetrees, leaves, flowers and fruits grown on orfound in forest land or land at the disposal of the Government and their by-products, wild

animals and insects, their parts and their by-products. Under the Freshwater Fisheries Law,

the Department of Fisheries has power to permit fishing activities throughout the

freshwater fisheries areas, including mangrove forests which are considered protected

public forests under the Forest Law.

Under the Freshwater Fisheries Law, freshwater fishing activities require a license. The

Director-General has the power to determine licence fees according to the type of fishing

implement. In exercising this power, the Director-General has exempted some 15 fishing

implements from obtaining licenses.


20/44

12

1.5.2 Management frameworkUntil 1972, the Myanmar Forest Department systematically managed forests through

Working Plans and Management Plans. Between 1972 and 1995, there was a gap in the

management framework as working plans were not developed. The development of

Working Plans resumed in 1995.In addition to redeveloping the Working Plans, a thirty year Master Plan (2000 to 2030) was

formulated to manage forests sustainably. Under the Working Plan every district is

responsible to submit a Forest Working Plan in which strategies for conservation,

production and reforestation and the capacity and facility of forest department are

described in detail. States and Regions that have mangrove forests are required to describe

how they will sustainably manage mangrove forests in their districts.

Traditionally, forest resource management in Myanmar is based on a top-down approach

under which decisions are made in headquarters and administrative agencies and lower

level such as townships, districts, states and regions are simply required to meet the

national targets. With limited capacity, conservation of forests has been a big challenge for

the Forest Department. Over time, the Forest Department came to realize that forests

cannot be sustainably managed without active community participation. This resulted in the

development of the Community Forest Instruction in 1995 to promote community

participation in the management of forests.

The Community Forest Instruction provides a thirty year land tenureship to those who

participate in conservation and reforestation of forests in line with the Community Forest

Instruction. This was a great incentive for local people whose livelihoods depend mainly on

forests. The Community Forest Instruction promoted the establishment of Forest User

Groups to implement Community Forestry. Forest User Groups are required to draw upmanagement plans, with the assistance of the staff of the Forest Department while the

Forest Department provides seed and seedlings and technology for community forest

plantation. The forest products harvested from community forests can be used to support

community needs and the surplus sold to outsiders. Although the Community Forest

Instruction is narrow in scope, there is no doubt that it has provided an entry point for local

community groups to participate in forest management.

1.6 Objective of the Integrated Mangrove Management PlanThe objective of the Integrated Mangrove Management Plan (IMMP) is to support the

sustainable management of the forest and fisheries resources of the Wunbaik ReservedForest for the benefit of local communities and future generations.

The design and implementation of this Management Plan is based on the assumption that

local resource users will manage the resources of Wunbaik sustainably if it is clear that it is

in their interest to do so. For this to happen an enabling regulatory framework is necessary

and relevant institutions must play a facilitative role.

1.7 Management plan consultation processThis management plan was developed through studies, surveys, discussions and

consultations throughout the two year period of project implementation. The main

meetings during which management of the Wunbaik reserved Forest and the IntegratedMangrove Management Plan (IMMP) were discussed included the following:


21/44

13

1. Project launch workshop and consultation, Sittwe, 13 December, 2009 (45participants);

2. Interim project workshop and consultation, 7th March, 2010, Thandwe (46participants);

3. National project workshop and consultation, 29th March, 2011, Nay Pyi Taw (39participants);

4. Workshop on IMMP, 9 December, 2011, Yambye (79 participants);5. Project final workshop and IMMP consultation, 15 December, 2011, Nay Pyi Taw (70

participants).

Participants at the various meetings included villagers from the Wunbaik area,

representatives of village, village tract, township and district level line agencies including the

forest, fisheries, agriculture and land planning departments andthe Peace and Development

Councils, and also representatives of local and national NGOs and national level government

agencies.


22/44


23/44

15

2 Management issuesOver recent decades and despite Wunbaik being a reserved forest, natural resources in the

area have not been conserved or managed in a sustainable way. Deforestation and

degradation of forest resources has taken place in large parts of the reserve while fisheries

resources have been severely depleted and levels of biodiversity reduced. In particular,

wood extraction, mangrove conversion for unsustainable paddy and shrimp farming and

severe overfishing have reduced the natural wealth of the area and left large tracts of land

barren.

These impacts have severely reduced economic returns and production of ecological

services from the mangrove forest. Degradation of Wunbaiks natural resources has resulted

in a reduced supply of large logs, a need for greater fishing effort and increased exposure of

local populations and assets to storms and cyclones. Paddy and shrimp farming in the area,

although benefitting farmers, business men and other agents in terms of food production

and income generation, has resulted in land degradation and reduction in water quality inthe channelssurrounding the Wunbaik reserve. The need for farming families to relocate to

the Wunbaik area during the cropping season has also meant that children miss six months

of schooling per year and families have to live without medical facilities and other services.

Community meetings, field surveys, forest inventory and multi-temporal analysis of RS-GIS

images between 1990 and 2011 reveal that the prime reasons for forest and fisheries

degradation in the Wunbaik area are as follows:

I. Selective felling of mangrove trees for collection and trading of wood for charcoal,fuelwood and bark;

II. Hydrological disruption through construction of embankments, clear felling ofmangroves and subsequent for unsustainable paddy and shrimp farming;

III. Unsustainable fishing practices such as trapping juvenile crabs and gravid fish andcrabs, using fishing nets with very small mesh sizes, and fence net fishing on river

mouths; and

IV.Hunting and trapping of wild animals for subsistence and commercial purposes.The following sections outline these and associated issues.

2.1 Wood extractionThe original purpose of the Wunbaik Forest Reserve was to supply fuelwood to steamers

used for transportation along the coast during the British colonial period. The reserve was

sustainably managed using a coupe system and, as a result, deforestation and forest

degradation were absent. Increased demand for fuelwood, along with population growth

and ineffective monitoring and law enforcement has resulted in an alarming rate of

deforestation between 1990 and 2011. Another key factor promoting the degradation of the

forests in Wunbaik is the lack of alternative energy sources to meet local needs.

According to interviews with individuals from Letpan and Yantheshe villages and Hlaing

Kaung settlement, trees in the reserved forests are cut mainly by outsiders from Sittwe, the


24/44

16

capital city of Rakhine State, for woodfuel4

production. Interview respondents reported

regularly seeing large boats in the area of the reserve collecting wood with the help of

labourers from surrounding villages. The intensity of activity only falls during the monsoon

season as a result of stormy seas.

Fuelwood and charcoal manufactured from mangrove wood collected inside WunbaikReserved Forest is exported to Sittwe, Minbya, Pauktaw and Ponna Kyun townships where

demand is very high owing to the lack of alternative energy supplies. As a result of

overexploitation, most of the Wunbaik Reserved Forest is now classed as secondary forest.

The productivity of the mangroves and the quantity and quality of forest products available

to meet the needs of the local population has fallen.

The Forest Working Plan of Kyauk Phyu District shows that based on revenue collection,

total fuelwood production in 2010 was approximately 1 359 600 cubic metres, although the

actual figure may be considerably higher. The results of a study conducted in Ayeyarwady

show that a five-six member household consumes around 3.9 m3

of fuelwood per year.

Based on this figure, it is estimated that consumption of fuelwood by 88 039 households inKyauk Phyu Districtis approximately 388 619 cubic metres. The remaining production

(970 981 cubic metres) is almost certainly sent to Sittwe and Thandwe Districts, where large

proportions of the population depend on woodfuel from Wunbaik for their energy needs,

and used for brick baking.

It is not known how much wood can be sustainable harvested from the WunbaikReserved

Forest on an annual basis but with 40 343 hectares of forest remaining, extraction of

1 359 600 cubic metres per year to supply Kyauk Phyu District would suggest that a growth

rate of 34 cubic metres per hectare per year would be necessary to avoid resource

degradation (Table 1.1). It is very unlikely that the growth rate of the forest would reach this

level and the reasons for deforestation and degradation in Wunbaik are eminently clear.

The Forest Working Plan also estimated that production of charcoal in Kyauk Phyu District in

2010 was approximately 627 000 cubic tons - roughly equivalent to 886 568 cubic metres of

wood. Most of this is likely to have come from Wunbaik although there are other minor

sources in the area. According to local knowledge, approximately 42 000 trees of around 30

feet in height are cut per kiln per annum to produce 22.5 tons of charcoal. This degrades

approximately 104 acres of mangroves (42hectares). The number of registered and

unregistered charcoal kilns around Wunbaik and the capacity of each is, however, unknown.

2.2 Bark peelingBark peeling from mangrove trees, especially Rhizophora sp. in the WunbaikReserved Forest

is common. In general, merchants from Taungok bring a mother craft with support canoes

and workers for a period of one month. A number of narrow creeks on the eastern side of

Wunbaik Reserved Forest are used as hideouts. Villagers also come in small canoes to peel

bark to sell to the merchants. Trees of around 30 feet in height, and girth of 25 to 30 cm

(i.e. the larger existing trees) are targeted and peeled with axes by a group of three or four.

One tree provides 50 kg of bark and boats carry around 16 tonnes in total equivalent to

320 trees. Bark is mostly destined for Mandalay for use in the dyeing industry.

4Woodfuel refers to fuelwood and wood for charcoal


25/44

17

2.3 Agriculture encroachmentConversion of mangroves to agriculture began between 1979 and 1985 during which time

the World Bank, the Asian Development Bank and the Japanese Government provided

funding for conversion of mangrove areas for paddy cultivation through construction of

earthen bunds to block tidal flows. The period of most intensive conversion of mangrovestook place between 1990 and 2000, resulting in an increase of paddy land from 858 to 7 196

acres. Between 2000 and 2011, another 5 118 acres were converted; over 80% of this

between 2009 and 2011 (see Table 1.1). Kari construction resulted in the blocking of

channels inside the reserved forest and death of mangroves, later to be cleared and used for

fuel. Hydrological disruption in mangrove forest areas continues to destroy large areas of

mangroves in Wunbaik and in Rakhine State.

Within Wunbaik, rice is harvested only once per year. During the early years of cultivation,

paddy yield amounts to around1.68 tonnes per acre (4.2 tonnes per hectare). However,

yieldsfall year on year due to soil acidification of intrusion of saline water. At present, yields

per acre are mostly around0.84 tonnes per year (2.1 tonnes per hectare), a level which canonly support subsistence farming. In contrast, productive inland areas suitable for paddy

cultivation produce yields of three to four tonnes per hectares. In addition to low yields,

converted areas generally have to be abandoned after three years due to soil acidification

and compaction.During the cultivation period, it should also be noted that theapplication of

fertilizers and pesticides kill and harm juvenile fish populations and other aquatic biota in

surrounding waters.

Farmers do not pay direct rent to the Forest Department for illegal use of the reserved

forest but, depending on production, provide gifts to local authorities. Farmers may also

sell rice in advance at below the eventual market rate although most farmers in Wunbaik

are relatively wealthy and income from Wunbaik is additional to that from other farmed

areas. A few farmers may be forced by circumstance to borrow money at high rates of

interest from money lenders to finance livelihood activities although Wunbaik farmers

generally dont take loans for farming.

From a legal point of view, it is clear that development of agriculture inside the reserved

forest amounts to breaking the law (see Section 1.5). However, there is reluctance to

enforce the law due to (a) national and divisional level agricultural expansion targets; (b)

availability of revenue from agricultural production; and (c) fear of complaints from farmers

moved out of the reserved forest.Interviews with farmers with active paddy area inside

WunbaikReserved Forest, also reveal that they have little knowledge of alternativelivelihood options outside of paddy cultivation.

From a socio-economic perspective the issue is complex. It is clear that poverty has beena

root cause of illegal encroachment. Encroachment into reserved forests is common

throughout Myanmar, especially within reserved forests which are closed to human

settlement. The problem needs to be addressed through a comprehensive land use policies

at the national level and local levels. To reverse the situation, alternative agricultural land,

an adequate compensation scheme and support for alternative livelihoods would be

required. Allocation of rights over mangrove products from the reserve would also be

valuable in providing incentives for local people to support an Integrated Mangrove

Management Plan.


26/44

18

2.4 Aquaculture encroachmentAs a result of the increasing demand from neighbouring countries, including Bangladesh,

India and China, semi-extensive shrimp culture in cleared mangrove areas has increased in

popularity across Myanmar. In Wunbaik, mangrove conversion for shrimp farming was

initiated by the Department of Fisheries in 1980 as part of a Stateshrimp farming expansionplan. As such, conversion of the mangroves to aquaculture has contributed to Rakhine

States target of 7 000 acres for shrimp pond expansion. Production problems have,

however, questioned the profitability of such a target. Moreover, as Wunbaik is a reserved

forest, any form of encroachment, including for aquaculture development isprohibited (see

Section 1.5). The Forest Department has responsibility to prohibit illegal activities but law

enforcement has generally been weak.

As of 2009, a total of 2 907 acres of Wunbaik Reserved Forest had been converted to shrimp

ponds. By 2011, however, only 1 633 acres remained in a converted state and only 900

acres were still productive (see Table 1.1). Ponds were found to be unprofitable due to poor

sluice construction, inadequate drainage, water acidification and disease outbreak.Successive areas amounting to 1 274 acres, or 56 percent of the original total,havetherefore

been abandoned. Around 800 hectares have been converted to low productivity paddy

while the remaining areas are completely abandoned. These areas nonetheless continue to

obstruct natural hydrology and limit the health of adjacent mangrove formations.

Shrimp pond encroachers are mostly wealthy investors from outside the area who stand to

derive considerable profits from shrimp ponds, especially during the early years after

establishment. The pattern of encroachment is ad hoc and no formal registration process

appears to be in place, presumably because of the illegal nature of activities.

2.5 Non-wood forest productsUnder the Forest Law, forest produce is defined in Section 2(e) to include:

trees, leaves, flowers and fruits grown on or found in forest land or land at the

disposal of the Government and their by-products, wild animals and insects, their

parts and their by-products.

This definition includesfisheries resources in mangroves forests which are also dealt with

under the Freshwater Fisheries Law (see Section 1.5). Under Chapter 6 of the Forest Law,

extraction of all forest produce requires a permit from the Forest Department. The only

exceptions are where the extraction is for domestic, agricultural or piscatorial use, or is not

on a commercial scale. If extraction of forest produce is on a commercial scale, the permit is

obtained through competitive bidding, except where extraction and sales are carried out by

a State-owned enterprise. Under such circumstances, the Minister is empowered by the

Government to undertake the extraction of forest produce. Permits obtained through

competitive bidding are also not required where minor forest produce is permitted to be

extracted on a commercial scale.

2.5.1 Fisheries resourcesCapture fisheries in and around Wunbaik provide a key livelihood activity forvillagers living

in thearea. Equipment used includes trammel nets, fence nets, stow net and gill nets.

Degradation of the mangroves and overfishing have, however, severely reducedthe


27/44

19

productivity of the fishery resources. The aquatic resources survey conducted by the

project showed that fish and shellfishpresent in rivers within the Wunbaik Reserved

Forestare undersized and that population sizes are much diminished in comparison with

previous years.

The main causes of fisheries depletion include capture of brooders and migrating fish andriver mouth fishing. Application of agricultural fertilizers and pesticides, including copper

sulphate,in agricultural areas in Wunbaik also kills juvenile fish and other aquatic biota. Use

of explosives, poisons and electricity for fishing purposes has further negative effects.

Overall, however, the capture of brooders at creek mouths on both tides has probably had

the most negative effects onlocal fish populations.

Fishing is carried out for about two weeks per month, particularly during the two sets of

spring tides for three days before and after the new and full moons. Canoes of between 20

and 27 foot are generally used and daily catches average 8-10 kg for a small canoe and 10-

17 kg for large ones. Preferred fish species include seabass, mugil, catfishes, threadfins,

snappers, eels, groupers and shrimp. In 2011, the going price per kilogram was around$8 250 Kyats (~$11).

Although subsistence fishing within Wunbaik is not deemed to be a significant problem, the

Forest Department should monitor illegal commercial fishing in collaboration with Fishery

Department and local authorities.

2.5.2 Crab fisheriesCrab collection provides a major source offood and income for the rural poor around

Wunbaik, particularly outside the paddy cultivation season. Villagers in the area consume

larger crabs but collection of small mud crabs (


28/44

20

shows that species diversity and population sizes have been significantly reduced in recent

decades.

The main causes of biodiversity loss in the Wunbaik Reserved Forest are that hunting and

poaching of wild animals and uncontrolled use of plant resource for numerous purposes,

conversion of forest lands to other uses and weak law enforcement to control illegal tradeof wildlife and their parts. In relation, on the road to Wunbaik in Taungkok, many

restaurants serve wild meat and an early morning daily public market sells wild meat from

cats, jungle fowl, deer, monkeys, langurs, wild boars and monitor lizards. There has been a

drastic reduction in mammal populations and species diversity in the Wunbaik area and

many species once known by the community are now rare or extinct due to the high levels

of hunting for meat. The remaining mammal populations are also severely threatened by

habitat loss.

Some but not all endangered species in Wunbaik are totally or seasonally protected under

the Forest Law and the Wildlife and Conservation of Natural Areas Law (1994). For example,

only five of eight species of native wild cats are protected.


29/44

21

3 Guidelines for the management of Wunbaik ReservedForest

Wunbaik Reserved Forest is one of the last great areas of mangroves in Myanmar and in all

Southeast Asia. The area has an extremely high potential productivity in terms of bothforest and fisheries resources and provides a home for a wide range of fauna and flora. The

forest also provides storm and cyclone protection and exhibits high levels of carbon storage

and sequestration. Through careful management, the Wunbaik Reserved Forest can

become more productive in terms of wood and non-wood forest products, including

fisheries resources, and ecosystem services including biodiversity conservation and climate

change mitigation. In conserving and improving the management of the area, local level

benefits for current and future generations will also be increased.

To respond to current issues and address demands in a sustainable and equitable way,

much more active forms of management are required than are currently being

implemented. Greater attention to sustainable management of the natural resources in thereserve area will benefit both current and future generations and will also provide a model

for effective management of other mangrove areas in Myanmar and the region as a whole.

To improve sustainable management of natural resources in and around the reserve, rights

and responsibilities must be distributed amongst stakeholders such that incentives are

provided to offset tendencies for short-term degradation. For this an enabling regulatory

environment and effective law enforcement and governance are necessary. As such, the

Forest, Fisheries and Land Planning Departments as key partners in managing the reserved

forest must act in coordination and in partnership with the local communities. To support

collaboration between agencies and communities, institutional strengthening at the local

level will be particularly important.

With respect to management and technical matters, education and awareness raising

amongst stakeholders at all levels is essential, especially in relation to the importance of

mangrove forests and the technical measures necessary to raise the efficiency with which

production and conservation objectives are achieved. Alternative livelihood options and

income generating activities for local communities must also be provided in addition to

training on forest and fisheries resource management.

The following sections address the issues summarised in Section 1.7 and provide a set of

measures necessary to sustainably manage Wunbaik Reserved Forest for the production of

wood and non-wood forest products and conservation of natural resource for the benefit ofsurrounding communities and future generations. The measures recommended have been

derived from community level visits surveys and discussions, field level implementation of

pilot level activities, national and local level consultations and expert input.

3.1 Agree on a policy for future management of Wunbaik ReservedForest

A key area for discussion and consultation during the project implementation period was

the issue of encroached land within the Wunbaik Reserved Forest. Table 1.1 shows that

approximately 5 644 hectares (13 947 acres) of land have been encroached upon for paddy

and shrimp farming. Section 1.4 outlines current legislation governing reserved forests andthe lack of provision for encroached land within reserved forests.


30/44

22

In managing the reserved forest, a key decision therefore concerns the future use of areas

of encroached land. According to the forest law, agricultural and aquaculture land uses

should not be present within the reserve area and because of the isolation of the farmed

areas and need for families to relocate during the growing season, alternative land closer to

communities permanent dwellings is preferred by many farmers and stakeholders as

recorded during the IMMP consultation in Yambye (see Annex 2).

In the short-term, this objective may be hindered by institutional and resource constraints,

especially in relation to providing necessary inputs and implementing safeguards in

transferring encroached farmland to other areas. Under such circumstances, a more

conservative strategy may be appropriate in which further encroachment is prohibited but

current areas of agriculture and aquaculture are left in their current state. Under this option

encroached areas that have become barren and are abandoned would be converted back to

mangrove.

Table 3.1 shows the major land use and management changes aimed at under the two

options. Under option 1, compartments within the Wunbaik Reserved Forest where partiallydegraded and highly degraded mangroves currently exist (seeFigure 3.1) would be managed

for conservation and protection purposes. Areas in which agriculture and aquaculture are

currently practiced, and abandoned agriculture and aquaculture areas, would be allocated

to communities for Ecological Mangrove Restoration and sustainable production of forest

products. Provision of suitable and productive alternative farming land would be essential

for this option to be pursued. Preliminary discussions between the project and government

agencies suggested that appropriate land may be available.

Under option 2, compartments where partially degraded mangroves still exist would be

managed for full conservation and highly degraded areas would be allocated to

communities for sustainable production of forest products. Mangroves would be restoredin abandoned areas of encroached land with paddy and shrimp farming activities allowed to

remain without further expansion.

Table 3.1. Key options for the future management of Wunbaik Reserved Forest

Current land use Option 1 Restore

encroached areas to full

mangrove cover

Option 2 Improve

management of mangrove

resources and prohibit further

encroachment

Partially degraded

mangroves (12 412 ha)

Full conservation Full conservation

Highly degraded

mangroves (3 915 ha)

Full conservation Sustainable forest products

production

Encroached areas -

agriculture and

aquaculture (5 644 ha)

Ecological Mangrove

Restoration followed by

sustainable forest products

production

No change

Abandoned encroached

areas (unknown area)

Ecological Mangrove



production

Ecological Mangrove



production


31/44

23

Figure 3.1. Land cover classes and compartment boundaries in Wunbaik Reserved Forest.


32/44

24

Both options 1 and 2 could potentially be supported by REDD+5

funding. Each option has a

different potential to generate income as follows:

Option 1 has potential to generate income through

(i) carbon sequestration by regrowing mangroves in all currently encroached areas,including abandoned areas, and

(ii)reduced rates of CO2 emission in partially degraded and highly degraded mangrovesplaced under full conservation.

Option 2 has potential to generate income through

(i) carbon sequestration by partially degraded mangroves placed under fullconservation and by regrowing mangroves in abandoned encroached areas, and

(ii)reduced rates of CO2 emission from highly degraded mangroves sustainablymanaged for forest products production.

The amounts of carbon sequestered under option 1 would be considerably higher owing tothe restoration of mangroves on deforested land. It is therefore recommended that

encroached areas within Wunbaik area be reclaimed and returned to their original state as

mangrove forest through Ecological Mangrove Restoration (EMR) techniques demonstrated

by the project.6

Under option 1, carbon sequestration from mangrove regrowth across the 5 644 hectares

(13 947 acres) of encroached land would be considerable. Estimates from Broadhead

(2011)7

suggest that around 1 000 - 2 000 metric tonnes of CO2 equivalent per hectare (Mt

CO2e ha-1

) are contained in mangrove soils and 1 000 Mt CO2e ha-1

in above ground biomass

although stocks may he higher on deep soils covered with un-degraded mangroves.

Taking a range of 2 000 3 000 Mt CO2e ha-1

for total ecosystem carbon storage (above and

below ground) suggests that for an area of 5 644 hectares, between 11 288 547 and 16 932

821 Mt CO2e could be sequestered as encroached areas regenerate to fully grown mangrove

forest.

With a carbon price of $5 per tonne, the value of the carbon sequestered would be

$56 442 736 - $84 664 104 and assuming the mangroves were to take 30 years to reach

carbon densities of 2 000 3 000 Mt CO2e ha-1, annual income would be $1 881 425 -

$2 822 137 notwithstanding project set up or management and administration costs.

In addition to income from carbon sequestered in encroached areas, reduced rates of

emissions from mangroves sustainably managed for forest products production would add

to the total potential income. Under option 2, rates of sequestration and reduction in

emissions would be considerably lower being associated only with expansion of carbon

stocks in degraded mangrove areas and regrowth of mangroves in abandoned areas.

5REDD+ (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation "plus" conservation, sustainable

management of forests and enhancement of forest carbon stocks.)6

Ecological Mangrove Restoration is a cost-effective mangrove restoration technique based on local level

implementation and an understanding of the modifications to the mangrove environment that occurred and

that currently prevent natural secondary succession. The technique draws upon the ability of mangroveecosystems to naturally regenerate once hydrology is restored.7

Available at:http://www.rflp.org/sites/default/files/Income_generation_from_mangrove_rehabilitation.pdf
http://www.rflp.org/sites/default/files/Income_generation_from_mangrove_rehabilitation.pdfhttp://www.rflp.org/sites/default/files/Income_generation_from_mangrove_rehabilitation.pdfhttp://www.rflp.org/sites/default/files/Income_generation_from_mangrove_rehabilitation.pdfhttp://www.rflp.org/sites/default/files/Income_generation_from_mangrove_rehabilitation.pdf


33/44

25

REDD+ income could potentially be used to support the following activities:

project set-up and administration costs; payments to farmers to undertake EMR;

relocation of farmers to alternative land; technical inputs to set up productive agricultural systems and support development

of alternative livelihood activities.

Remaining income could be shared between stakeholders at different levels according to an

agreed benefit sharing formula. Monitoring of carbon sequestration could be achieved

through a combination of high-resolution satellite imagery (~$10 000 for an image of the

whole of Wunbaik Reserved Forest at 0.3m resolution) and inventory techniques.

Monitoring of management and benefit distribution could be undertaken by an NGO or

international organisation.

Once a decision is made on the option to be adopted a detailed implementation planincluding management structure, monitoring and evaluation criteria a budget and a

timeframe could be developed to support implementation. Within the overall framework,

guidelines provided in the following sections would form the basis of field level

management and livelihood support.

3.2 Address legislative contradictionsTo protect the mangrove forests in Myanmar, it will be important that the overlaps between

the Freshwater Fisheries Law and the Forest Law, as outlined in Section 1.5.1, are

addressed. The options for addressing them include a comprehensive and integrated

national mangrove policy, legislative amendments and increased inter-agency cooperation.

3.3 Develop a Wunbaik User RegisterTo provide a foundation for sustainable management of the Wunbaik Reserved Forest, a

Wunbaik User Register is essential. The register would contain the following information for

all users of the Wunbaik Reserved Forest including farmers, fishers, wood cutters, bark

peelers, crab collectors and others:

Name Address National identity card number Area farmed or area of operation Fishing gear owned

Wunbaik users would be issued with a photo identity card and a license to continue

designated activities in accordance with the overall Integrated Mangrove Management Plan.

3.4 Support sustainable production of woodfuel and barkThe root cause of the overexploitation of mangrove forests in the WunbaikReserved Forest

is high demand for fuelwood in Rakhine State and for charcoal, especially in urban areas


34/44

26

including Sittwe, Taungok, Mandalay, Yangon and other areas. Bark peeling has also

adversely affected the forest resources in Wunbaik.

Target felling of mangroves belonging to the genera Rhizophora, Heretiera, Xylocarpus,

Avicennia, Nypa, Kandelia and Bruguiera has reduced the numbers of these trees

considerably. Charcoal and brick manufacturers and bark and lumber traders targetspecimens of 1

deiva oswin stanley and jeremy s. broadhead, 2011. integrated mangrove management plan for wunbaik...

Documents