degree of master in textile technology
TRANSCRIPT
Degree of Master in Textile Technology The Swedish School of Textiles 2011-05-31 Report no.
Impact of Degree of Polymerization of Fiber on
Viscose Fiber Strength
Shoaib Iqbal and Zuhaib Ahmad
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Acknowledgements
First of all we would like to thank Almighty ALLAH for helping us out during our whole degree and especially during our exams and the thesis.
We have been supported by many people during our project work, which led to this report. Without their support we couldn’t have come this far it would have been impossible without people who supported us and believed in us. We would like to express our sincere gratitude and deep appreciation to those who supported us.
Then we would like to thank Nils-Krister Persson for giving us this opportunity to work on this thesis. We would like to thank Magnus Lundmark who represented Domsjö Fabriker AB for providing us with the opportunity and trusting us for the research work and also for inviting us to a fabulous tour to Örnsköldsvik, Domsjö Fabriker AB, and all the people at Domsjö Fabriker AB for making the trip possible and also briefing us on and about the company and giving us a tour of the actual process of dissolving pulp manufacture. Magnus helped us a lot during our work and also was there with ideas and solutions to problems, we owe a lot to him. Then our biggest helper Anders Persson “The Coach” who kept on helping us on every step, arranging for the testing appointments at Swerea IVF, motivating us and providing us with some very good research papers and tips. He was a great help and motivator. And we are thankful to both Magnus and Anders for their expert guidance and invaluable suggestions during the entire project.
We would like to thank Karin Christiansen for helping us at Swerea IVF while conducting our tensile tests. Mansoor Khalid who was our boss where we worked before coming to Sweden, he was a great help for us as he arranged and sent us the samples which we used in our thesis work.
In the end a special thanks to two of our special friends Huriye Ulutas and Özlem Kocak who helped us in translating a couple of the reference articles from German to English language.
We would like to dedicate this work to our parents and families back home.
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ABSTRACT
The aim of the study was to find out the relationship between the DP and the tensile properties of different regenerated cellulose fibers. During the process to make regenerated cellulose fibers from wood, the reduction in DP of cellulose is a necessary process to enable fiber extrusion. The reduction of the DP is usually from 1000 to 350 (Coley 1953). The reduction in DP is necessary, first to make the cellulose soluble, and then further decrease in DP is required to control the viscosity of the solution to minimize the mechanical difficulties during processing faced. It is a fact that the reduction in DP is a compromise which is necessary, as reduction in DP means reduction in tensile properties of the fiber produced. The reduction in DP is optimized to make the process both processing and the final product more feasible. The relation in DP and the strength of the fibers is rather obvious i.e. higher the DP higher the tensile strength, but researchers have different views regarding the relationship. By the experiments performed by us we tried to come to a conclusion regarding the difference in opinions. Different types of regenerated cellulose fibers were collected from various sources. Both wet and dry tenacities of 19 different viscose, bamboo viscose, kupro viscose, modal and Tencel fibers were determined. The fiber linear density was also measured, but for some samples we had to take the fiber density value as provided by the manufacturer, due to the limitation of the instrument regarding the fiber length and low fiber linear density. Then out of all the samples 10 were selected (based on our and company’s interest). SEC analysis was used to determine the DP of the samples. These tests were not carried out by us but by MoRe Research. The results of both the analysis were gathered, analyzed and commented upon. The relationship between DP and tenacity regarding our results was not very clear. No obvious relationship between the two can be established using these experimental results.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Index TITLE Page #
1 Introduction………………….. ……………………………………………………… 6
1.1 AIM………………………………………………………………………………………… 6
1.2 Background…………………………………………………………………………….. 6
1.3 The Company……………………………………………………………………..…… 8
1.4 Regenerated fibers…………………………………………………………………. 8
1.5 Rayon, a viscous fiber……………………………………………………………… 9
1.6 Environmental Aspect ……………………………………………………………. 10
1.7 Sample Fibers………………………………….………………………………………. 14
1.8 Tenacity………………………..………………………………………………………… 14
1.9 Degree of polymerization...……………………………….……………………. 15
1.10 T-Test……………………………………………………………………………………… 15
2 Methodology…………………………………….………………………………….. 16
2.1 Vibroskop/Vibrodyn………………………………………………………………… 16
2.2 Size Exclusion Chromatography (SEC)………….…………………………. 16
2.3 Cellulose Solvents………………………………….………………………………… 17
2.4 SEC of Underived cellulose ……………………………………………………… 18
2.5 DMAc/LiCl ………………………………………………………………………………. 18
3 Experimental Techniques ……………………….……………………………… 20
3.1 Testing for Tenacity………………………….……………………………………… 20
3.2 Testing for Degree of Polymerization ……………………………………… 21
4 Results……………………….…………………………………………………………… 22
4.1 Tenacity Results………………………….…………………………………………… 22
4.2 Degree of Polymerization Results……………………………………………. 27
4.3 DP and Tenacity………………………….…………………………………………… 28
5 Discussion ………………………………………………………………………………. 30
6 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………… 31
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References……………………………..……………………………………………….. 32
Appendix I ……………………………..………………………………………………. 34
Appendix II …………………………………………………………………………….. 52
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1. Introduction
1.1. AIM
Comparison between dry and wet tenacities of various regenerated cellulose fibers and the
effect of Degree of Polymerization (DP) on the tenacity of these fibers.
1.2. Background
A recent increase in prices of cotton fiber has renewed the textile industry’s interested in
Viscose fiber. The increase in the fiber demand was also triggered by the poor crop production
of cotton in recent years. In 2009 the cotton crop of China was damaged by insects. Whereas in
2010 the devastating floods in Pakistan has decreased the crop production. Now it is not easy
to meet the need of future by just focusing on cotton fiber, so a renaissance of viscose fiber can
be seen in the textile sector. Due to the recent increase in the demand of viscose fibers there
has been a renewed interest in this fiber all over the world and it can be a good alternative to
cotton fiber.
The recent trend in cotton price in international market can be seen in the Figure 1
Figure 1: Average spot price in US cents per Pound for Upland cotton (source: Indexmundi.com)
Owing to this increase in cotton prices textile manufacturers have shown interest in using other alternate fibers. The choices they have are very limited as the consumer prefers cotton fiber due to its feel and comfort. Polyester fiber is an important fiber in the textile sector but it does not have good water absorption therefore it becomes uncomfortable to wear in hot conditions. Another fiber the viscose fiber which is a regenerated cellulose fiber has come into the limelight
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due to its properties which are very close to cotton. Owing to this sudden increase in the demand of viscose fiber the prices of dissolving pulp has also increased. Due to which one of Sweden’s largest dissolving pulp producing company Domsjö came to the textile students at Swedish School of Textiles and wanted some research to be done for them so that they can improve their product and streamline it according to the textile industry requirements. As the company specializes in the wood pulp section of viscose production but itself does not have any experience regarding textile part of the fiber so they came to the leading textile school in Sweden.
The simple process concerning dissolving pulp and its spinning to fabric is shown in fig 2.
wood dissolving pulp viscose spinning fabrics garment/textile products
wood side
textile side
Figure 2: Flow chart of Wood to Textile
Domsjo is an expert in the wood pulp making process and their specialty dissolving pulp is sold
to companies which make fiber out of it. The company lacked in the expertise and research
regarding the textile side of the whole process as shown in the figure above. So they contacted
the Swedish School of Textiles regarding help in the textile part of the process. They offered
research topics to the Masters Degree students so that they can know better about how the
process works and the requirements of the process. They also would benefit from it by
streamlining their process and can get new ideas on how to make their whole process better
for the further processes.
In one of the thesis topics offered they wanted to know what the effect of the degree of
polymerization (wood fiber length) has on the tenacity of regenerated cellulose of different
sources, i.e. the relation between the degree of polymerization of the cellulose and the tenacity
of the fiber. Main task in the whole research work is to try and come to a conclusion regarding
the role of DP in relation to the tenacity of the fiber.
The company provided us with some samples of fibers which had been made by their
dissolving pulp, and some fiber samples were collected by us which had different pulp used in
the making.
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1.3. The Company
Domsjö Fabriker is a bio refinery where the renewable wood raw material is refined into
products with a strong environmental profile. The wood mainly consists of cellulose, hemi
cellulose and lignin. In the bio refinery the cellulose is refined into specialty cellulose, the hemi
cellulose into bio ethanol and the lignin into lingo sulfonate. The process of Domsjö Fabriker
also gives them the opportunity to produce complementary products, as carbonic acid, energy
and biogas.
The main part of the business of the company is located just outside central Örnsköldsvik, 550
km north of the capital of Stockholm. The company has approximately 350 employees in
Sweden and 25 in Latvia and Lithuania. The annual turnover amounts to roughly SEK 2.0 billion
and it is certified according to ISO 9001.
1.4. Regenerated fibers
Regenerated fibers are types of fibers, which are made from naturally occurring polymers but that are not in naturally in form of fibers but are processed to be made into fiber form; rayon, lyocell and acetate are some examples of regenerated man-made fibers consisting of cellulose polymer chains. For year man had known that cotton consisted of cellulose and tried hard to make artificial
fibers from cellulose but the hard part was to get the cellulose to dissolve. Many methods were
developed; in 1855 a method using nitrocellulose was developed (Seymour and Porter 1993).
This method was very impractical as it created a very flammable product, this method when
applied on industrial scale proved to be far more expensive than its rival methods of
cuprammonium or acetate rayon. The other processes being used to develop regenerated
cellulose fibers consisted of cuppramonium rayon or acetate rayon methods (Seymour and
Porter 1993). Viscose fiber production method was the third method developed. The viscose
fiber produced had a rather serrated cross section which means it has higher surface area thus
high moisture absorption.
The viscose process was widely welcomed in the earlier stage as many modifications could be
made to the fiber while it was being produced. The viscose fiber is high in luster but dull viscose
can be produced by addition of TiO2 (Seymour and Porter 1993). This made the viscose fiber
versatile as first it was (due to its luster) limited to use in shiny fabrics, after this discovery
viscose fiber with variety of luster assortments could be made and this broadened the use of
the fiber (Seymour and Porter 1993). Certain additions in the chemical bath during
regeneration also impart different properties to the fiber.
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In order to increase the strength of the viscose fiber stretch spinning process was introduced.
The process involves stretching of the fibers before they fully solidified. The stretching caused
the polymer chains to get aligned and thus imparting some greater strength to the fibers
(Seymour and Porter 1993). It was later discovered that by altering the composition of the
viscose solution or the regeneration bath. The alteration of chemicals in the spinning bath gave
the fibers skin core structure where the core consisted of higher crystalline regions and this
gave them high stiffness. This type of fiber was called High Wet Modulus (HWM) fibers, this had
the advantage of having higher tenacity and this fiber also has lower swelling and shrinkage
when wet (Seymour and Porter 1993).
The latest “star” in the regenerated cellulose fiber is the Lyocell fiber. This fiber was first
developed in early 1990s. The need for such a fiber was felt due to the negative environmental
effects of the viscose process. The process by which this fiber is made uses an amine oxide
regeneration bath and the cellulose polymer is dissolved in amine oxide. As amine oxide has
low toxicity therefore, it is more favorable and the cellulose in wood pulp dissolves more easily
and without damaging the cellulose. Lyocell is said to be closer to cotton than any other fiber
(Kadolph 2010).
1.5. Rayon, a viscose fiber
Rayon was first called as “artificial silk”, due to its feel and appearance. This fiber is neither
synthetic as cellulose is taken from plants and nor a natural fiber as many chemical processes
have to be taken into action before getting the fiber. This fiber can be called as “semi synthetic”
fiber.
The name “rayon” was agreed upon in 1926 before that it was commercially sold under brand
names and was termed as artificial silk. The name was taken from French term “rayon”
meaning a “ray of light” (Seymour and Porter, 1993).
American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM) in 1926 gave approval for the meaning of the
term “rayon”:
“Rayon(formerly known as ‘artificial silk’)—A generic term for filaments made
from various solutions of modified cellulose by pressing or drawing the
cellulose solution through an orifice and solidifying it in the form of a filament,
or filaments, by means of some precipitating medium” (Seymour and Porter,
1993).
Rayon fiber is also called as viscose fiber. It gets its name from the viscose honey like liquid
from which the fiber is produced.
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When first viscose fibers were developed it was found out that they had very good aesthetic
properties and somewhat comparable dry condition tensile properties as of cotton, but it was
later found out that once wet the viscose fibers showed very poor tensile properties. When
compared to cotton; whose tenacity increases when exposed to moisture, but viscose tenacity
decreases dramatically when wet. To overcome this problem High Wet modulus rayon was
developed by Tachikawa Japan (Seymour and Porter, 1993, p 82). To make the HWM rayon
ageing process during manufacturing was eliminated which increased the chain length of the
cellulose present in the fiber and stretching which aligns the molecular chains which gives
strength to the fiber (Seymour and Porter, 1993). Due to the changes in the manufacturing
process the fiber obtained has performance which is more like cotton than the regular rayon or
viscose fiber.
When compared with cotton different types of viscose fibers (rayon, lyocell, HWM rayon) show
different properties a comparison is shown in the table 1.
Table 1: Properties of Cotton fiber against different rayon fiber (Kadolph, 2010, p.134)
Properties Cotton Regular Rayon HWM Rayon (Modal) Lyocell
Fibrils Yes No Yes Yes
DP 10,000 300-450 450-750 -
Swelling in Water, % 6 26 18 -
Average Stiffness 57-60 6-50 28-75 30
Tenacity, grams/denier Dry Wet
4.0 5.0
1.0-2.5 0.5-1.4
2.5-5.0
3.0
4.3-4.7 3.8-4.2
Breaking Elongation, % 3-7 8-14 9-18 14-16
As the luster and linear density of the fibers can be controlled so it can exhibit aesthetic
properties like cotton, linen, wool, silk. Rayon fibers provide high moisture absorbency to
fabrics, which makes them very comfortable to wear in hot and humid conditions. Rayon fibers
can be easily blended with other types of fibers due to its versatility. Rayon fabrics have a
unique soft drape which attracts the designers to use the fabric for interior designing and
decoration (Kadolph 2010).
1.6. Environmental Aspect
As production of viscose fibers includes many chemicals in large quantities and the process
itself is not environmentally sustainable. Though the fiber is produced from naturally occurring
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cellulose but the source can be trees, which means cutting down of trees and deforestation.
The dissolving of the cellulose uses many acids and chemicals which makes it a contributor to
air and water pollution. Due to it being environmentally harmful the buyers and the designers
were reluctant in using the fiber. The fiber is biodegradable so the after use disposal is not an
issue.
The environmental impact of three types of manmade cellulose fiber (Viscose, Modal and
Tencel) have been assessed and compared with the conventional textile fiber (Cotton) and
Synthetic fibers (PP, PET). To compare the environmental impact they have been analyzed on
primary energy demand, land use and water use. It has been concluded by the analysis that all
the cellulose fibers except of viscose (Asia) (here in bracket the region of manufacturing are
mentioned) have less impact on environment than the synthetic fibers and cotton. Viscose
(Austria) and Modal requires low fossil energy in the production of pulp and fiber as it is also
attributed by the process integration, credits from by products and usage of renewable energy
sources. Moreover emission of hazardous gases is low for Viscose (Austria) and Modal than the
Viscose (Asia), so leading to low toxicity to human (Shen l, 2010).
Viscose (Asia) is not much favorable as compared to the other manmade cellulose fibers as it
requires more process energy, local and limited sourcing of chemicals and the utilization of
market pulp only while the release of gases by the process do not impart much to the overall
impact.
Synthetic fibers (PP, PET) require the fossil fuel energy for the production process which is not a
renewable energy resource so they have a large impact on abiotic depletion. Also the human
toxicity effect of PET fiber is more than other fiber types (Boustead, 2005a).
However cotton does not require much energy for its production but major concerns with
cotton cultivation is of land use, water use and of fresh water aquatic ecotoxicity. Different kind
of fertilizers and pesticides are also being used for cotton cultivation which have a great impact
on environmental issues (USDA, 2006a).
It has been observed from the study (energy utilization plus waste incineration with and
without energy recovery) that manmade cellulose fibers are better than synthetic (PET, PP) and
cotton fiber.
The harmful processing techniques prompted a scare among the textile manufacturers and
designers and they stopped using viscose fiber. In 1990s an alternate more environmentally
friendly method to produce regenerated fiber from cellulose was developed. This method is
more of a closed loop method which ensures 99.5 % of the chemicals being reprocessed and
reused (Kadolph 2010, P.139).
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Lyocell fibers have better mechanical and physical properties then rayon fibers. It is currently
being manufactured under the trade name Tencel manufactured by Lenzing. As it is a relatively
new fiber, therefore, not many modifications have been made. The process is patent by the
company Lenzing which is also another reason for it not being further developed. Some other
regenerated Cellulose fibers are acetate, Bamboo fiber and Seaweed fiber.
A brief comparison of rayon and Lyocell is shown in the table 2
Table 2: Comparison of properties of rayon and Lyocell fiber (Kadolph 2010, p.143)
Rayon (viscose) Lyocell
Wet Spun Solvent Spun
Regenerated Cellulose Regenerated Cellulose
Serrated cross section Rounded cross section
MoreStaple produced Staple and filament produced
High Absorbency (12.5 %) High absorbency (11.5%)
No Static No static
Ignites Quickly, burns readily
Ignites quickly, burns readily
Technical products, absorbent products, dialysis
Technical products, filters
mildews mildews
Moderate cost Higher cost
Poor resiliency Moderate resiliency
Low strength (1.0-2.5g/d dry; 0.15-1.4 g/d wet)
Higher Strength (4.8-5.0 g/d dry; 4.2-4.6 g/d wet)
Moderate abrasion resistance
Good abrasion resistance
Chlorine bleaches can be used
Chlorine bleaches can be used
Moderate light resistance Moderate light resistance
Harmed by strong acids Harmed by strong acids
Resistant to alkalis and most solvents
Resistant to alkalis and most solvents
95 % elastic at 2% elongation
unknown
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7-14 % breaking elongation dry; 20 % wet
14-16 % breaking elongation dry; 16-18% wet
The manufacturing of the rayon fiber by the viscose method the polymer chains of cellulose are
broken down to make it spinable. The average degree of polymerization (DP) of the cellulose
chains is reduced from approximately 1000 to about 350 (Coley, 1953). If the DP is very high the
processing of the solution by the spinning method is not possible as the higher DP makes the
viscosity of the spinning dope higher and which makes it mechanically impossible to process.
Rayon can be produced efficiently by reduction in degradation with average DP of 500-600
(Coley, 1953), however it is said that the increase in the DP leads to increase in tensile strength,
but the question is whether the increase in tensile strength is enough to bear the difficulties
faced in processing.
Laurer and Doderlein (1943) reported that once DP exceeds 220 there is no effect on the tensile
properties. Whereas Schwarz and Wannow (1941) showed by comparing different DP ranging
from 290 to 480, that DP 430 gave the optimum tensile properties. There is an ambiguity
between the authors as the two have conflicting view points. One says that the DP after a
certain value (220) does not affect the tensile properties of the fiber, whereas the other one
reports that the DP value of 430 gives the maximum value of tenacity.
The quality of the fiber is highly dependent on the quality of cellulose. The fiber companies get
the dissolving cellulose from pulp companies. These pulp companies’ using different methods
try to make the best possible cellulose. There are different parts in the wood like cellulose,
hemicelluloses, lignin, resin and bark. Most of the pulp producing companies uses the
hemicelluloses in the pulp along with the pure cellulose which lowers the pulp quality, thus
reducing the quality of end products made from it. In comparison Domsjo Fabriker has a unique
process of pulp manufacturing that they make ”specialty cellulose” which only includes the
cellulose of the wood and excludes the hemicelluloses, they use the hemicelluloses to make
bioethanol. The specialty cellulose manufactured by Domsjo is sold to the regenerated cellulose
fiber manufacturing companies and not to the paper industry. The comparison between any
pulp making factory and Domsjo is as shown as under:
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Figure 3: Comparison between Domsjo and ordinary pulp making companies
In the report it is tried, by conducting new experiments and collecting the data to clarify the
problem, and end up to a conclusion.
1.7. Sample Fibers:
In order to find the degree of polymerization and fiber tenacity, different kind of yarns from
different source is collected. These are given in the table below.
Table 3: Different kinds of fibers to be tested
Sample # Fiber name Company Type
1 Tencel Micro Lenzing Austria Staple Fiber
2 FC-FC Fiber Taiwan Staple Fiber
3 Modal fiber Thiland Thai Rayon Public CO LTD Staple Fiber
4 Bamboo Viscose China Tenbo-Cel Staple Fiber
5 ProModal Fiber Lenzing Austria Staple Fiber
6 Tencel LF Lenzing Austria Staple Fiber
7 Tencel Standard Lenzing Austria Staple Fiber
8 Viscose (siruspun) Lenzing Austria (Hof Garn GmbH) Staple Fiber
9 Bamboo Viscose Tearfil Staple Fiber
10 Viscose (167 f 42) Enka (school lab) Filament
11 Bamboo Viscose Injusbla topp Staple Fiber
12 Bamboo Viscose Tearfil Staple Fiber
13 Kupro Viscose
Filament
14 Indian Rayon
Filament
15 Avilon Avilon Staple Fiber
16 Viscose (84 f 31) ENKA Filament
17 Viscose (110 f 40) ENKA Filament
18 Viscose (133 f 48) ENKA Filament
19 Viscose (167 f 42) ENKA Filament
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1.8. Tenacity
Tenacity is the measure of tensile strength of fiber/ yarn. In USA it is defined as the breaking
strength of fiber (in centi-newton) divided by the denier (linear density) of fiber/yarn. (Denier is
the mass of fiber/ yarn in grams per 9000 meters).
Whereas other units include centi-newton per tex. (Where tex is another measure of linear
density of yarn/fiber; weight of fiber/yarn in grams per 1000 meters.
1.9. Degree of Polymerization
Degree of Polymerization (DP) is said to be the number of monomers which comprise a macro
molecule or a polymer. For a homo polymer where there is only one type of monomer in the
polymer DP can be defined as:
Where MW means the molecular weight, Mn is the molecular number average, Mo is the
molecular weight of monomer unit.
There are different methods which are being used to find the degree of polymerization but the
method we are going to use for the given fibers is Size Exclusion Chromatography (SEC).
1.10. t-Test
t-Test is a statistical technique used to access whether mean values of two groups of data are statistically significantly different or not. Analysis is suitable when you need to compare means of two groups. The t-value is negative if the mean of first group is smaller than the second and positive if it is larger.
To test the significance you need to set up a level known as the alpha level which is the probability, in most cases it is set at 0.05 or 5%. This implies that out of a hundred times 5 times you are likely to find statistically significant difference among the two means even if there was no difference. If the value of p <0.05, then means of the two groups are said to be statistically significantly different.
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2. Methodology
2.1. Vibroskop/Vibrodyn
Vibroskop is an automatic instrument for the determination of the titer (dtex, den) of single
fibers. It is used in combination with the tensile tester Vibrodyn to create efficiently complete
tests with individual titer, tenacity and elongation results giving reliable quality feedback.
Prior to a test, the appropriate pretension weight has to be chosen and set on the instrument.
Then a fiber with a pretension weight is loaded by pressing the operation button shortly the
measurement is initiated - the fiber is set into its natural vibration by an electronic delta
impulse. The titer is derived from the fiber‘s vibration frequency. The automatic measurement
assures easiest handling, minimum influence of the operator and therewith best accuracy and
repeatability. Combined with Vibrodyn, a complete result report with titer, elongation and
individual tenacity (tension at break based on the individual fiber titer) is created.
2.2 Size Exclusion Chromatography (SEC) SEC Size Exclusion Chromatography is a technique used to determine the molecular weight distribution data for a polymeric substance. This technique was and will carry on to be a vital technique in analysis and scrutiny of cellulose and cellulosics (Agg and Yorke 1980). An argument can be put forward that by SEC one gets the molecular size and so how can you get the molecular weight information. One can use SEC to get the molecular weight because of the relationship between molecular weight and the linear dimension of a polymer chain with free joints. For a freely joint polymer chain either the Root mean square of the end to end distance of the chain is proportional to the square root of molecular weight, or the radius of gyration is proportional to square root of molecular chain (Billmeyer 1971). SEC is based on passing the aqueous or solved form of the polymer material through a column. The column is filled with stationary particles and the gaps between the particles are through which the polymer molecules are to pass through. The basic principle is that the smaller particles which are present in the mobile phase will be retained in the pores for a longer time because it is smaller in size and can penetrate every corner or gap of the pore thus the probability of retention of a smaller molecule in a pore is higher. Whereas a larger molecule as it is larger in size cannot penetrate into the pore system of the column and will pass quickly, hence the probability of retention of a larger molecule in the pore system is lower(Volmert 1973). The retention time of smaller molecules in the column is greater as compared to the larger sized molecules.
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Figure 4: Entropy of macromolecular retention in a pore: the smaller molecule at left has four times as
many possibilities for retention as the molecule at right. (Malawer 1995)
The degree of polymerization (DP) of cellulose varies very much depending upon the source of the cellulose, the maturity of the source and the technique used to separate cellulose from the source. The difficult part of applying this technique on cellulose is the fact that dissolving cellulose without damaging the DP of the chains is a difficult thing. Mainly two methods are used to overcome this problem
1. Making soluble cellulose deravitives 2. Dissolving cellulose using cellulose solvents.
Both methods are used to dissolve cellulose for SEC analysis. When cellulose derivatives are made mainly the hydroxyls present in the cellulose chain can be converted into a variety of ethers and esters. The derivatives formed are mostly soluble and in theory it can be said that these derivatives can be used for SEC analysis and the results obtained are assumed to be accurate and after an appropriate correction of the increased in the molecular weight of the cellulose due to derivative formation. But in practical the derivative reaction is heterogeneous due to the heterogeneous nature of cellulose, as the reagents have greater access to the amorphous regions of cellulose than the crystalline ones (Roland & Bertoniere 1985). Therefore, there are two key concerns regarding using cellulose derivatives for SEC, that the derivatives might not be entirely formed and the reaction conditions during the derivative formation could have degraded the cellulose molecule for example due to oxidation or hydrolysis of glycosidic linkages. (Malawer 1995).
2.3 Cellulose Solvents There are many known systems that can dissolve cellulose (Jayme 1971). The system for dissolution can be protonic acids, or metallic complexes (e.g. cuprammonium). All the methods of dissolving of cellulose can be fit into four main categories (Turbak, Hammer, Davies and Hergert 1980):
1. Cellulose as a base 2. Cellulose as an acid 3. Cellulose complexes
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4. Cellulose derivatives
This cellulose derivative is different from those discussed above as in this system the cellulose dissolves during the formation of the derivative and afterwards can be regenerated (Johnson 1985). Cellulose solvents have been used for the SEC analysis but some problems can occur, like unfavorable effects on the cellulose molecule (oxidation or hydrolysis), the solvents can have unfavorable effect on the packing material and can cause degradation, swelling of the packing material. From experimental point of view it is more attractive to perform the SEC of the cellulose directly on the cellulose rather than cellulose derivative, avoiding the possibility of degradation of polymer chains and also keep the number of steps involved in making of the samples to a minimum. But as cellulose is insoluble in most of the solvents it is necessary to first make a derivative of the cellulose and then perform the SEC analysis on it. There are many derivatives commonly used for the SEC analysis like:
1. Cellulose Accetate 2. Cellulose Trinitrate 3. More recently Cellulose Tricarbanilate
2.4 SEC of Underived Cellulose
Before the SEC technique was developed viscometry was used to measure the DP of cellulose, but after the advent of SEC many people thought and tried using SEC for cellulose but failed. Segal (1975) reviewed the attempts made to use cellulose solvents for SEC analysis and the problems faced during the analysis like swelling of the packing material. Two cellulose solvents in particular, cadoxen (Jayme & Neuschaffer 1957) and the more newly established N,N-dimethylacetamide/LiCl method (McCormick, Callais & Hutchinson 1985) has increased hope for use of SEC analysis of cellulose without having to make a derivative.
2.5 DMAc/LiCl
There have been different solvents for cellulose since 1975 but N,N-dimethylacetamide (DMAc) and LiCl (McCormick & Callais 1985) is found to be good for cellulose as cellulose break up quite good in it. Also DMAc/LiCl is more consistent than others over long time, shows no degradation in cellulose chain length at dissolution process (Turbak 1983; Ekmanis 1985; McCormick & Callais 1985) and it is inert to SEC packing materials (Kevrnheim & Lystad 1989).
Since DMAc/LiCl is better to use for cadoxen so for the study of SEC for cellulose (Ekmanis, 1985; Kevrnheim & Lystad 1989; Timpa 1991; Timpa & Ramey 1989), it don’t take much time and nondegradative. The method of preparing the cellulose solutions which are good for SEC analysis in DMAc/LiCl is quite simple (Ekmanis 1985; Kevrnheim & Lystad 1989). Preswelling of cellulose in water or activation of cellulose in refluxing DMAc is necessary in dissolution
19
process. Initially the PH of cellulose should be neutral otherwise it can result in extensive degradation before the completion of cellulose dissolution.
The SEC of cellulose and cellulosics had its immaturity in the early 1960s (Segal 1975). As the cellulose cannot be dissolved in water and other organic solvents as well so the processes were developed for the SEC study of cellulose. In the starting phase some efforts were made which enable “cellulose solvent” to dissolve cellulose and to act as eluant. These efforts were annoyed by incompatabilities between the gels which are applied for packing the columns and the cellulose solvents.
There were some difficulties in using cellulose solvents for analysis so the use of cellulose derivatives becomes more convenient. In the early stages the use of trinitrate ester was good for SEC analysis of cellulose and it was getting more success. Though the tricarbanilate derivative was being used in the initial stages and now they are being used mostly as they have more advantages over trinitrate derivatives.
20
3. Experimental Techniques
3.1 Testing for Tenacity
All of the viscose fiber samples were tested for the tenacity and elongation. The testing apparatus used was Lenzing Instruments’ Vibrodyn. The machine consists of two parts Vibroskop and Vibrodyn. The vibroskop is used to measure the linear density of the fiber and Vibrodyn is used to measure the tenacity of single fiber. The technique used to measure the linear density is the vibration method which is invented by the same company (product guide). Before testing is commenced a pretension weight has to be selected based on the fiber fineness. Then clamping that pretension weight onto one end of the fiber the sample is mounted onto the machine by the other free end. Then the fiber is set into vibration by an electronic data impulse, the linear density in denier or dtex is determined by the machine and displayed on the digital screen. The operator has to set the dial on to the position where the fiber has the maximum vibration. The vibrating fiber sample can be seen on a magnified scale on a screen. The movement of the dial determines the linear density of the fiber which is displayed on the screen.
The fiber sample is taken out of the measuring device and then mounted on the clamp of the vibrodyn; the pretension weight is still hanging with one end of the fiber. Different parameters have to be fed into the machine software. The parameters include:
Pretension weight(mg)
Gauge length (mm)
Titer(linear density)
Testing speed (mm/min)
21
The pretension weight was changed when testing of fibers with higher linear density. The gauge length was dependant on the fiber length. For staple fibers the gauge length was kept to 10mm and for the filament fibers it was set at 20mm. In the software the titer value was set to 1 but as the two apparatuses vibrodyn and Vibroskop are linked to each other therefore, the software automatically took the titer value from the vibroskop (the value which was earlier determined). The testing speed was kept constant at 200mm/min. For each sample 10 tests were performed. For all the samples both wet and dry tenacities were measured. For each fiber type 10 samples were tested for dry tenacity and ten samples for wet tenacity. Wet tenacity is also measured using the same apparatus (vibrodyn) only an attachment was added to the apparatus i.e. a rectangular clear jar was placed below the moving jaws of the vibrodyn on a small platform which moved upwards submerging the lower jaw and the sample in water, the water level was kept about 1 mm below the upper jaw of the machine. The breaking of the fiber took place while it was submerged in the water thus the value was wet tenacity. As it has been earlier discussed that the “Achilles” of the Viscose fiber is its wet tenacity, and the same was observed that when the fiber is wet the tenacity reduced drastically and the elongation increased. The difference between the dry and wet tenacities for the viscose fiber was very high, where as for the Lyocell fibers the difference was not that significant.
3.2 Testing for Degree of Polymerization
The SEC analysis on all of the samples was not performed as it was expensive and the budget
allowed to only conduct SEC analysis of 10 samples out of 19. The lyocell fibers were not
selected for the SEC analysis as it is a totally different manufacturing process. The parameters
used by MoRe Research for SEC analysis were:
The solvent they used was 0,5% LiCl in Dimethylacetamide.
The samples are solved in 8% LiCl in DMAc in room temperature between 24-48 h. Before this they had to make a pre-treatment of our samples but that they didn’t want to describe because it’s a new invention.
The column used was PLgel 20um Mixed A 300x7,5 mm from Polymer Laboratories. PLgel is a highly cross-linked spherical polystyrene/divinylbenzene matrix.
The temperature in the system was 70°C
The standard used was polysaccharide standards with different molecular weight.
22
4. Results 4.1. Tenacity Results
The tenacity experimental results for the samples are as follows:
Table 4: Tenacity results mean ± SD
Sample #
Fiber name Tenacity (cN/tex) Elongation (%)
Wet Dry Wet Dry
1 Tencel Micro 40.3 ± 6.4 58.0 ± 4.6 16.1 17.8
2 FC-FC Fiber 13.6 ± 2.3 27.7 ± 2.8 18.4 19.4
3 Modal fiber Thiland 23.1 ± 1.8 38.4 ± 2.4 12.7 15.0
4 Bamboo Viscose 13.0 ± 2.8 25.2 ± 2.3 27.3 20.7
5 ProModal Fiber 28.2 ± 5.6 40.1 ± 4.5 12.6 10.9
6 Tencel LF 31.7 ± 2.8 43.3 ± 5.7 13.5 11.6
7 Tencel Standard 27.3 ± 3.8 40.9 ±4.2 14.5 15.0
8 Viscose (siruspun) 15.6 ± 1.2 27.2 ± 1.9 19.0 19.5
9 Bamboo Viscose 17.6 ± 1.6 26.5 ± 3.7 17.2 14.0
10 Viscose (167 f 42) 11.4 ± 0.7 22.3 ± 0.5 26.1 21.3
11 Bamboo Viscose 11.1 ± 1.7 21.3 ± 3.0 18.7 12.3
12 Bamboo Viscose 11.9 ± 1.5 24.4 ± 4.6 16.4 10.6
13 Kupro Viscose 16.3 ± 0.9 21.9 ± 1.2 22.8 12.3
14 Indian Rayon 9.2 ± 0.7 12.0 ± 3.2 36.8 17.5
15 Avilon 9.9 ± 1.2 18.2 ± 2.4 18.1 21.6
16 Viscose (84 f 31) 9.3 ± 0.6 19.0 ± 0.5 29.8 23.2
17 Viscose (110 f 40) 9.8 ± 0.6 17.8 ± 1.0 29.6 23.2
18 Viscose (133 f 48) 9.8 ± 0.7 18.8 ± 0.8 27.7 22.1
19 Viscose (167 f 42) 10.0 ± 0.5 17.3 ± 1.0 32.5 23.4
In table 4 the mean wet and dry tenacities of the samples from vibrodyn are presented. For all
the sample fibers the tenacity drops are shown once soaked in water. It is reconfirmed by the
experiments that when the viscose fiber is wet it loses its tenacity by very large amounts i.e. the
tenacity drops to about half. The ultimate elongation of the fiber samples is inconsistent.
The manufacturing process has a great effect on the tenacities of the fibers. As it can be seen in
figure 5 that the highest tenacity is of Tencel micro and after that the Tencel fibers have the
highest tenacity values. This shows the superiority of the Lyocell process. The lyocell fiber loses
its tenacity when wet but the loss is not so high when compared to the viscose fiber. Modal
fiber has the second best dry tenacity after the lyocell fiber which shows that they are superior
to viscose fibers when it comes to the strength of the fiber.
23
Figure 5: Comparison between dry and wet tenacity of fibers ( for data see table 4)
In figure 5 you can see clearly that when the regenerated regardless of its manufacturing
technique when exposed to water, the tenacity is reduced. Now the reduction is dependent
upon the manufacturing process. The lyocell process (sample # 1, 6, 7) has the lowest reduction
in the tenacity when wet. And they have the highest dry tenacity. Whereas Modal fibers
(sample # 3 and 5) have the second lowest reduction in tenacity when we and over all they
have the second highest dry tenacity. The t-Tests showed that all the dry samples were
statistically significantly different from the dry ones (p < 0.05).
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Ten
cel M
icro
FC-F
C F
ibe
r
Mo
dal
fib
er T
hila
nd
Bam
bo
o V
isco
se
Pro
Mo
dal
Fib
er
Ten
cel L
F
Ten
cel S
tan
dar
d
Vis
cose
(si
rusp
un
)
Bam
bo
o V
isco
se
Vis
cose
(16
7 f
42)
Bam
bo
o V
isco
se
Bam
bo
o V
isco
se
Ku
pro
Vis
cose
Ind
ian
Ray
on
Avi
lon
Vis
cose
(84
f 3
1)
Vis
cose
(11
0 f
40)
Vis
cose
(13
3 f
48)
Vis
cose
(16
7 f
42)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
Ten
acit
y (c
N/t
ex)
wet dry
Tenacity Comparison
24
Figure 6: Comparison between dry and wet elongation of fibers (for data see table 4)
In the figure 6 it can be seen that the elongation of regenerated cellulose fibers is higher when
wet (which is true for more of the fibers). For fibers made by lyocell fibers there is a slight
decrease in the elongation of the fibers when wet. There are one or two fibers which showed
abnormal behavior like Avilon (sample # 15) and Viscose (sample # 8).
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45Te
nce
l Mic
ro
FC-F
C F
iber
Mo
dal
fib
er T
hila
nd
Bam
bo
o V
isco
se
Pro
Mo
dal
Fib
er
Ten
cel L
F
Ten
cel S
tan
dar
d
Vis
cose
(si
rusp
un
)
Bam
bo
o V
isco
se
Vis
cose
(16
7 f
42)
Bam
bo
o V
isco
se
Bam
bo
o V
isco
se
Ku
pro
Vis
cose
Ind
ian
Ray
on
Avi
lon
Vis
cose
(84
f 3
1)
Vis
cose
(11
0 f
40)
Vis
cose
(13
3 f
48)
Vis
cose
(16
7 f
42)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
Elo
nga
tio
n %
wet dry
Elongation Comparison
25
Figure 7: Comparison between wet and dry tenacity of different Bamboo fibers (for data see table 4)
The comparison shown in figure 7 was conducted to help decide which of the four bamboo
viscose fiber samples we will be analyzing for the DP. Two samples with the highest and the
lowest tenacity values. In this case samples selected were the first Tearfil (sample 9) and
Insubla-topp samples for DP analysis.
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
Ch
ina
Ten
bo
-Cel
Tear
fil
Inju
sbla
top
p
Tear
fil
Bamboo Viscose Bamboo Viscose Bamboo Viscose Bamboo Viscose
4 9 11 12
Ten
acit
y (c
N/t
ex)
wet
Bamboo Tenacity
26
Figure 8: Comparison between wet and dry tenacity of different ENKA fibers (for data see table 4)
The comparison shown in figure 8 was done to help select two of the 5 ENKA samples here
again same technique was applied by to get to the conclusion as for the Bamboo viscose
samples. Therefore, selected samples were viscose (84f31) and viscose (167f42) ( the first and
the second sample in the figure 8, the last ENKA sample in figure above was excluded as the
source was different).
0
5
10
15
20
25
Vis
cose
(1
67
f 4
2)
Vis
cose
(84
f 3
1)
Vis
cose
(1
10
f 4
0)
Vis
cose
(1
33
f 4
8)
Vis
cose
(1
67
f 4
2)
10 16 17 18 19
Ten
acit
y (c
N/t
ex)
wet dry
Enka Tenacity
27
4.2. Degree of Polymerization Results
Out of the four bamboo viscose fibers we selected 2 samples which had the extreme tenacity
values i.e. the bamboo fiber sample with the lowest tenacity and one with the highest.
Out of the four ENKA samples again two samples were selected; with the lowest and the
highest value of tenacity. The samples were then sent to MoRe Research (a partner company of
Domsjo) where the SEC analysis of the sample fibers was conducted. The analysis was not done
by the writer of the report as they didn’t have access to any place where it could be performed.
Table 5: SEC results of the sample fibers
Sample #
Fiber name Mw Mn Mp Mz Mz+1 PD DP
1 Tencel Micro
2 FC-FC Fiber 152182 48674 116219 300786 468381 3.1 300
3 Modal fiber Thiland 170018 67750 120561 327223 518174 2.5 418
4 Bamboo Viscose
5 ProModal Fiber 211213 56384 135825 460901 726019 3.8 348
6 Tencel LF
7 Tencel Standard
8 Viscose (siruspun)
9 Bamboo Viscose 127213 47020 89901 241216 358343 2.7 290
10 Viscose (167 f 42)
11 Bamboo Viscose 115869 46163 75526 235601 394472 2.5 285
12 Bamboo Viscose
13 Kupro Viscose 243132 98124 203335 449980 687417 2.5 606
14 Indian Rayon 121623 45423 79798 251779 417741 2.7 280
15 Avilon 131220 46133 93260 260049 414924 2.8 285
16 Viscose (84 f 31) 127277 49148 86663 252765 410201 2.6 303
17 Viscose (110 f 40)
18 Viscose (133 f 48)
19 Viscose (167 f 42) 127224 47158 87462 261409 432582 2.7 291
28
4.3. DP and Tenacity
The degree of polymerization calculated after SEC shows that DP depends upon the
manufacturing process. The highest value of DP is of Kupro Viscose i.e. 606, whereas the Modal
fiber has the second highest DP i.e. of 418. The comparison between the wet tenacity of the
fiber and the DP of the fiber is shown graphically:
Figure 9: Comparison between Wet tenacity and DP
FC-FC
Modal
Pro Modal
Bamboo #9285
Kupro Viscose
280285
303291
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
550
600
7.00 12.00 17.00 22.00 27.00
DP
Wet Tenacity
29
Figure 10: Comparison between Dry tenacity and DP
Here it can be seen that the data is inconclusive whether increase in DP of the cellulose really
increases the tenacity of the regenerated cellulose or not. Here bamboo # 9 has a rather
abnormal value, about which it can be said that may be during SEC analysis the dissolution did
not take place completely therefore DP has an abnormal value.
FC-FC
Modal
ProModal
Bamboo # 9285
Kupro Viscose
280285
303291
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
550
600
11.00 16.00 21.00 26.00 31.00 36.00 41.00
DP
DryTenacity
30
5. Discussion
The research work involved the testing of different samples of regenerated cellulose fibers and
then comparing the results with the degree of polymerization of the samples. The aim was to
comment on the relationship between the DP and the tenacity of different regenerated
cellulose fibers of different origins. We got the samples of fibers from different sources. We got
some fibers from Pakistan, got hold of some from the Swedish School of Textiles’ knitting lab
and the rest were provided by Domsjo Fabriker AB. The samples provided by Domsjo were
exclusively fibers which had been made using the dissolving pulp made by the company. The
tenacity of the fibers was calculated using vibrodyn/vibroskop, at Swerea. The tenacities were
found to be what we expected. We expected that regenerated cellulose fiber made by lyocell
process would have the highest dry tenacity values and the decrease in their strength when wet
would also be less, that was what we can observe form the experimental readings that we
observed. Our second idea was that modal fibers would have the second highest value of dry
tenacity and some increased loss of strength when wet and that is what the experimental
readings show (Coley 1953). Viscose fibers the third type of regenerated cellulose fibers had the
least dry strength and the loss of strength when wet was also the greatest and that is what we
had expected. The viscose process which is inferior to the other two it produces fiber with the
lowest (among the 3 types of regenerated cellulose fiber manufacturing techniques) and when
wet they are the ones which suffer the most degradation in tenacity (Shen.L 2010)
Regarding the second part of the research and experimentation we had thought that with
increase in DP the strength of the fiber will also increase as Coley (1953) had reported that the
increase in DP increases the strength of the fiber. But the DP cannot be kept very high as the
high DP causes the dope to cause difficulties during spinning; therefore, the decrease in DP is
necessary. The DP cannot be reduced too much as this may cause the fiber produced to be
weak and of lower quality, therefore, a balance has to be kept. The DP should be such that the
spinning is easily done and the fiber produced has the optimum tenacity. The experimental
results which we got from the SEC were rather ambiguous; we could not get to a conclusion
regarding the opinion that we had formed that the increase in DP increases the strength of the
fiber.
Looking at the results we can say that DP is not the only factor which influences the tenacity of
the fiber, but there are other factors too. From the experimental results we can say that the
manufacturing process used to make the fiber has a very high impact on the properties of the
fiber produced. The Lyocell process, Modal process, viscose process, Cupramonium process all
have different results on the fiber produced. Lyocell process is by far the best result producing
process but as it is a patent and that patent is currently under the ownership of Lenzing,
therefore they have the monopoly over this fiber and they are the only ones producing this kind
31
of fiber in the world. Once the patent time period is over and the process becomes commercial
and there are other companies which adopt the process, then the price of the fiber might
become competitive and the fiber can have a more expanded impact on the international
market of fibers. May be then the market share of regenerated cellulose fiber will increase and
can become a competition to other regenerated and manmade fibers currently being used in
the textile industry.
There is a lot of work being done to find out different ways to dissolve cellulose and also make
it spinable. There are many companies which are currently working on new ways of dissolving
cellulose and thus making better regenerated cellulose fibers, the research is being conducted
to find out ways which are easier to perform and also are environmentally friendly and
sustainable, therefore once the patent owned by Lenzing expires then a lot of new companies
may come up with new and hopefully better regenerated cellulose fibers (Striegel 1995;
Lindman 2010; Pinkert 2010).
6. Conclusion
A range of regenerated cellulose fibers was made to go through single fiber tensile test in order to determine the tensile strength, and elongation. Both dry and wet tensile tests were applied onto the samples. The average tenacity of lyocell fibers was found to be higher than all the other types of regenerated cellulose fibers. Modal fibers had the second to best tenacity results and viscose fibers had the least tenacity both dry and wet among the three types of regenerated cellulose fibers. The production process of lyocell is also simple but still it has the higher cost than other fibers as there is only one company which is making this fiber i.e. Lenzing, still they have no competitors so no further researches has been made in it. There was a significant drop in the tenacity of the viscose fibers when wet. The value dropped to about half of the dry tenacity, this shows that the weakest property which can be termed as the “Achilles heel” of viscose fiber is its wet tensile properties. Tenacity of all manmade cellulose fibers is good in dry state as compared to wet state while the elongation in dry state is comparatively low to wet state. When comparing the tensile property with the degree of polymerization of the fiber no conclusive evidence can be seen, no proper statement can be given regarding the relationship of DP and tensile property of the regenerated cellulose fiber. The only conclusion which can be made from the data is that not only DP has effect on the tenacity of the fiber but the processing method/technique has a significant effect on the tenacity, so further researches can be done in this regard to explore the methods. And it can be seen that the highest DP 606 is of kupro viscose which has a different manufacturing process than viscose or lyocell, but its wet tenacity is 16.31cN/tex, where as the modal fiber which has a DP of 348 has a wet tenacity of 28.16cN/tex.
32
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34
APPENDIX I
Tencel Micro (Lenzing Austria)
Test WET DRY
# Titer (dtex)
Tenacity (cN/tex)
Elongation %
Titer (dtex)
Tenacity (cN/tex)
Elongation %
1 0.91 33.2 14.3 0.90 50.4 14.0
2 0.91 32.1 16.8 0.90 61.8 19.0
3 0.91 45.2 17.3 0.90 61.2 20.0
4 0.91 44.8 16.9 0.90 52.4 15.4
5 0.91 47.3 18.2 0.90 56.1 16.5
6 0.91 37.6 15.9 0.90 54.7 17.4
7 0.91 43.6 16.5 0.90 59.4 17.5
8 0.91 30.3 11.9 0.90 60.8 18.9
9 0.91 43.4 16.2 0.90 58.0 17.7
10 0.91 45.6 17.3 0.90 65.1 21.9
Mean 0.91 40.3 16.1 0.90 58.0 17.8
SD 6.38 4.58
T_TEST WET Statistically Significantly
different DRY
Statistically Significantly
different
1&2 p 2.79E-10 Yes 6.65E-13 Yes
1&3 p 1.63E-07 Yes 4.67E-10 Yes
1&4 p 2.99E-10 Yes 8.18E-14 Yes
1&5 p 2.53E-04 Yes 5.88E-08 Yes
1&6 p 1.07E-03 Yes 5.45E-06 Yes
1&7 p 3.06E-05 Yes 6.54E-08 Yes
1&8 p 4.79E-10 Yes 1.30E-13 Yes
1&9 p 2.36E-09 Yes 1.83E-12 Yes
1&10 p 3.11E-11 Yes 2.88E-15 Yes
1&11 p 4.00E-11 Yes 3.25E-14 Yes
1&12 p 6.04E-11 Yes 3.19E-12 Yes
1&13 p 6.77E-10 Yes 3.53E-15 Yes
1&14 p 8.87E-12 Yes 9.91E-16 Yes
1&15 p 1.54E-11 Yes 3.09E-15 Yes
1&16 p 9.13E-12 Yes 5.82E-16 Yes
1&17 p 1.20E-11 Yes 4.59E-16 Yes
1&18 p 1.23E-11 Yes 6.28E-16 Yes
1&19 p 1.34E-11 Yes 3.72E-16 Yes
35
FC-FC Viscose Taiwan
Test #
WET DRY
Titer (dtex)
Tenacity (cN/tex)
Elongation %
Titer (dtex)
Tenacity (cN/tex)
Elongation %
1 1.61 16.3 22.6 1.67 25.1 19.1
2 1.40 15.5 14.4 1.67 22.2 20.5
3 1.52 13.2 21.3 1.41 29.3 17.9
4 1.64 14.2 17.9 1.41 25.9 19.8
5 1.64 14.1 23.6 1.41 30.0 19.8
6 1.64 11.8 17.0 1.41 25.4 19.3
7 1.64 15.3 18.3 1.41 28.5 19.9
8 1.64 8.2 9.7 1.29 30.5 18.7
9 1.64 13.8 22.0 1.07 29.5 19.8
10 1.64 13.8 17.2 1.33 30.1 19.1
Mean 1.60 13.6 18.4 1.41 27.7 19.4
SD 2.29 2.81
T-TEST WET
Statistically Significantly
different DRY
Statistically Significantly
different
2&3 p 5.28E-09 Yes 2.80E-08 Yes
2&4 p 6.10E-01 No 4.71E-02 Yes
2&5 p 4.52E-07 Yes 6.34E-07 Yes
2&6 p 6.10E-12 Yes 3.61E-07 Yes
2&7 p 1.26E-08 Yes 1.37E-07 Yes
2&8 p 2.96E-02 Yes 6.47E-01 No
2&9 p 2.56E-04 Yes 4.62E-01 No
2&10 p 9.42E-03 Yes 1.43E-05 Yes
2&11 p 1.07E-02 Yes 1.04E-04 Yes
2&12 p 6.91E-02 No 7.64E-02 No
2&13 p 2.66E-03 Yes 1.11E-05 Yes
2&14 p 1.38E-05 Yes 8.70E-10 Yes
2&15 p 2.06E-04 Yes 2.03E-07 Yes
2&16 p 1.60E-05 Yes 1.56E-08 Yes
2&17 p 6.54E-05 Yes 4.08E-09 Yes
2&18 p 7.54E-05 Yes 1.67E-08 Yes
2&19 p 1.20E-04 Yes 1.92E-09 Yes
36
Modal Fiber Thailand
Test #
WET DRY
Titer (dtex)
Tenacity (cN/tex)
Elongation %
Titer (dtex)
Tenacity (cN/tex)
Elongation %
1 1.29 21.5 12.1 1.26 33.4 15.1
2 1.29 25.4 14.7 1.26 37.3 13.8
3 1.29 24.4 13.8 1.26 39.9 14.6
4 1.29 21.0 10.6 1.30 40.5 15.0
5 1.29 21.2 11.3 1.30 40.9 15.7
6 1.29 23.5 12.7 1.30 39.3 14.6
7 1.29 22.0 11.9 1.30 39.3 15.8
8 1.29 22.3 10.3 1.30 38.9 14.6
9 1.29 23.4 15.9 1.30 38.8 15.0
10 1.29 26.0 13.3 1.30 35.5 15.5
Mean 1.29 23.1 12.7 1.29 38.4 15.0
SD 1.77 2.35
T-TEST WET
Statistically Significantly
different DRY
Statistically Significantly
different
3&4 p 1.51E-08 Yes 2.28E-10 Yes
3&5 p 1.28E-02 Yes 2.88E-01 No
3&6 p 1.83E-07 Yes 2.15E-02 Yes
3&7 p 4.73E-03 Yes 1.18E-01 No
3&8 p 1.92E-09 Yes 7.31E-10 Yes
3&9 p 1.06E-06 Yes 1.04E-07 Yes
3&10 p 1.52E-13 Yes 3.81E-14 Yes
3&11 p 6.56E-12 Yes 2.81E-11 Yes
3&12 p 1.17E-11 Yes 1.03E-07 Yes
3&13 p 2.38E-09 Yes 1.01E-13 Yes
3&14 p 6.82E-15 Yes 4.25E-14 Yes
3&15 p 1.14E-13 Yes 2.20E-13 Yes
3&16 p 6.65E-15 Yes 1.31E-15 Yes
3&17 p 1.06E-14 Yes 1.31E-15 Yes
3&18 p 1.82E-14 Yes 1.91E-15 Yes
3&19 p 1.13E-14 Yes 8.62E-16 Yes
37
Bamboo Fiber Thailand
Test #
WET DRY
Titer (dtex)
Tenacity (cN/tex)
Elongation %
Titer (dtex)
Tenacity (cN/tex)
Elongation %
1 1.51 13.5 38.9 1.66 24.6 22.8
2 1.50 12.6 26.7 1.40 25.0 20.9
3 1.50 9.0 18.1 1.50 25.6 20.7
4 1.50 12.8 25.5 1.50 20.8 17.1
5 1.50 10.8 33.1 1.60 23.2 17.5
6 1.50 15.8 26.8 1.60 28.8 21.8
7 1.50 16.3 28.2 1.57 24.9 21.7
8 1.50 13.5 23.2 1.57 24.0 20.3
9 1.51 9.2 23.5 1.58 27.4 22.3
10 1.50 16.8 29.2 1.57 27.6 21.9
Mean 1.50 13.0 27.3 1.56 25.2 20.7
SD 2.77 2.33
T-TEST WET
Statistically Significantly
different DRY
Statistically Significantly
different
4&5 p 4.11E-07 Yes 2.42E-08 Yes
4&6 p 1.48E-11 Yes 2.73E-08 Yes
4&7 p 1.62E-08 Yes 4.89E-09 Yes
4&8 p 1.67E-02 Yes 5.49E-02 No
4&9 p 2.55E-04 Yes 3.45E-01 No
4&10 p 9.30E-02 No 1.40E-03 Yes
4&11 p 7.14E-02 No 4.04E-03 Yes
4&12 p 2.90E-01 No 6.49E-01 No
4&13 p 2.17E-03 Yes 8.21E-04 Yes
4&14 p 4.58E-04 Yes 4.19E-09 Yes
4&15 p 3.73E-03 Yes 3.27E-06 Yes
4&16 p 5.30E-04 Yes 1.56E-07 Yes
4&17 p 1.89E-03 Yes 2.80E-08 Yes
4&18 p 1.97E-03 Yes 1.72E-07 Yes
4&19 p 3.27E-03 Yes 1.07E-08 Yes
38
ProModal Fiber (Lenzing Austria)
Test #
WET DRY
Titer (dtex)
Tenacity (cN/tex)
Elongation %
Titer (dtex)
Tenacity (cN/tex)
Elongation %
1 1.30 20.0 14.3 1.40 36.1 9.9
2 1.30 35.0 8.3 1.40 34.2 8.9
3 1.30 34.7 13.9 1.24 39.6 7.6
4 1.30 26.7 12.1 1.57 42.8 10.5
5 1.44 24.3 9.8 1.36 43.1 10.1
6 1.44 32.6 16.7 1.36 37.7 11.9
7 1.44 22.9 14.0 1.36 35.7 11.1
8 1.44 26.4 11.2 1.36 38.8 12.2
9 1.44 34.5 14.5 1.21 46.7 15.2
10 1.44 24.5 11.5 1.27 46.6 11.9
Mean 1.38 28.2 12.6 1.35 40.1 10.9
SD 5.55 4.47
T-TEST WET
Statistically Significantly
different DRY
Statistically Significantly
different
5&6 p 8.86E-02 No 1.85E-01 No
5&7 p 7.04E-01 No 7.10E-01 No
5&8 p 1.53E-06 Yes 1.14E-07 Yes
5&9 p 1.84E-05 Yes 7.60E-07 Yes
5&10 p 2.08E-08 Yes 2.62E-10 Yes
5&11 p 2.59E-08 Yes 1.70E-09 Yes
5&12 p 5.10E-08 Yes 4.12E-07 Yes
5&13 p 2.93E-06 Yes 2.64E-10 Yes
5&14 p 2.95E-09 Yes 3.71E-12 Yes
5&15 p 6.54E-09 Yes 5.97E-11 Yes
5&16 p 3.09E-09 Yes 1.48E-11 Yes
5&17 p 4.72E-09 Yes 7.85E-12 Yes
5&18 p 4.88E-09 Yes 1.52E-11 Yes
5&19 p 5.65E-09 Yes 5.47E-12 Yes
39
Tencel LF (Lenzing Austria)
Test #
WET DRY
Titer (dtex)
Tenacity (cN/tex)
Elongation %
Titer (dtex)
Tenacity (cN/tex)
Elongation %
1 1.51 31.5 15.6 1.30 40.3 11.4
2 1.51 34.8 16.9 1.28 44.6 13.2
3 1.51 31.3 11.8 1.17 43.3 13.3
4 1.51 31.1 15.1 1.57 32.2 8.8
5 1.51 27.9 11.2 1.29 48.6 12.5
6 1.51 29.4 13.3 1.21 38.5 9.7
7 1.51 30.7 14.8 1.21 46.9 11.4
8 1.51 38.0 10.3 1.21 48.8 11.7
9 1.51 30.3 13.8 1.17 39.4 11.3
10 1.51 32.1 12.0 1.17 50.3 12.8
Mean 1.51 31.7 13.5 1.26 43.3 11.6
SD 2.84 5.70
T-TEST WET
Statistically Significantly
different DRY
Statistically Significantly
different
6&7 p 9.31E-03 Yes 2.90E-01 No
6&8 p 2.62E-12 Yes 1.04E-07 Yes
6&9 p 6.32E-11 Yes 3.68E-07 Yes
6&10 p 1.91E-14 Yes 9.01E-10 Yes
6&11 p 1.14E-13 Yes 2.54E-09 Yes
6&12 p 1.65E-13 Yes 1.98E-07 Yes
6&13 p 2.87E-12 Yes 8.27E-10 Yes
6&14 p 3.00E-15 Yes 1.13E-11 Yes
6&15 p 1.23E-14 Yes 1.70E-10 Yes
6&16 p 3.03E-15 Yes 7.92E-11 Yes
6&17 p 4.21E-15 Yes 4.27E-11 Yes
6&18 p 5.22E-15 Yes 7.85E-11 Yes
6&19 p 4.60E-15 Yes 3.13E-11 Yes
40
Tencel Standard (Lenzing Austria)
Test #
WET DRY
Titer (dtex)
Tenacity (cN/tex)
Elongation %
Titer (dtex)
Tenacity (cN/tex)
Elongation %
1 1.48 26.2 11.8 1.44 40.5 14.3
2 1.48 22.9 11.6 1.44 40.5 15.2
3 1.48 24.1 11.3 1.44 49.9 16.3
4 1.48 25.2 16.3 1.20 42.3 13.4
5 1.48 31.1 16.2 1.50 41.8 14.0
6 1.48 21.7 15.3 1.50 41.0 18.1
7 1.48 29.7 13.4 1.50 34.7 15.8
8 1.48 30.0 13.4 1.50 35.8 12.4
9 1.48 29.7 16.7 1.50 42.9 14.5
10 1.48 32.8 19.1 1.50 39.2 15.9
Mean 1.48 27.3 14.5 1.45 40.9 15.0
SD 3.80 4.16
T-TEST WET
Statistically Significantly
different DRY
Statistically Significantly
different
7&8 p 2.59734E-08 Yes 2.0325E-08 Yes
7&9 p 6.80708E-07 Yes 2.0262E-07 Yes
7&10 p 1.3228E-10 Yes 4.1457E-11 Yes
7&11 p 3.00279E-10 Yes 4.188E-10 Yes
7&12 p 5.85454E-10 Yes 1.3279E-07 Yes
7&13 p 4.78988E-08 Yes 4.5158E-11 Yes
7&14 p 1.46971E-11 Yes 1.0794E-12 Yes
7&15 p 4.52408E-11 Yes 1.3636E-11 Yes
7&16 p 1.52797E-11 Yes 2.4704E-12 Yes
7&17 p 2.39093E-11 Yes 1.4072E-12 Yes
7&18 p 2.64937E-11 Yes 2.6086E-12 Yes
7&19 p 2.84415E-11 Yes 9.8726E-13 Yes
41
Viscose Lenzing Austria (hof garn GmbH)
Test #
WET DRY
Titer (dtex)
Tenacity (cN/tex)
Elongation %
Titer (dtex)
Tenacity (cN/tex)
Elongation %
1 1.14 15.3 20.5 1.20 26.5 19.8
2 1.14 16.0 19.5 1.20 26.7 20.0
3 1.14 13.5 15.2 1.20 25.8 19.2
4 1.14 17.1 23.7 1.20 28.5 19.0
5 1.14 14.7 17.5 1.20 28.5 19.9
6 1.14 15.3 19.6 1.20 26.1 17.3
7 1.14 16.7 21.2 1.20 26.4 21.1
8 1.14 14.3 16.5 1.20 28.6 22.1
9 1.14 17.3 17.9 1.20 30.6 20.1
10 1.14 15.4 18.6 1.20 23.8 16.7
Mean 1.14 15.6 19.0 1.20 27.2 19.5
SD 1.23 1.91
T-TEST WET
Statistically Significantly
different DRY
Statistically Significantly
different
8&9 p 4.64E-03 Yes 6.51E-01 No
8&10 p 2.65E-08 Yes 4.47E-07 Yes
8&11 p 2.09E-06 Yes 5.13E-05 Yes
8&12 p 1.56E-05 Yes 1.03E-01 No
8&13 p 1.31E-01 No 6.71E-07 Yes
8&14 p 2.42E-11 Yes 1.76E-10 Yes
8&15 p 3.19E-09 Yes 2.95E-08 Yes
8&16 p 2.39E-11 Yes 1.23E-10 Yes
8&17 p 6.99E-11 Yes 5.27E-11 Yes
8&18 p 1.73E-10 Yes 1.84E-10 Yes
8&19 p 8.91E-11 Yes 2.27E-11 Yes
42
Bamboo Viscose (tearfil)
Test #
WET DRY
Titer (dtex)
Tenacity (cN/tex)
Elongation %
Titer (dtex)
Tenacity (cN/tex)
Elongation %
1 1.00 18.6 18.5 1.40 29.6 12.4
2 1.00 16.3 14.9 1.24 26.8 12.7
3 1.00 18.0 17.6 1.16 23.6 13.2
4 1.00 21.0 18 1.16 27.4 19.3
5 1.00 15.9 14.1 1.16 19.8 7.5
6 1.00 16.9 14.9 1.16 33.6 17.8
7 1.00 17.9 19 1.16 25.3 12.5
8 1.00 18.1 17.3 1.16 28.7 15.9
9 1.00 18.2 20.3 1.16 26.3 14.5
10 1.00 15.4 17.3 1.16 24.3 14.5
Mean 1.00 17.6 17.2 1.19 26.5 14.0
SD 1.61 3.73
T-TEST WET
Statistically Significantly
different DRY
Statistically Significantly
different
9&10 p 1.44E-09 Yes 2.42E-03 Yes
9&11 p 4.82E-08 Yes 2.54E-03 Yes
9&12 p 2.00E-07 Yes 2.77E-01 No
9&13 p 3.45E-02 Yes 1.42E-03 Yes
9&14 p 8.71E-12 Yes 2.56E-08 Yes
9&15 p 2.95E-10 Yes 1.25E-05 Yes
9&16 p 8.82E-12 Yes 5.38E-06 Yes
9&17 p 2.06E-11 Yes 1.07E-06 Yes
9&18 p 3.70E-11 Yes 4.95E-06 Yes
9&19 p 2.60E-11 Yes 5.12E-07 Yes
43
Viscose Filament (ENKA 167 f 42)
Test #
WET DRY
Titer (dtex)
Tenacity (cN/tex)
Elongation %
Titer (dtex)
Tenacity (cN/tex)
Elongation %
1 3.99 11.7 28.8 3.76 22.2 22.4
2 3.99 12.8 29.6 4.14 21.3 21.2
3 3.99 11.1 24.7 4.08 22.6 23.3
4 3.99 10.4 17.4 3.72 22.4 21.8
5 3.99 10.9 19.6 4.05 22.5 21.6
6 3.99 11.0 25.7 3.58 22.7 19.3
7 3.99 12.1 28.1 3.94 21.6 19.6
8 3.99 11.3 25.6 3.92 22.7 19.4
9 3.99 11.6 30.6 3.76 23.0 22.0
10 3.99 11.4 30.4 3.76 22.4 22.0
Mean 3.99 11.4 26.1 3.87 22.3 21.3
SD 0.67 0.52
T-TEST WET
Statistically Significantly
different DRY
Statistically Significantly
different
10&11 p 5.35E-01 No 2.72E-01 No
10&12 p 3.46E-01 No 1.73E-01 No
10&13 p 3.47E-11 Yes 2.75E-01 No
10&14 p 5.65E-07 Yes 8.37E-09 Yes
10&15 p 1.63E-03 Yes 4.37E-05 Yes
10&16 p 6.08E-07 Yes 1.60E-11 Yes
10&17 p 1.16E-05 Yes 1.49E-10 Yes
10&18 p 4.58E-05 Yes 5.03E-10 Yes
10&19 p 3.32E-05 Yes 2.72E-11 Yes
44
Bamboo Viscose (Injusbla topp)
Test #
WET DRY
Titer (dtex)
Tenacity (cN/tex)
Elongation %
Titer (dtex)
Tenacity (cN/tex)
Elongation %
1 1.87 11.0 25.9 1.87 21.3 12.5
2 1.87 11.1 24.0 1.87 25.1 15.8
3 1.87 12.6 23.8 1.87 20.7 12.1
4 1.87 9.0 15.7 1.87 18.6 7.8
5 1.87 12.0 15.7 1.87 17.4 7.5
6 1.87 8.2 13.6 1.87 24.8 8.6
7 1.87 9.3 14.4 1.87 24.7 16.9
8 1.87 12.5 16.3 1.87 22.5 19.1
9 1.87 12.3 19.7 1.87 20.1 14.3
10 1.87 12.7 17.8 1.87 17.4 8.5
Mean 1.87 11.1 18.7 1.87 21.3 12.3
SD 1.67 2.97
T-TEST WET
Statistically Significantly
different DRY
Statistically Significantly
different
11&12 p 2.39E-01 No 8.51E-02 No
11&13 p 5.89E-08 Yes 5.39E-01 No
11&14 p 3.74E-03 Yes 2.82E-06 Yes
11&15 p 7.75E-02 No 2.08E-02 Yes
11&16 p 4.66E-03 Yes 2.64E-02 Yes
11&17 p 3.23E-02 Yes 2.30E-03 Yes
11&18 p 3.44E-02 Yes 2.15E-02 Yes
11&19 p 7.10E-02 No 7.76E-04 Yes
45
Bamboo Viscose (tearfil)
Test #
WET DRY
Titer (dtex)
Tenacity (cN/tex)
Elongation %
Titer (dtex)
Tenacity (cN/tex)
Elongation %
1 1.65 10.3 12.6 1.65 18.4 10.4
2 1.65 13.0 15.0 1.65 16.6 6.5
3 1.65 12.5 14.5 1.65 23.2 10.7
4 1.65 10.0 13.7 1.65 27.5 11.1
5 1.65 11.8 17.0 1.65 21.2 7.8
6 1.65 11.7 13.2 1.65 26.1 14.2
7 1.65 11.0 18.9 1.65 23.8 11.1
8 1.65 14.6 17.5 1.65 30.7 13.5
9 1.65 10.7 23.1 1.65 28.2 7.0
10 1.65 13.8 18.9 1.65 28.6 14.0
Mean 1.65 11.9 16.4 1.65 24.4 10.6
SD 1.52 4.63
T-TEST WET
Statistically Significantly
different DRY
Statistically Significantly
different
12&13 p 2.96E-07 Yes 1.10E-01 No
12&14 p 5.40E-05 Yes 1.65E-06 Yes
12&15 p 3.00E-03 Yes 1.39E-03 Yes
12&16 p 6.56E-05 Yes 1.59E-03 Yes
12&17 p 5.25E-04 Yes 3.04E-04 Yes
12&18 p 6.86E-04 Yes 1.38E-03 Yes
12&19 p 1.27E-03 Yes 1.50E-04 Yes
46
Kupro Viscose
Test #
WET DRY
Titer (dtex)
Tenacity (cN/tex)
Elongation %
Titer (dtex)
Tenacity (cN/tex)
Elongation %
1 1.82 16.3 18.5 1.83 21.8 14.6
2 1.82 17.3 22.6 1.83 20.1 9.7
3 1.82 15.0 19.6 1.83 20.9 11.2
4 1.82 16.7 24.2 1.83 22.4 9.5
5 1.82 16.1 24.7 1.83 22.0 18.1
6 1.82 16.4 22.6 1.83 21.2 15.8
7 1.82 16.5 26.3 1.83 23.9 11.1
8 1.82 17.8 27.0 1.83 23.3 13.6
9 1.82 15.8 20.3 1.83 21.0 9.8
10 1.82 15.2 22.2 1.83 22.3 9.6
Mean 1.82 16.3 22.8 1.83 21.9 12.3
SD 0.86 1.15
T-TEST WET
Statistically Significantly
different DRY
Statistically Significantly
different
13&14 p 4.93E-14 Yes 3.39E-08 Yes
13&15 p 3.27E-11 Yes 3.49E-04 Yes
13&16 p 4.15E-14 Yes 7.53E-07 Yes
13&17 p 8.11E-14 Yes 8.49E-08 Yes
13&18 p 4.27E-13 Yes 1.50E-06 Yes
13&19 p 6.63E-14 Yes 1.60E-08 Yes
47
Indian Rayon
Test #
WET DRY
Titer (dtex)
Tenacity (cN/tex)
Elongation %
Titer (dtex)
Tenacity (cN/tex)
Elongation %
1 6.74 8.3 40.7 7.36 9.9 17.6
2 6.85 8.6 38.1 6.98 10.3 15.5
3 7.04 9.0 33.2 7.60 10.8 16.7
4 6.50 9.5 46.0 6.90 10.1 17.3
5 6.50 9.8 42.4 6.90 9.7 13.6
6 6.90 9.7 34.0 7.04 16.8 27.5
7 6.90 8.0 31.3 6.90 9.7 15.4
8 6.90 9.7 34.6 6.90 9.7 9.3
9 6.20 9.5 34.7 7.18 16.8 18.9
10 6.44 9.7 33.3 7.18 16.3 23.2
Mean 6.70 9.2 36.8 7.09 12.0 17.5
SD 0.66 3.21
T-TEST WET
Statistically Significantly
different DRY
Statistically Significantly
different
14&15 p 1.17E-01 No 1.15E-04 Yes
14&16 p 8.11E-01 No 2.45E-06 Yes
14&17 p 4.11E-02 Yes 3.94E-05 Yes
14&18 p 8.50E-02 No 3.93E-06 Yes
14&19 p 3.93E-03 Yes 1.03E-04 Yes
48
Viscose Avilon
Test #
WET DRY
Titer (dtex)
Tenacity (cN/tex)
Elongation %
Titer (dtex)
Tenacity (cN/tex)
Elongation %
1 1.80 13.0 17.8 1.80 21.7 22.0
2 1.80 9.7 18.9 1.80 18.7 22.4
3 1.80 9.9 17.7 1.80 16.2 19.8
4 1.80 9.4 17.2 1.80 15.6 18.3
5 1.80 10.0 22.7 1.80 18.1 24.8
6 1.80 9.2 15.8 1.80 22.3 24.8
7 1.80 8.9 17.8 1.80 19.2 23.4
8 1.80 9.8 19.6 1.80 15.4 20.8
9 1.80 9.4 16.4 1.80 18.2 22.0
10 1.80 9.4 17.2 1.80 16.7 17.8
Mean 1.80 9.9 18.1 1.80 18.2 21.6
SD 1.15 2.38
T-TEST WET
Statistically Significantly
different DRY
Statistically Significantly
different
15&16 p 0.15 No 0.34 No
15&17 p 0.83 No 0.58 No
15&18 p 0.78 No 0.45 No
15&19 p 0.71 No 0.26 No
49
ENKA (84 f 31)
Test #
WET DRY
Titer (dtex)
Tenacity (cN/tex)
Elongation %
Titer (dtex)
Tenacity (cN/tex)
Elongation %
1 2.80 10.0 33.9 2.79 18.4 21.6
2 2.80 8.6 26.9 2.79 18.9 21.7
3 2.80 8.8 27.0 2.90 19.5 25.0
4 2.80 9.7 32.9 2.86 20.0 23.7
5 2.80 8.2 21.9 2.86 18.5 23.0
6 2.80 9.0 26.9 2.86 19.1 24.2
7 2.80 9.8 36.0 2.74 19.2 21.5
8 2.80 8.9 26.9 2.84 18.7 26.3
9 2.80 9.9 34.4 2.74 18.7 21.5
10 2.80 9.6 31.2 2.84 18.6 23.2
Mean 2.80 9.3 29.8 2.82 19.0 23.2
SD 0.63 0.50
T-TEST WET
Statistically Significantly
different DRY
Statistically Significantly
different
16&17 p 6.01E-02 No 2.91E-03 Yes
16&18 p 1.19E-01 No 6.34E-01 No
16&19 p 5.62E-03 Yes 1.36E-04 Yes
50
ENKA ( 110 f 40)
Test #
WET DRY
Titer (dtex)
Tenacity (cN/tex)
Elongation %
Titer (dtex)
Tenacity (cN/tex)
Elongation %
1 2.65 9.5 27.9 2.84 19.5 24.7
2 2.80 10.5 34.2 3.03 19.0 24.8
3 2.80 9.0 27.4 3.03 18.2 24.5
4 2.80 10.0 35.9 3.01 17.2 21.8
5 2.88 10.0 31.5 2.88 17.7 24.9
6 2.44 10.6 31.3 3.00 16.2 22.7
7 2.72 9.0 25.8 3.10 17.7 23.3
8 2.74 9.4 28.6 3.08 17.8 22.9
9 2.74 9.9 25.8 2.89 16.6 20.5
10 2.74 9.9 27.7 3.05 17.6 21.8
Mean 2.73 9.8 29.6 2.99 17.8 23.2
SD 0.55 0.99
T-TEST WET
Statistically Significantly
different DRY
Statistically Significantly
different
17&18 p 0.92 No 0.01 Yes
17&19 p 0.30 No 0.29 No
51
ENKA (133 f 48)
Test #
WET DRY
Titer (dtex)
Tenacity (cN/tex)
Elongation %
Titer (dtex)
Tenacity (cN/tex)
Elongation %
1 2.70 10.0 30.50 2.79 17.8 20.2
2 2.60 9.7 26.40 2.52 20.0 24.0
3 2.48 10.0 25.50 2.90 19.4 24.2
4 2.66 9.3 27.60 2.54 19.0 22.1
5 2.78 10.1 21.70 2.64 18.8 22.2
6 2.56 10.6 35.60 2.69 17.6 18.5
7 2.64 9.5 29.00 2.82 19.5 24.5
8 2.64 9.8 31.20 2.64 19.2 22.9
9 2.59 10.5 29.80 2.74 18.7 20.8
10 2.77 8.0 19.90 2.64 18.2 21.3
Mean 2.64 9.8 27.7 2.69 18.8 22.1
SD 0.74 0.77
T-TEST WET
Statistically Significantly
different DRY
Statistically Significantly
different
18&19 p 0.337 No 0.001 Yes
ENKA (167 f 42)
Test #
WET DRY
Titer (dtex)
Tenacity (cN/tex)
Elongation %
Titer (dtex)
Tenacity (cN/tex)
Elongation %
1 4.01 10.2 37.70 3.99 16.4 21.7
2 3.99 9.8 29.10 4.20 17.0 22.0
3 3.91 9.7 29.50 4.18 17.5 22.4
4 3.86 10.6 35.90 4.18 17.6 25.3
5 4.01 9.4 32.10 4.18 16.4 22.9
6 3.92 10.2 33.50 4.10 15.8 22.3
7 4.12 9.9 36.20 4.00 16.9 21.7
8 4.12 10.3 32.80 3.99 17.5 24.4
9 3.66 10.7 31.30 3.99 18.9 24.6
10 3.78 9.4 27.20 4.00 18.7 26.7
Mean 3.94 10.0 32.5 4.08 17.3 23.4
SD 0.46 0.99
52
APPENDIX II
Sample Name: 2
53
Sample Name: 3
54
Sample Name: 5
55
Sample Name: 9
56
Sample Name: 11
57
Sample Name: 13
58
Sample Name: 14
59
Sample Name: 15
60
Sample Name: 16
61
Sample Name: 19
62
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